824:' for apparently goal-directed biological phenomena. For Pittendrigh, the notion of 'adaptation' in biology, however it is defined, necessarily "connote that aura of design, purpose, or end-directedness, which has, since the time of Aristotle, seemed to characterize the living thing" This association with Aristotle, however, is problematic, because it meant that the study of adaptation would inevitably be bound up with teleological explanations. Pittendrigh sought to preserve the aspect of design and purpose in biological systems, while denying that this design can be understood as a causal principle. The confusion, he says, would be removed if we described these systems "by some other term, like 'teleonomic,' in order to emphasize that the recognition and description of end-directedness does not carry a commitment to Aristotelian teleology as an efficient causal principle."
749:
of their own action; for example the behavior of picking up a pen can be explained by reference to the agent's desire to write. Ayala extends this type of teleological explanation to non-human animals by noting that A deer running away from a mountain lion. . . has at least the appearance of purposeful behavior." Second, teleological explanations are useful for systems that have a mechanism for self-regulation despite fluctuations in environment; for example, the self-regulation of body temperature in animals. Finally, they are appropriate "in reference to structures anatomically and physiologically designed to perform a certain function. "
756:, also rejects the idea that teleological arguments are inadmissible because they cannot be causal. For Nagel, teleological arguments must be consistent because they can always be reformulated as non-teleological arguments. The difference between the two is, for Ayala, merely one of emphasis. Nagel writes that while teleological arguments focus on "the consequences for a given system of a constituent part or process," the equivalent non-teleological arguments focus on ""some of the conditions ... under which the system persists in its characteristic organization and activities." However,
696:
biology courses have incorporated exercises requiring students to rephrase such sentences so that they do not read teleologically. Nevertheless, biologists still frequently write in a way which can be read as implying teleology, even though that is not their intention. John Reiss argues that evolutionary biology can be purged of apparent teleology by rejecting the pre-Darwinian watchmaker analogy for natural selection; other arguments against this analogy have also been promoted by writers such as the evolutionary biologist
1446:"With the integration of Mendelian genetics and population genetics into evolutionary theory in the 1930s a new generation of biologists applied mathematical techniques to investigate how changes in the frequency of genes in populations combined with natural selection could produce species change. This demonstrated that Darwinian natural selection was the primary mechanism for evolution and that other models of evolution, such as neo-Lamarckism and orthogenesis, were invalid."
608:
450:
225:
2876:
33:
651:
674:
Fourthly, the teleological explanation of adaptation is uncomfortable because it seems to require backward causation, in which existing traits are explained by future outcomes; because it seems to attribute the action of a conscious mind when none is assumed to be present in an organism; and because,
748:
Other philosophers of biology argue instead that biological teleology is irreducible, and cannot be removed by any simple process of rewording. Francisco Ayala specified three separate situations in which teleological explanations are appropriate. First, if the agent consciously anticipates the goal
739:
for describing any function which offers an evolutionary advantage through natural selection. For example, the zoologist S. H. P. Madrell wrote that "the proper but cumbersome way of describing change by evolutionary adaptation substituted by shorter overtly teleological statements" for the sake of
711:
described this claim as a myth promoted by misinterpretations of his discussions, and emphasized the distinction between using teleological metaphors and actually being teleological. Michael Heads, on the other hand, describes a change in Darwin's thinking about evolution that can be traced from the
716:
to later volumes. For Heads, Darwin was originally a far more teleological thinker, but over time, "learned to avoid teleology." Heads cites a letter Darwin wrote in 1872, in which he downplayed the role of natural selection as a causal force on its own in explaining biological adaptation, and
838:
affirmed that the teleologicality of the language of biology and other fields derives from the logical structure of their background theories, and not merely from the use of teleological locutions such as "function" and "in order to". He stated that "To replace talk about function by talk about
695:
Statements which imply that nature has goals, for example where a species is said to do something "in order to" achieve survival, appear teleological, and therefore invalid to evolutionary biologists. It is however usually possible to rewrite such sentences to avoid the apparent teleology. Some
603:
that this is "the best of all possible worlds", in other words that every trait is perfectly suited to its functions. However, all that evolutionary biology requires is the weaker claim that one trait is at least slightly better in a certain context than another, and hence is selected for.
776:
has a function by analysing the process of selection that led to it. Therefore, Neander argues, any talk of functions must be posterior to natural selection, function must be defined by reference to the history of a species, and teleology cannot be avoided. The evolutionary biologist
489:
A trait which persists in a population is often assumed by biologists to have been selected for in the course of evolution, raising the question of how the trait achieves this. Biologists call any such mechanism the function of the trait, using phrases like "A
269:
or argument from design, namely that organs functioned well for their apparent purpose, so they were well-designed, so they must have been designed by a benevolent creator. For example, the eye had the function of seeing, and contained features like the
682:
A fifth reason concerns students rather than researchers: Gonzalez Galli argues that since people naturally imagine that evolution has a purpose or direction, then the use of teleological language by scientists may act as an obstacle to students when
216:
Phrases used by biologists like "a function of ... is to ..." or "is designed for" are teleological at least in language. The presence of real or apparent teleology in explanations of natural selection is a controversial aspect of the
670:
where animals in particular have been supposed to influence their own evolution through their intentions, though
Lamarck himself spoke rather of habits of use, and the belief that his thinking was teleological has been challenged.
304:
or evolutionary progress. Such goal-directedness implies a long-term teleological force; some supporters of orthogenesis considered it to be a spiritual force, while others held that it was purely biological. For example, the
740:
saving space, but that this "should not be taken to imply that evolution proceeds by anything other than from mutations arising by chance, with those that impart an advantage being retained by natural selection."
832:, arguing that evolution only involved the material and formal but not the efficient cause. Mayr proposed to use the term only for "systems operating on the basis of a program of coded information."
2076:
Bednarczyk, A (2009), "[Jean-Baptiste de
Lamarck (1744-1829). A dispute on the mechanism of evolution. On the bicentenary of the publication of Philosophie Zoologique (1809)]",
772:. So, for example, it is not possible to say that anything that simply winks into existence, without going through a process of selection, actually has functions. We decide whether an
578:, much to the consternation of some writers, and as an explanatory style it remains controversial. There are various reasons for discomfort with teleology among biologists.
