813:' for apparently goal-directed biological phenomena. For Pittendrigh, the notion of 'adaptation' in biology, however it is defined, necessarily "connote that aura of design, purpose, or end-directedness, which has, since the time of Aristotle, seemed to characterize the living thing" This association with Aristotle, however, is problematic, because it meant that the study of adaptation would inevitably be bound up with teleological explanations. Pittendrigh sought to preserve the aspect of design and purpose in biological systems, while denying that this design can be understood as a causal principle. The confusion, he says, would be removed if we described these systems "by some other term, like 'teleonomic,' in order to emphasize that the recognition and description of end-directedness does not carry a commitment to Aristotelian teleology as an efficient causal principle."
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of their own action; for example the behavior of picking up a pen can be explained by reference to the agent's desire to write. Ayala extends this type of teleological explanation to non-human animals by noting that A deer running away from a mountain lion. . . has at least the appearance of purposeful behavior." Second, teleological explanations are useful for systems that have a mechanism for self-regulation despite fluctuations in environment; for example, the self-regulation of body temperature in animals. Finally, they are appropriate "in reference to structures anatomically and physiologically designed to perform a certain function. "
745:, also rejects the idea that teleological arguments are inadmissible because they cannot be causal. For Nagel, teleological arguments must be consistent because they can always be reformulated as non-teleological arguments. The difference between the two is, for Ayala, merely one of emphasis. Nagel writes that while teleological arguments focus on "the consequences for a given system of a constituent part or process," the equivalent non-teleological arguments focus on ""some of the conditions ... under which the system persists in its characteristic organization and activities." However,
685:
biology courses have incorporated exercises requiring students to rephrase such sentences so that they do not read teleologically. Nevertheless, biologists still frequently write in a way which can be read as implying teleology, even though that is not their intention. John Reiss argues that evolutionary biology can be purged of apparent teleology by rejecting the pre-Darwinian watchmaker analogy for natural selection; other arguments against this analogy have also been promoted by writers such as the evolutionary biologist
1435:"With the integration of Mendelian genetics and population genetics into evolutionary theory in the 1930s a new generation of biologists applied mathematical techniques to investigate how changes in the frequency of genes in populations combined with natural selection could produce species change. This demonstrated that Darwinian natural selection was the primary mechanism for evolution and that other models of evolution, such as neo-Lamarckism and orthogenesis, were invalid."
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Fourthly, the teleological explanation of adaptation is uncomfortable because it seems to require backward causation, in which existing traits are explained by future outcomes; because it seems to attribute the action of a conscious mind when none is assumed to be present in an organism; and because,
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Other philosophers of biology argue instead that biological teleology is irreducible, and cannot be removed by any simple process of rewording. Francisco Ayala specified three separate situations in which teleological explanations are appropriate. First, if the agent consciously anticipates the goal
728:
for describing any function which offers an evolutionary advantage through natural selection. For example, the zoologist S. H. P. Madrell wrote that "the proper but cumbersome way of describing change by evolutionary adaptation substituted by shorter overtly teleological statements" for the sake of
700:
described this claim as a myth promoted by misinterpretations of his discussions, and emphasized the distinction between using teleological metaphors and actually being teleological. Michael Heads, on the other hand, describes a change in Darwin's thinking about evolution that can be traced from the
705:
to later volumes. For Heads, Darwin was originally a far more teleological thinker, but over time, "learned to avoid teleology." Heads cites a letter Darwin wrote in 1872, in which he downplayed the role of natural selection as a causal force on its own in explaining biological adaptation, and
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affirmed that the teleologicality of the language of biology and other fields derives from the logical structure of their background theories, and not merely from the use of teleological locutions such as "function" and "in order to". He stated that "To replace talk about function by talk about
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Statements which imply that nature has goals, for example where a species is said to do something "in order to" achieve survival, appear teleological, and therefore invalid to evolutionary biologists. It is however usually possible to rewrite such sentences to avoid the apparent teleology. Some
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that this is "the best of all possible worlds", in other words that every trait is perfectly suited to its functions. However, all that evolutionary biology requires is the weaker claim that one trait is at least slightly better in a certain context than another, and hence is selected for.