540:. However, there is also a historical question, namely, did the trait arise at the same time as bird flight? Unfortunately for the hypothesis, this seems not to be so:
1578:
The hands and feet of all primates, except for humans, are designed for grasping. Humans have hands designed for grasping, but not feet! Humans have opposable thumbs.
532:. That would require three things: that the trait of having feathers is heritable; that the trait does serve the function of flight; and that the trait increases the
2798:
265:
stated that his intention was "to illustrate the glory of God in the knowledge of the works of nature or creation". Natural theology presented forms of the
1180:(2006). "Review of 'The Blasphemy of Intelligent Design: Creationism's Trojan Horse. The Wedge of Intelligent Design' by Barbara Forrest; Paul R. Gross".
814:
perspective on living beings." In her view of Kant, teleology implies something that cannot be explained by science, but only understood through analogy.
300:, and have often supposed that it had some kind of goal or direction (towards which the life force was striving, if they also believed in that), known as
2601:
Angel, J. Lawrence (June 1961). "Behavior and evolution. By Anne Roe and George G. Simpson, eds. vii + 557 pp. Yale
University Press, New Haven, 1958".
2299:
Heads, Michael (June 2009). "Darwin's changing views on evolution: from centres of origin and teleology to vicariance and incomplete lineage sorting".
393:
105:
rather than actual goals, whether conscious or not. Some biologists and religious thinkers held that evolution itself was somehow goal-directed (
2335:
1797:
1549:
1522:
1443:
1312:
1289:
1269:
1158:
1130:
1102:
721:
1461:
862:
observed that "Teleology is like a mistress to a biologist: he cannot live without her but he's unwilling to be seen with her in public."
2543:
Neander, Karen (1998). "Functions as
Selected Effects: The Conceptual Analyst's Defense," in C. Allen, M. Bekoff & G. Lauder (Eds.),
2897:
2791:
2558:
1067:
2528:
1683:
1470:
1211:
2207:
1767:
1423:
1403:
1379:
1027:
839:
selection is not to eliminate teleology but to rephrase it". However, Wimsatt argues that this thought does not mean an appeal to
2971:
1787:
380:
258:
both assumed the existence of God and used the appearance of function in nature to argue for the existence of God. The
English
3272:
2784:
387:
mechanisms of evolution were discovered, the hypothesis of orthogenesis was largely abandoned by biologists, especially with
1490:
296:
Religious thinkers and biologists have supposed that evolution was driven by some kind of life force, a philosophy known as
1657:
3267:
1043:
564:
581:
Firstly, the concept of adaptation is itself controversial, as it can be taken to imply, as the evolutionary biologists
1247:
Natural
Theology: Or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, Collected from the Appearances of Nature
652:
Natural
Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity collected from the Appearances of Nature
372:
125:
in biology has attracted criticism, and attempts have been made to teach students to avoid teleological language.
2979:
2951:
789:
339:
331:
313:
1617:"Gradual assembly of avian body plan culminated in rapid rates of evolution across the dinosaur-bird transition"
3024:
1881:(1979). "The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme".
1682:
Xu, X.; Wang, K.; Zhang, K.; Ma, Q.; Xing, L.; Sullivan, C.; Hu, D.; Cheng, S.; Wang, S.; et al. (2012).
663:, along with a vitalist life-force and directed orthogenetic evolution, has been rejected by most biologists.
1049:
Philosophia
Rationalis Sive Logica: Methodo Scientifica Pertractata Et Ad Usum Scientiarum Atque Vitae Aptata
2922:
2843:
615:
argues that the presence of a complex mechanism like a watch implies the existence of a conscious designer.
2961:
2643:
1593:
1326:
362:
202:
2865:
2807:
2478:
1063:
646:
266:
218:
129:
70:
1092:
2724:
2350:
1890:
1698:
1335:
1215:
912:
Both
Pittendrigh and Mayr endorsed teleology in biology as an inherent part of evolutionary thinking.
575:
141:
98:
735:
Various commentators view the teleological phrases used in modern evolutionary biology as a type of
3069:
3009:
2821:
2519:(1998). "Teleological explanations in evolutionary biology". In Allen, Colin; Bekoff, Marc (eds.).
840:
607:
343:
309:
186:
555:. Biologists may describe both the co-option and the earlier adaptation in teleological language.
3262:
3257:
3236:
3231:
3205:
3125:
3109:
3104:
3014:
2934:
2927:
2712:
2655:
2583:
2516:
2490:
2474:
2430:
2281:
2243:
2009:
1914:
1807:
1722:
1189:
1177:
1118:
1088:
995:
835:
783:
765:
757:
684:
676:
656:
624:
612:
552:
544:
491:
484:
472:
198:
178:
133:
94:
44:
17:
449:
278:
that assisted with seeing; therefore, ran the argument, it had been designed for that purpose.
170:
128:
Nevertheless, biologists still often write about evolution as if organisms had goals, and some
3175:
3160:
3155:
3054:
3019:
2853:
2639:
2618:
2524:
2456:
2422:
2384:
2316:
2203:
2093:
2085:
2058:
1906:
1856:
1793:
1763:
1759:
1714:
1638:
1545:
1518:
1466:
1456:
1439:
1419:
1399:
1375:
1308:
1285:
1265:
1154:
1126:
1098:
1023:
871:
817:
769:
533:
520:) generated by natural selection to serve its current function. A biologist might propose the
499:
415:
406:
259:
210:
118:
114:
102:
48:
1245:
3195:
3165:
3150:
3099:
3094:
3049:
2732:
2610:
2575:
2414:
2376:
2308:
2273:
2261:
2235:
2174:
2123:
2048:
2040:
2001:
1898:
1878:
1874:
1846:
1706:
1628:
1539:
987:
896:
859:
852:
708:
620:
586:
582:
467:
434:
255:
249:
229:
137:
90:
1730:
3140:
3130:
3059:
2667:
2502:
2223:
1819:
1300:
1219:
978:(1986). "The functions of stotting in Thomson's gazelles: Some tests of the predictions".
729:
704:
697:
594:
359:
551:, having been co-opted for flight but having evolved earlier for another purpose such as
2728:
2698:
1894:
1702:
1339:
3135:
3079:
3034:
3004:
2989:
2984:
2752:
2405:
Ayala, Francisco J. (March 1970). "Teleological
Explanations in Evolutionary Biology".
2264:(1994). "Darwin's language may seem teleological, but his thinking is another matter".
2053:
2028:
1486:
1013:
949:
876:
637:
628:
423:
369:
236:
78:
1305:
The Eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian Evolution Theories in the Decades around 1900
991:
732:, which he asserts is "wholly teleological", Darwinian evolution is not teleological.
536:
of the organisms that have it. Feathers clearly meet these three conditions in living
3251:
3185:
3170:
3145:
3084:
3044:
2994:
2902:
2892:
2836:
2736:
2587:
2566:
2312:
2285:
2247:
2198:
The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design
1947:
1752:
1510:
1241:
802:
797:
761:
725:
642:
426:, is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in
388:
325:
316:
167:
2434:
2196:
1851:
1834:
1726:
999:
760:
argued that teleological statements are more explanatory and cannot be disposed of.
365:
argued that Du Noüy and Sinnott were promoting religious versions of evolution. The
3210:
3200:
3089:
3074:
2912:
2848:
2448:
1918:
1747:
753:
666:
Thirdly, attributing purposes to adaptations risks confusion with popular forms of
348:
336:
306:
301:
287:
106:
1047:
2179:
2162:
1835:"On the debate about teleology in biology: the notion of "teleological obstacle""
1017:
101:
often use similar teleological formulations that invoke purpose, but these imply
3190:
3064:
2917:
2689:
2112:"The Role of Teleological Thinking in Learning the Darwinian Model of Evolution"
2044:
1615:
Brusatte, Stephen L.; Lloyd, Graeme T.; Wang, Steve C.; Norell, Mark A. (2014).
1506:
829:
660:
529:
454:
376:
224:
194:
86:
687:. Such language, he argues, should be removed to make teaching more effective.
3215:
3180:
3039:
3029:
2999:
2907:
2875:
2768:
2684:
2128:
2111:
1989:
1633:
1616:
825:
778:
667:
548:
521:
513:
480:
458:
438:
275:
271:
62:
32:
27:
Use of language of goal-directedness in the context of evolutionary adaptation
2771:(1974) Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Volume XIV, pages 91–117.
2622:
2579:
2460:
2426:
2320:
2089:
1282:
From Cosmology to Ecology: The Monist World-view in Germany from 1770 to 1930
2946:
2884:
2858:
2831:
2614:
2380:
848:
821:
807:
773:
736:
516:
is an observable structure or other feature of an organism (for example, an
462:
427:
419:
410:
206:
190:
163:
158:
122:
74:
66:
59:
37:
2097:
2062:
1902:
1860:
1718:
1642:
1465:. Harvard University Press. Chapter 7, section "Synthesis as Restriction".
810:
in the search for causal explanations of nature and ... an inevitable
2388:
2939:
2826:
2453:
The structure of science: Problems in the logic of scientific explanation
1565:
975:
844:
627:
and beneficent intentions of a creator, as in the writings of John Ray.
590:
541:
495:
431:
384:
358:
respectively. Their views were heavily criticized as non-scientific; the
320:
297:
291:
262:
239:, used teleological arguments to illustrate the glory of God from nature.
232:
110:
40:
2776:
1910:
1710:
1193:
2277:
2239:
2163:"Is Evolutionary Biology Infected with Invalid Teleological Reasoning?"
2013:
900:
811:
599:
525:
503:
113:
versions, driven by a purposeful life force. With evolution working by
2715:(1972). "Teleology and the logical structure of function statements".
2367:
Madrell, S.H.P. (1998). "Why are there no insects in the open sea?".
517:
379:" in what he called "directed additivity". With the emergence of the
366:
354:
2005:
2418:
1968:
1951:
1684:"A gigantic feathered dinosaur from the Lower Cretaceous of China"
606:
537:
448:
223:
189:
in 1728. The concept derives from the ancient Greek philosophy of
31:
2110:
Gonzalez Galli, Leonardo Martin; Meinardi, Elsa N. (March 2011).
2029:"Lamarck, Evolution, and the Inheritance of Acquired Characters"
1324:
Koch, Leo Francis (1957). "Vitalistic-Mechanistic Controversy".
547:, but many of them did not fly. Feathers can be described as an
506:
51:, helping the springbok to survive and allowing it to reproduce.
2780:
58:
is the use of the language of goal-directedness in accounts of
899:, to explain traits such as the colourful "tail" train of the
82:
2545:
Nature's Purposes: Analyses of Function and Design in Biology
2521:
Nature's purposes: Analyses of Function and Design in Biology
717:
instead gave more weight to "laws of growth," that operate .
707:
have argued that Darwin was a teleologist, while others like
1262:
Biosemiotics: Information, Codes and Signs in Living Systems
619:
Secondly, teleology is linked to the pre-Darwinian idea of
375:
argued that evolution was aiming for a supposed spiritual "
2343:
International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Society
1019:
Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English
1758:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p.
461:
for this task, having evolved for an earlier purpose in
430:. The mechanism directly implies evolution, a change in
312:
believed in a teleological force in nature, whereas the
185:, "a branch of learning", was coined by the philosopher
1594:"Understanding Evolution: Qualifying as an adaptation"
1394:
De Chardin, Pierre Teilhard. (2003, reprint edition).
631:
continued Ray's tradition with books such as his 1713
346:
developed vitalist evolutionary philosophies known as
140:
consider that teleological language is unavoidable in
2650:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 390–416.
2336:"The Misnomer of Transhumanism as Directed Evolution"
1566:"Primates – marmosets, monkeys, apes, lemurs, humans"
323:, arguing for a creative force in evolution known as
1833:
Ribeiro, Manuel Gustavo Leitao; et al. (2015).