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has a function by analysing the process of selection that led to it. Therefore, Neander argues, any talk of functions must be posterior to natural selection, function must be defined by reference to the history of a species, and teleology cannot be avoided. The evolutionary biologist
478:
A trait which persists in a population is often assumed by biologists to have been selected for in the course of evolution, raising the question of how the trait achieves this. Biologists call any such mechanism the function of the trait, using phrases like "A
258:
or argument from design, namely that organs functioned well for their apparent purpose, so they were well-designed, so they must have been designed by a benevolent creator. For example, the eye had the function of seeing, and contained features like the
671:
A fifth reason concerns students rather than researchers: Gonzalez Galli argues that since people naturally imagine that evolution has a purpose or direction, then the use of teleological language by scientists may act as an obstacle to students when
205:
Phrases used by biologists like "a function of ... is to ..." or "is designed for" are teleological at least in language. The presence of real or apparent teleology in explanations of natural selection is a controversial aspect of the
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where animals in particular have been supposed to influence their own evolution through their intentions, though
Lamarck himself spoke rather of habits of use, and the belief that his thinking was teleological has been challenged.
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or evolutionary progress. Such goal-directedness implies a long-term teleological force; some supporters of orthogenesis considered it to be a spiritual force, while others held that it was purely biological. For example, the
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saving space, but that this "should not be taken to imply that evolution proceeds by anything other than from mutations arising by chance, with those that impart an advantage being retained by natural selection."
821:, arguing that evolution only involved the material and formal but not the efficient cause. Mayr proposed to use the term only for "systems operating on the basis of a program of coded information."
2065:
Bednarczyk, A (2009), "[Jean-Baptiste de
Lamarck (1744-1829). A dispute on the mechanism of evolution. On the bicentenary of the publication of Philosophie Zoologique (1809)]",
761:. So, for example, it is not possible to say that anything that simply winks into existence, without going through a process of selection, actually has functions. We decide whether an
567:, much to the consternation of some writers, and as an explanatory style it remains controversial. There are various reasons for discomfort with teleology among biologists.
529:. However, there is also a historical question, namely, did the trait arise at the same time as bird flight? Unfortunately for the hypothesis, this seems not to be so:
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The hands and feet of all primates, except for humans, are designed for grasping. Humans have hands designed for grasping, but not feet! Humans have opposable thumbs.
521:. That would require three things: that the trait of having feathers is heritable; that the trait does serve the function of flight; and that the trait increases the
2787:
254:
stated that his intention was "to illustrate the glory of God in the knowledge of the works of nature or creation". Natural theology presented forms of the
1169:(2006). "Review of 'The Blasphemy of Intelligent Design: Creationism's Trojan Horse. The Wedge of Intelligent Design' by Barbara Forrest; Paul R. Gross".
803:
perspective on living beings." In her view of Kant, teleology implies something that cannot be explained by science, but only understood through analogy.
289:, and have often supposed that it had some kind of goal or direction (towards which the life force was striving, if they also believed in that), known as
2590:
Angel, J. Lawrence (June 1961). "Behavior and evolution. By Anne Roe and George G. Simpson, eds. vii + 557 pp. Yale
University Press, New Haven, 1958".
2288:
Heads, Michael (June 2009). "Darwin's changing views on evolution: from centres of origin and teleology to vicariance and incomplete lineage sorting".
382:
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rather than actual goals, whether conscious or not. Some biologists and religious thinkers held that evolution itself was somehow goal-directed (
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observed that "Teleology is like a mistress to a biologist: he cannot live without her but he's unwilling to be seen with her in public."