1658:"Largest feathered dinosaur yet discovered in China"
93:
to have been made to enable them to carry out their
3224:
3118:
2970:
2883:
2814:
2559:"Teleology in Biology : A Kantian Perspective"
1307:. The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 116–117.
2751:
2688:
2195:
1751:
1544:(4th ed.). Jones and Bartlett. pp. 4–6.
1434:Montgomery, Georgina M.; Largent, Mark A. (2015).
828:criticised Pittendrigh's confusion of Aristotle's
509:is designed (by natural selection) for grasping."
1372:The Phenomenon of Teilhard: Prophet for a New Age
781:likewise stated that "adaptedness ... is an
675:as a result, adaptation looks impossible to test
418:, introduced in 1859 as the central mechanism of
2717:Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science
1789:Teleology: The explanation that bedevils biology
1517:(1st ed.). Roberts and Company Publishers.
221:, not least for its echoes of natural theology.
89:them; their features such as eyes were taken by
1538:Hall, Brian K.; Hallgrímsson, Benedikt (2008).
1358:This View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist
1144:
1142:
752:Ayala, relying on work done by the philosopher
623:, that the natural world gives evidence of the
2634:
2632:
1436:A Companion to the History of American Science
2792:
2400:
2398:
1792:. Oxford University Press. pp. 143–155.
806:that teleology in biology is important as "a
8:
1883:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B
1781:
1779:
1250:. Gould, Kendall, and Lincoln. pp. 18–.
764:similarly argued that the modern concept of
43:. A biologist might argue that this has the
2648:Adaptation, natural selection, and behavior
2148:Not by Design: Retiring Darwin's Watchmaker
1984:
1982:
1786:Hanke, David (2004). Cornwell, John (ed.).
1588:
1586:
1374:. Mercer University Press. pp. 60–64.
1182:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
895:Darwin also introduced a second mechanism,
574:Apparent teleology is a recurring issue in
2799:
2785:
2777:
1416:Genetics, Paleontology, and Macroevolution
1360:. Harcourt, Brace & World. pp. 213–233
1094:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science
1052:. Prostat in officina libraria Rengeriana.
944:
942:
940:
938:
936:
934:
932:
930:
928:
81:, organisms were seen as existing because
2603:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
2178:
2127:
2052:
1850:
1632:
1418:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–16.
1125:. Sinauer Associates. pp. 341, 342.
1064:"Presuppositions of Aristotle's Politics"
394:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
2141:
2139:
1934:Nineteenth-Century Science: An Anthology
1354:Evolutionary Theology: The New Mysticism
1205:
1203:
2679:
2677:
1973:The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology
1754:Evolution: The First Four Billion Years
1172:
1170:
924:
888:
728:, an ideology that aims to improve the
502:that they have been detected", or "The
2663:
2653:
2498:
2488:
1815:
1805:
1596:. University of California at Berkeley
1969:"Nineteenth Century Natural Theology"
703:Some philosophers of biology such as
457:, but they were co-opted rather than
453:Feathers today serve the function of
7:
2226:(1993). "Darwin was a Teleologist".
2078:Kwartalnik Historii Nauki I Techniki
1839:História, Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos
1462:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
36:"Behaviour with a purpose": a young
2898:Alternatives to Darwinian evolution
2369:The Journal of Experimental Biology
1068:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
954:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
589:argued, that biologists agree with
1956:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
722:Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law
25:
2697:. New York: Free Press. pp.
2485:. W.H. Freeman. pp. 497–504.
2150:. University of California Press.
2116:Evolution: Education and Outreach
1992:(1992). "The idea of teleology".
1352:Simpson, George Gaylord. (1964).
1264:. Nova Science Publishers. p. 7.
950:"Teleological Notions in Biology"
2874:
2754:Philosophy of Biological Science
2313:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02127.x
2167:Philosophy and Theory in Biology
1656:Whitfield, John (4 April 2012).
1398:. Sussex Academic Press. p. 65.
1097:. Bloomsbury. pp. 272–275.
691:Removable teleological shorthand
685:learning about natural selection
197:(the purpose) of a thing is its
18:Teleological language in biology
2455:. Harcourt, Brace & World.
1994:Journal of the History of Ideas
1852:10.1590/S0104-59702015005000003
1515:Evolution: Making Sense of Life
77:has also been proposed. Before
2027:Burkhardt, Richard W. (2013).
1936:. Broadview Press. p. 18.
559:Status in evolutionary biology
1:
2690:"Cause and effect in biology"
2547:(pp. 313–333). The MIT Press.
1967:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013).
1414:Levinton, Jeffrey S. (2001).
1280:Jacobsen, Eric Paul. (2005).
1151:The English Parson-Naturalist
992:10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80052-5
391:'s argument in his 1930 book
381:modern evolutionary synthesis
2737:10.1016/0039-3681(72)90014-3
2557:Breitenbach, Angela (2009).
2180:10.3998/ptb.6959004.0002.005
1260:Barbieri, Marcello. (2013).
2045:10.1534/genetics.113.151852
1750:; Travis, J., eds. (2009).
1495:(1st ed.). p. 89.
1149:Armstrong, Patrick (2000).
1022:. Routledge. p. 4187.
796:Angela Breitenbach, from a
73:find problematic. The term
3289:
2349:(1): 71–78. Archived from
1212:"The Argument from Design"
641:. They in turn influenced
565:Tinbergen's four questions
562:
478:
404:
373:Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
285:
247:
156:
2952:Evolutionary epistemology
2872:
2483:Teleological explanations
2194:Dawkins, Richard (1987).
2129:10.1007/s12052-010-0272-7
1634:10.1016/j.cub.2014.08.034
1153:. Gracewing. p. 46.
820:coined the similar term '
720:Andrew Askland, from the
468:Sinornithosaurus millenii
319:linked orthogenesis with
2580:10.1515/9783110196672.31
2334:Askland, Andrew (2011).
2161:Depew, David J. (2010).
1541:Strickberger's Evolution
1492:On the Origin of Species
1244:; Paxton, James (1837).
714:On the Origin of Species
500:communicate to predators
314:spiritualist philosopher
2972:Philosophers of biology
2693:. In Lerner, D. (ed.).
2644:Simpson, George Gaylord
2615:10.1002/ajpa.1330190215
2381:10.1242/jeb.201.17.2461
2301:Journal of Biogeography
2146:Reiss, John O. (2009).
1370:Lane, David H. (1996).
800:perspective, argues in
282:Goal-directed evolution
136:and biologists such as
130:philosophers of biology
99:Evolutionary biologists
71:philosophers of science
49:signalling to predators
2266:Biology and Philosophy
2228:Biology and Philosophy
1903:10.1098/rspb.1979.0086
1327:The Scientific Monthly
1284:. p. 100. Peter Lang.
787:result rather than an
616:
570:Reasons for discomfort
545:dinosaurs had feathers
476:
363:George Gaylord Simpson
340:Pierre Lecomte du Noüy
240:
52:
3273:Philosophy of biology
2866:Evolutionary taxonomy
2808:Philosophy of biology
2640:Pittendrigh, Colin S.
2407:Philosophy of Science
1932:Weber, A. S. (2000).
766:biological 'function'
744:Irreducible teleology
647:teleological argument
645:who wrote a detailed
610:
563:Further information:
452:
267:teleological argument
227:
219:philosophy of biology
35:
3268:Evolutionary biology
2262:Ghiselin, Michael T.
1396:The Human Phenomenon
1216:Princeton University
1123:Evolutionary Biology
1044:Wolff, Christian von
655:, starting with the
576:evolutionary biology
528:are adaptations for
142:evolutionary biology
87:designed and created
56:Teleology in biology
3010:Peter Godfrey-Smith
2729:1972SHPSA...3....1.
2713:Wimsatt, William C.
2475:Ayala, Francisco J.
1895:1979RSPSB.205..581G
1711:10.1038/nature10906
1703:2012Natur.484...92X
1340:1957SciMo..85..245K
1178:Ayala, Francisco J.
1119:Futuyma, Douglas J.
1089:Leroi, Armand Marie
841:backwards causation
724:claims that unlike
597:in his 1759 satire
498:by antelopes is to
344:Edmund Ware Sinnott
310:Karl Ernst von Baer
203:Aristotle's biology
187:Christian von Wolff
177:"end, purpose" and
119:inherited variation
3237:History of biology
3232:Philosophy of mind
3206:John Maynard Smith
3126:Francisco J. Ayala
3110:William C. Wimsatt
3105:Gerard Verschuuren
3015:James R. Griesemer
2278:10.1007/BF00850377
2240:10.1007/bf00857687
1457:Gould, Stephen Jay
836:William C. Wimsatt
657:watchmaker analogy
617:
613:watchmaker analogy
485:Function (biology)
477:
332:Creative Evolution
241:
230:natural theologian
205:does not envisage
97:, such as seeing.
53:
3245:
3244:
3176:Humberto Maturana
3161:Stephen Jay Gould
3055:Roberta Millstein
3020:Paul E. Griffiths
2750:Hull, D. (1973).
2642:(1958). Roe, A.;
2523:. The MIT Press.
2375:(17): 2461–2464.
2356:on 22 April 2017.
1889:(1161): 581–598.
1879:Lewontin, Richard
1875:Gould, Stephen J.
1799:978-0-19-860778-6
1627:(20): 2386–2392.
1551:978-1-4496-4722-3
1524:978-1-936221-17-2
1511:Emlen, Douglas J.
1459:(21 March 2002).
1444:978-1-4051-5625-7
1438:. Wiley. p. 218.
1313:978-0-8018-4391-4
1290:978-0-8204-7231-7
1270:978-1-60021-612-1
1160:978-0-85244-516-7
1132:978-0-87893-189-7
1104:978-1-4088-3622-4
872:Fitness landscape
853:anti-reductionist
818:Colin Pittendrigh
770:natural selection
649:for God in 1802,
416:Natural selection
407:Natural selection
401:Natural selection
342:and the botanist
260:parson-naturalist
211:natural selection
115:natural selection
103:natural selection
16:(Redirected from
3280:
3196:Joan Roughgarden
3166:Richard Lewontin
3151:Michael Ghiselin
3100:Francisco Varela
3095:Alfred I. Tauber
3050:Jane Maienschein
2878:
2801:
2794:
2787:
2778:
2772:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2758:. Prentice-Hall.
2757:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2695:Cause and effect
2692:
2681:
2672:
2671:
2665:
2661:
2659:
2651:
2636:
2627:
2626:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2563:
2554:
2548:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2517:Ayala, Francisco
2513:
2507:
2506:
2500:
2496:
2494:
2486:
2471:
2465:
2464:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2402:
2393:
2392:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2340:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2307:(6): 1018–1026.
2296:
2290:
2289:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2224:Lennox, James G.
2220:
2214:
2213:
2201:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2182:
2158:
2152:
2151:
2143:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2056:
2024:
2018:
2017:
1986:
1977:
1976:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1953:Natural Theology
1944:
1938:
1937:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1871:
1865:
1864:
1854:
1845:(4): 1321–1333.