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Neander, Karen (1998). "Functions as
Selected Effects: The Conceptual Analyst's Defense," in C. Allen, M. Bekoff & G. Lauder (Eds.),
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selection is not to eliminate teleology but to rephrase it". However, Wimsatt argues that this thought does not mean an appeal to
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both assumed the existence of God and used the appearance of function in nature to argue for the existence of God. The
English
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mechanisms of evolution were discovered, the hypothesis of orthogenesis was largely abandoned by biologists, especially with
1479:
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Religious thinkers and biologists have supposed that evolution was driven by some kind of life force, a philosophy known as
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3256:
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Firstly, the concept of adaptation is itself controversial, as it can be taken to imply, as the evolutionary biologists
1236:
Natural
Theology: Or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, Collected from the Appearances of Nature
641:
Natural
Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity collected from the Appearances of Nature
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in biology has attracted criticism, and attempts have been made to teach students to avoid teleological language.
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778:
328:
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302:
1606:"Gradual assembly of avian body plan culminated in rapid rates of evolution across the dinosaur-bird transition"
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1870:(1979). "The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme".
1671:
Xu, X.; Wang, K.; Zhang, K.; Ma, Q.; Xing, L.; Sullivan, C.; Hu, D.; Cheng, S.; Wang, S.; et al. (2012).
652:, along with a vitalist life-force and directed orthogenetic evolution, has been rejected by most biologists.
1038:
Philosophia
Rationalis Sive Logica: Methodo Scientifica Pertractata Et Ad Usum Scientiarum Atque Vitae Aptata
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argues that the presence of a complex mechanism like a watch implies the existence of a conscious designer.
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Both
Pittendrigh and Mayr endorsed teleology in biology as an inherent part of evolutionary thinking.
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130:
87:
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Various commentators view the teleological phrases used in modern evolutionary biology as a type of
3058:
2998:
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2508:(1998). "Teleological explanations in evolutionary biology". In Allen, Colin; Bekoff, Marc (eds.).
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544:. Biologists may describe both the co-option and the earlier adaptation in teleological language.
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that assisted with seeing; therefore, ran the argument, it had been designed for that purpose.
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Nevertheless, biologists still often write about evolution as if organisms had goals, and some
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509:) generated by natural selection to serve its current function. A biologist might propose the
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967:(1986). "The functions of stotting in Thomson's gazelles: Some tests of the predictions".
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693:
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348:
540:, having been co-opted for flight but having evolved earlier for another purpose such as
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1691:
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3124:
3068:
3023:
2993:
2978:
2973:
2741:
2394:
Ayala, Francisco J. (March 1970). "Teleological
Explanations in Evolutionary Biology".
2253:(1994). "Darwin's language may seem teleological, but his thinking is another matter".
2042:
2017:
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1002:
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67:
1294:
The Eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian Evolution Theories in the Decades around 1900
980:
721:, which he asserts is "wholly teleological", Darwinian evolution is not teleological.
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of the organisms that have it. Feathers clearly meet these three conditions in living
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The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design
1936:
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791:
786:
750:
714:
631:
415:, is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in
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314:
305:
156:
2423:
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1840:
1823:
1715:
988:
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argued that teleological statements are more explanatory and cannot be disposed of.
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argued that Du Noüy and Sinnott were promoting religious versions of evolution. The
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3189:
3078:
3063:
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2437:
1907:
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Thirdly, attributing purposes to adaptations risks confusion with popular forms of
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295:
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276:
95:
1036:
2168:
2151:
1824:"On the debate about teleology in biology: the notion of "teleological obstacle""
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often use similar teleological formulations that invoke purpose, but these imply
3179:
3053:
2906:
2678:
2101:"The Role of Teleological Thinking in Learning the Darwinian Model of Evolution"
2033:
1604:
Brusatte, Stephen L.; Lloyd, Graeme T.; Wang, Steve C.; Norell, Mark A. (2014).
1495:
818:
649:
518:
443:
365:
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75:
676:. Such language, he argues, should be removed to make teaching more effective.
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51:
21:
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Use of language of goal-directedness in the context of evolutionary adaptation
2760:(1974) Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Volume XIV, pages 91–117.