1830:
1824:
1823:
1817:
1813:
1811:
1803:
1783:
1774:
1773:
1757:
1744:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1729:. Archived from
1688:
1679:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1662:Nature News Blog
1653:
1647:
1646:
1636:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1590:
1581:
1580:
1575:
1573:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1503:
1497:
1496:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1453:
1447:
1432:
1426:
1412:
1406:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1367:
1361:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1321:
1315:
1298:
1292:
1278:
1272:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1218:. Archived from
1207:
1198:
1197:
1174:
1165:
1164:
1146:
1137:
1136:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1010:
1004:
1003:
980:Animal Behaviour
972:
966:
965:
963:
961:
946:
913:
910:
904:
897:sexual selection
893:
860:J. B. S. Haldane
712:first volume of
709:Michael Ghiselin
633:Physico-Theology
625:conscious design
621:natural theology
587:Richard Lewontin
583:Stephen J. Gould
256:natural theology
250:Natural theology
244:Natural theology
138:J. B. S. Haldane
91:natural theology
21:
3288:
3287:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3278:
3277:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3241:
3220:
3141:Richard Dawkins
3131:Patrick Bateson
3114:
3060:Sandra Mitchell
2966:
2879:
2870:
2810:
2805:
2775:
2767:
2763:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2711:
2710:
2706:
2683:
2682:
2675:
2662:
2652:
2638:
2637:
2630:
2600:
2599:
2595:
2561:
2556:
2555:
2551:
2542:
2538:
2531:
2515:
2514:
2510:
2497:
2487:
2473:
2472:
2468:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2404:
2403:
2396:
2366:
2365:
2361:
2353:
2338:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2298:
2297:
2293:
2260:
2259:
2255:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2160:
2159:
2155:
2145:
2144:
2137:
2109:
2108:
2104:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2026:
2025:
2021:
2006:10.2307/2709913
1988:
1987:
1980:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1814:
1804:
1800:
1785:
1784:
1777:
1770:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1733:
1697:(7392): 92–95.
1686:
1681:
1680:
1676:
1666:
1664:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1621:Current Biology
1614:
1613:
1609:
1599:
1597:
1592:
1591:
1584:
1571:
1569:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1552:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1525:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1487:Darwin, Charles
1485:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1433:
1429:
1413:
1409:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1351:
1347:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1301:Bowler, Peter J
1299:
1295:
1279:
1275:
1259:
1255:
1240:
1239:
1235:
1225:
1223:
1222:on 16 July 2019
1210:Rosen, Gideon.
1209:
1208:
1201:
1176:
1175:
1168:
1161:
1148:
1147:
1140:
1133:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1105:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1072:
1070:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1042:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1014:Partridge, Eric
1012:
1011:
1007:
974:
973:
969:
959:
957:
948:
947:
926:
922:
917:
916:
911:
907:
894:
890:
885:
868:
793:goal-seeking."
758:Francisco Ayala
746:
730:human condition
705:James G. Lennox
698:Richard Dawkins
693:
595:Doctor Pangloss
572:
567:
561:
487:
479:Main articles:
447:
413:
405:Main articles:
403:
383:, in which the
360:palaeontologist
294:
286:Main articles:
284:
254:Before Darwin,
252:
246:
161:
155:
150:
134:Francisco Ayala
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3286:
3284:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3250:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3228:
3226:
3222:
3221:
3219:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3156:François Jacob
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3136:Charles Darwin
3133:
3128:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3115:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3080:Sahotra Sarkar
3077:
3072:
3070:Alex Rosenberg
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3035:Philip Kitcher
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3005:Marjorie Grene
3002:
2997:
2992:
2990:Daniel Dennett
2987:
2985:Lindley Darden
2982:
2976:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2943:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2895:
2889:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2811:
2806:
2804:
2803:
2796:
2789:
2781:
2774:
2773:
2761:
2742:
2704:
2673:
2628:
2609:(2): 218–219.
2593:
2549:
2536:
2530:978-0262510974
2529:
2508:
2479:Dobzhansky, T.
2466:
2440:
2419:10.1086/288276
2394:
2359:
2326:
2291:
2272:(4): 489–492.
2253:
2234:(4): 409–421.
2215:
2208:
2202:. W W Norton.
2186:
2153:
2135:
2122:(1): 145–152.
2102:
2084:(3–4): 31–98,
2068:
2039:(4): 793–805.
2019:
2000:(1): 117–135.
1990:Mayr, Ernst W.
1978:
1959:
1948:Paley, William
1939:
1924:
1866:
1825:
1798:
1775:
1768:
1739:
1736:on 2012-04-17.
1674:
1648:
1607:
1582:
1557:
1550:
1530:
1523:
1498:
1478:
1472:978-0674006133
1471:
1448:
1427:
1407:
1387:
1380:
1362:
1345:
1334:(5): 245–255.
1316:
1293:
1273:
1253:
1242:Paley, William
1233:
1199:
1188:(3): 409–421.
1166:
1159:
1138:
1131:
1110:
1103:
1080:
1055:
1035:
1028:
1005:
986:(3): 663–684.
967:
923:
921:
918:
915:
914:
905:
887:
886:
884:
881:
880:
879:
877:Teleomechanism
874:
867:
864:
858:The biologist
745:
742:
692:
689:
638:Astro-Theology
629:William Derham
571:
568:
560:
557:
446:
443:
424:Charles Darwin
402:
399:
370:paleontologist
283:
280:
248:Main article:
245:
242:
237:William Derham
157:Main article:
154:
151:
149:
146:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3285:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3253:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3223:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3186:Jacques Monod
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3171:Konrad Lorenz
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3146:Jared Diamond
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3117:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3085:Elliott Sober
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3045:Helen Longino
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2969:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2923:Structuralism
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2903:Catastrophism
2901:
2900:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2893:Adaptationism
2891:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2877:
2867:
2864:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2838:
2837:Kin selection
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2802:
2797:
2795:
2790:
2788:
2783:
2782:
2779:
2770:
2765:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2746:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2705:
2700:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2680:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2657:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2568:
2567:Kant Yearbook
2560:
2553:
2550:
2546:
2540:
2537:
2532:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2512:
2509:
2504:
2492:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2470:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2449:Nagel, Ernest
2444:
2441:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2363:
2360:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2337:
2330:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2295:
2292:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2257:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2219:
2216:
2211:
2209:9780393022162
2205:
2200:
2199:
2190:
2187:
2181:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2157:
2154:
2149:
2142:
2140:
2136:
2130:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2106:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2080:(in Polish),
2079:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2023:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1963:
1960:
1955:
1954:
1949:
1943:
1940:
1935:
1928:
1925:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1870:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1826:
1821:
1809:
1801:
1795:
1791:
1790:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1769:9780674031753
1765:
1761:
1756:
1755:
1749:
1748:Ruse, Michael
1743:
1740:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1678:
1675:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1649:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1608:
1595:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1567:
1561:
1558:
1553:
1547:
1543:
1542:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1502:
1499:
1494:
1493:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1474:
1468:
1464:
1463:
1458:
1452:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1424:0-521-80317-9
1421:
1417:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1404:1-902210-30-1
1401:
1397:
1391:
1388:
1383:
1381:0-86554-498-0
1377:
1373:
1366:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1349:
1346:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1328:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1274:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1257:
1254:
1249:
1248:
1243:
1237:
1234:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1114:
1111:
1106:
1100:
1096:
1095:
1090:
1084:
1081:
1069:
1065:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1050:
1045:
1039:
1036:
1031:
1029:9780415050777
1025:
1021:
1020:
1015:
1009:
1006:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
971:
968:
956:. 18 May 2003
955:
951:
945:
943:
941:
939:
937:
935:
933:
931:
929:
925:
919:
909:
906:
902:
898:
892:
889:
882:
878:
875:
873:
870:
869:
865:
863:
861:
856:
854:
850:
846:
842:
837:
833:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
813:
809:
805:
804:
803:Kant Yearbook
799:
794:
792:
791:
786:
785:
780:
775:
771:
767:
763:
762:Karen Neander
759:
755:
750:
743:
741:
738:
733:
731:
727:
726:transhumanism
723:
718:
715:
710:
706:
701:
699:
690:
688:
686:
680:
678:
672:
669:
664:
662:
658:
654:
653:
648:
644:
643:William Paley
640:
639:
635:and his 1714
634:
630:
626:
622:
614:
609:
605:
602:
601:
596:
592:
588:
584:
579:
577:
569:
566:
558:
556:
554:
550:
546:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
510:
508:
505:
501:
497:
493:
486:
482:
474:
470:
469:
464:
460:
456:
451:
444:
442:
440:
436:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
412:
408:
400:
398:
396:
395:
390:
389:Ronald Fisher
386:
382:
378:
374:
371:
368:
364:
361:
357:
356:
351:
350:
345:
341:
338:
334:
333:
328:
327:
322:
318:
317:Henri Bergson
315:
311:
308:
303:
299:
293:
289:
281:
279:
277:
273:
268:
264:
261:
257:
251:
243:
238:
234:
231:
226:
222:
220:
214:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
169:
165:
160:
152:
147:
145:
143:
139:
135:
131:
126:
124:
121:, the use of
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
65:, which some
64:
61:
57:
50:
46:
42:
39:
34:
30:
19:
3211:E. O. Wilson
3201:Rolf Sattler
3090:Kim Sterelny
3075:Michael Ruse
2962:Tree of life
2956:
2913:Orthogenesis
2849:Reductionism
2764:
2753:
2745:
2720:
2716:
2707:
2694:
2647:
2606:
2602:
2596:
2574:(1): 31–56.
2571:
2565:
2552:
2544:
2539:
2520:
2511:
2482:
2469:
2452:
2443:
2410:
2406:
2372:
2368:
2362:
2351:the original
2346:
2342:
2329:
2304:
2300:
2294:
2269:
2265:
2256:
2231:
2227:
2218:
2197:
2189:
2173:(20160629).
2170:
2166:
2156:
2147:
2119:
2115:
2105:
2081:
2077:
2071:
2036:
2032:
2022:
1997:
1993:
1972:
1962:
1952:
1942:
1933:
1927:
1886:
1882:
1869:
1842:
1838:
1828:
1788:
1753:
1742:
1731:the original
1694:
1690:
1677:
1665:. Retrieved
1661:
1651:
1624:
1620:
1610:
1598:. Retrieved
1577:
1570:. Retrieved
1560:
1540:
1533:
1514:
1507:Zimmer, Carl
1501:
1491:
1481:
1460:
1451:
1435:
1430:
1415:
1410:
1395:
1390:
1371:
1365:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1304:
1296:
1281:
1276:
1261:
1256:
1246:
1236:
1224:. Retrieved
1220:the original
1185:
1181:
1150:
1122:
1113:
1093:
1083:
1071:. Retrieved
1058:
1048:
1038:
1018:
1008:
983:
979:
976:Caro, Tim M.
970:
958:. Retrieved
953:
908:
891:
857:
855:sentiments.
834:
816:
801:
795:
788:
784:a posteriori
782:
754:Ernest Nagel
751:
747:
734:
719:
713:
702:
694:
681:
673:
665:
650:
636:
632:
618:
598:
580:
573:
511:
488:
466:
414:
392:
353:
349:telefinalism
347:
337:biophysicist
335:(1907). The
330:
329:in his book
324:
307:embryologist
302:orthogenesis
295:
288:Orthogenesis
253:
235:, and later
228:The English
215:
193:, where the
182:
174:
162:
127:
107:orthogenesis
60:evolutionary
55:
54:
29:
3191:Denis Noble
3065:Susan Oyama
2980:John Beatty
2918:Mutationism
2769:Mayr, Ernst
2723:(1): 1–80.
2685:Mayr, Ernst
2664:|work=
2499:|work=
2413:(1): 1–15.
1816:|work=
830:four causes
768:depends on
677:empirically
661:creationism
530:bird flight
441:over time.
377:Omega Point
201:. However,
195:final cause
3252:Categories
3216:Jonas Salk
3181:Ernst Mayr
3119:Biologists
3040:Tim Lewens
3030:Hans Jonas
3025:David Hull
3000:Carla Fehr
2995:John Dupré
2908:Lamarckism
2844:Naturalism
1303:. (1992).
920:References
826:Ernst Mayr
812:analogical
779:Ernst Mayr
668:Lamarckism
553:insulation
549:exaptation
522:hypothesis
514:adaptation
481:Adaptation
473:insulation
471:, perhaps
445:Adaptation
439:population
326:élan vital
117:acting on
109:), and in
67:biologists
63:adaptation
3263:Causality
3258:Teleology
2957:Teleology
2947:Darwinism
2885:Evolution
2859:Emergence
2832:Dysgenics
2666:ignored (
2656:cite book
2623:0002-9483
2588:171216322
2501:ignored (
2491:cite book
2461:874878031
2427:0031-8248
2321:0305-0270
2286:170997321
2248:170767015
2090:0023-589X
1950:(2006) .