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2568:
2449:
2415:
2309:
2078:
1271:
From Cosmology to Ecology: The Monist World-view in Germany from 1770 to 1930
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2873:
2847:
2820:
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810:
796:
762:
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is an observable structure or other feature of an organism (for example, an
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195:
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152:
147:
111:
63:
55:
48:
26:
2086:
2051:
1891:
1849:
1707:
1631:
1454:. Harvard University Press. Chapter 7, section "Synthesis as Restriction".
799:
in the search for causal explanations of nature and ... an inevitable
2377:
2928:
2815:
2442:
The structure of science: Problems in the logic of scientific explanation
1554:
964:
833:
616:
and beneficent intentions of a creator, as in the writings of John Ray.
579:
530:
484:
420:
373:
347:
respectively. Their views were heavily criticized as non-scientific; the
309:
286:
280:
251:
228:, used teleological arguments to illustrate the glory of God from nature.
221:
99:
29:
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1899:
1699:
1182:
2266:
2228:
2152:"Is Evolutionary Biology Infected with Invalid Teleological Reasoning?"
2002:
889:
800:
588:
514:
492:
102:
versions, driven by a purposeful life force. With evolution working by
2704:(1972). "Teleology and the logical structure of function statements".
2356:
Madrell, S.H.P. (1998). "Why are there no insects in the open sea?".
506:
368:" in what he called "directed additivity". With the emergence of the
355:
343:
1994:
2407:
1957:
1940:
1673:"A gigantic feathered dinosaur from the Lower Cretaceous of China"
595:
526:
437:
212:
178:
in 1728. The concept derives from the ancient Greek philosophy of
20:
2099:
Gonzalez Galli, Leonardo Martin; Meinardi, Elsa N. (March 2011).
2018:"Lamarck, Evolution, and the Inheritance of Acquired Characters"
1313:
Koch, Leo Francis (1957). "Vitalistic-Mechanistic Controversy".
536:, but many of them did not fly. Feathers can be described as an
495:
40:, helping the springbok to survive and allowing it to reproduce.
2769:
47:
is the use of the language of goal-directedness in accounts of
888:, to explain traits such as the colourful "tail" train of the
71:
2534:
Nature's Purposes: Analyses of Function and Design in Biology
2510:
Nature's purposes: Analyses of Function and Design in Biology
706:
instead gave more weight to "laws of growth," that operate .
696:
have argued that Darwin was a teleologist, while others like
1251:
Biosemiotics: Information, Codes and Signs in Living Systems
608:
Secondly, teleology is linked to the pre-Darwinian idea of
364:
argued that evolution was aiming for a supposed spiritual "
2332:
International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Society
1008:
Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English
1747:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p.
450:
for this task, having evolved for an earlier purpose in
419:. The mechanism directly implies evolution, a change in
301:
believed in a teleological force in nature, whereas the
174:, "a branch of learning", was coined by the philosopher
1583:"Understanding Evolution: Qualifying as an adaptation"
1383:
De Chardin, Pierre Teilhard. (2003, reprint edition).
620:
continued Ray's tradition with books such as his 1713
335:
developed vitalist evolutionary philosophies known as
129:
consider that teleological language is unavoidable in
2639:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 390–416.
2325:"The Misnomer of Transhumanism as Directed Evolution"
1555:"Primates – marmosets, monkeys, apes, lemurs, humans"
312:, arguing for a creative force in evolution known as
1822:
Ribeiro, Manuel Gustavo Leitao; et al. (2015).
1647:"Largest feathered dinosaur yet discovered in China"
82:
to have been made to enable them to carry out their
3213:
3107:
2959:
2872:
2803:
2548:"Teleology in Biology : A Kantian Perspective"
1296:. The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 116–117.
2740:
2677:
2184:
1740:
1533:(4th ed.). Jones and Bartlett. pp. 4–6.
1423:Montgomery, Georgina M.; Largent, Mark A. (2015).