1818:ignored (
1808:cite book
849:entelechy
822:teleonomy
808:heuristic
774:appendage
737:shorthand
463:theropods
432:heritable
428:phenotype
420:evolution
411:Evolution
207:evolution
191:Aristotle
164:Teleology
159:Teleology
153:Teleology
123:teleology
95:functions
75:teleonomy
38:springbok
2940:Vitalism
2935:Theistic
2928:Spandrel
2827:Eugenics
2687:(1965).
2646:(eds.).
2477:(1977).
2451:(1961).
2435:84638701
2098:20481104
2063:23908372
2033:Genetics
1861:25650703
1727:29689629
1719:22481363
1643:25264248
1513:(2013).
1489:(1859).
1226:10 April
1194:23334140
1121:(1998).
1091:(2014).
1046:(1732).
1016:(1977).
1000:53155678
866:See also
845:vitalism
790:a priori
591:Voltaire
542:theropod
526:feathers
496:stotting
492:function
321:vitalism
298:vitalism
292:Vitalism
263:John Ray
233:John Ray
199:function
166:, from
132:such as
111:vitalist
45:function
41:stotting
3225:Related
2725:Bibcode
2481:(ed.).
2389:9698580
2054:3730912
2014:2709913
1919:2129408
1891:Bibcode
1699:Bibcode
1667:4 April
1600:29 July
1572:28 July
1568:. NHPTV
1336:Bibcode
1073:28 July
960:28 July
901:peacock
798:Kantian
659:. Such
600:Candide
534:fitness
504:primate
459:adapted
385:genetic
148:Context
2854:Holism
2822:Ethics
2815:Themes
2621:
2586:
2527:
2459:
2433:
2425:
2387:
2319:
2284:
2246:
2206:
2096:
2088:
2061:
2051:
2012:
1917:
1909:
1859:
1796:
1766:
1725:
1717:
1691:Nature
1641:
1548:
1521:
1469:
1442:
1422:
1402:
1378:
1311:
1288:
1268:
1192:
1157:
1129:
1101:
1026:
998:
518:enzyme
455:flight
435:traits
367:Jesuit
355:telism
179:-λογία
79:Darwin
2699:33–50
2584:S2CID
2562:(PDF)
2431:S2CID
2354:(PDF)
2339:(PDF)
2282:S2CID
2244:S2CID
2010:JSTOR
1915:S2CID
1911:42062
1734:(PDF)
1723:S2CID
1687:(PDF)
1356:. In
1190:JSTOR
996:S2CID
883:Notes
851:, or
538:birds
524:that
465:like
437:of a
183:logia
175:telos
171:τέλος
168:Greek
2668:help
2619:ISSN
2572:2009
2525:ISBN
2503:help
2457:OCLC
2423:ISSN
2385:PMID
2317:ISSN
2204:ISBN
2094:PMID
2086:ISSN
2059:PMID
1907:PMID
1857:PMID
1820:help
1794:ISBN
1764:ISBN
1715:PMID
1669:2012
1639:PMID
1602:2016
1574:2016
1546:ISBN
1519:ISBN
1467:ISBN
1440:ISBN
1420:ISBN
1400:ISBN
1376:ISBN
1309:ISBN
1286:ISBN
1266:ISBN
1228:2017
1155:ISBN
1127:ISBN
1099:ISBN
1075:2016
1024:ISBN
962:2016
611:The
585:and
507:hand
483:and
409:and
352:and
290:and
276:lens
274:and
272:iris
85:had
69:and
2733:doi
2611:doi
2576:doi
2415:doi
2377:doi
2373:201
2309:doi
2274:doi
2236:doi
2175:doi
2124:doi
2049:PMC
2041:doi
2037:194
2002:doi
1899:doi
1887:205
1847:doi
1760:364
1707:doi
1695:484
1629:doi
988:doi
593:'s
512:An
494:of
422:by
209:by
83:God
47:of
3254::
2731:.
2719:.
2676:^
2660::
2658:}}
2654:{{
2631:^
2617:.
2607:19
2605:.
2582:.
2570:.
2564:.
2495::
2493:}}
2489:{{
2429:.
2421:.
2411:37
2409:.
2397:^
2383:.
2371:.
2345:.
2341:.
2315:.
2305:36
2303:.
2280:.
2268:.
2242:.
2230:.
2169:.
2165:.
2138:^
2118:.
2114:.
2092:,
2082:54
2057:.
2047:.
2035:.
2031:.
2008:.
1998:53
1996:.
1981:^
1971:.
1913:.
1905:.
1897:.
1885:.
1877:;
1855:.
1843:22
1841:.
1837:.
1812::
1810:}}
1806:{{
1778:^
1762:.
1721:.
1713:.
1705:.
1693:.
1689:.
1660:.
1637:.
1625:24
1623:.
1619:.
1585:^
1576:.
1509:;
1332:85
1330:.
1214:.
1202:^
1186:28
1184:.
1169:^
1141:^
1066:.
994:.
984:34
982:.
952:.
927:^
847:,
843:,
700:.
679:.
397:.
213:.
181:,
173:,
144:.
2800:e
2793:t
2786:v
2739:.
2735::
2727::
2721:3
2701:.
2670:)
2625:.
2613::
2590:.
2578::
2533:.
2505:)
2463:.
2437:.
2417::
2391:.
2379::
2347:9
2323:.
2311::
2288:.
2276::
2270:9
2250:.
2238::
2232:8
2212:.
2183:.
2177::
2171:2
2132:.
2126::
2120:4
2065:.
2043::
2016:.
2004::
1975:.
1921:.
1901::
1893::
1863:.
1849::
1822:)
1802:.
1772:.
1709::
1701::
1671:.
1645:.
1631::
1604:.
1554:.
1527:.
1475:.
1384:.
1342:.
1338::
1230:.
1196:.
1163:.
1135:.
1107:.
1077:.
1032:.
1002:.
990::
964:.
903:.
475:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