817:criticised Pittendrigh's confusion of Aristotle's
498:is designed (by natural selection) for grasping."
1361:The Phenomenon of Teilhard: Prophet for a New Age
770:likewise stated that "adaptedness ... is an
664:as a result, adaptation looks impossible to test
407:, introduced in 1859 as the central mechanism of
2706:Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science
1778:Teleology: The explanation that bedevils biology
1506:(1st ed.). Roberts and Company Publishers.
210:, not least for its echoes of natural theology.
78:them; their features such as eyes were taken by
1527:Hall, Brian K.; Hallgrímsson, Benedikt (2008).
1347:This View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist
1133:
1131:
741:Ayala, relying on work done by the philosopher
612:, that the natural world gives evidence of the
2623:
2621:
1425:A Companion to the History of American Science
2781:
2389:
2387:
1781:. Oxford University Press. pp. 143–155.
795:that teleology in biology is important as "a
8:
1872:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B
1770:
1768:
1239:. Gould, Kendall, and Lincoln. pp. 18–.
753:similarly argued that the modern concept of
32:. A biologist might argue that this has the
2637:Adaptation, natural selection, and behavior
2137:Not by Design: Retiring Darwin's Watchmaker
1973:
1971:
1775:Hanke, David (2004). Cornwell, John (ed.).
1577:
1575:
1363:. Mercer University Press. pp. 60–64.
1171:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
884:Darwin also introduced a second mechanism,
563:Apparent teleology is a recurring issue in
2788:
2774:
2766:
1405:Genetics, Paleontology, and Macroevolution
1349:. Harcourt, Brace & World. pp. 213–233
1083:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science
1041:. Prostat in officina libraria Rengeriana.
933:
931:
929:
927:
925:
923:
921:
919:
917:
70:, organisms were seen as existing because
2592:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
2167:
2116:
2041:
1839:
1621:
1407:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–16.
1114:. Sinauer Associates. pp. 341, 342.
1053:"Presuppositions of Aristotle's Politics"
383:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
2130:
2128:
1923:Nineteenth-Century Science: An Anthology
1343:Evolutionary Theology: The New Mysticism
1194:
1192:
2668:
2666:
1962:The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology
1743:Evolution: The First Four Billion Years
1161:
1159:
913:
877:
717:, an ideology that aims to improve the
491:that they have been detected", or "The
2652:
2642:
2487:
2477:
1804:
1794:
1585:. University of California at Berkeley
1958:"Nineteenth Century Natural Theology"
692:Some philosophers of biology such as
446:, but they were co-opted rather than
442:Feathers today serve the function of
7:
2215:(1993). "Darwin was a Teleologist".
2067:Kwartalnik Historii Nauki I Techniki
1828:História, Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos
1451:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
25:"Behaviour with a purpose": a young
2887:Alternatives to Darwinian evolution
2358:The Journal of Experimental Biology
1057:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
943:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
578:argued, that biologists agree with
1945:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
711:Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law
14:
2686:. New York: Free Press. pp.
2474:. W.H. Freeman. pp. 497–504.
2139:. University of California Press.
2105:Evolution: Education and Outreach
1981:(1992). "The idea of teleology".
1341:Simpson, George Gaylord. (1964).
1253:. Nova Science Publishers. p. 7.
939:"Teleological Notions in Biology"
2863:
2743:Philosophy of Biological Science
2302:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02127.x
2156:Philosophy and Theory in Biology
1645:Whitfield, John (4 April 2012).
1387:. Sussex Academic Press. p. 65.
1086:. Bloomsbury. pp. 272–275.
680:Removable teleological shorthand
674:learning about natural selection
186:(the purpose) of a thing is its
2444:. Harcourt, Brace & World.
1983:Journal of the History of Ideas
1841:10.1590/S0104-59702015005000003
1504:Evolution: Making Sense of Life
66:has also been proposed. Before
2016:Burkhardt, Richard W. (2013).
1925:. Broadview Press. p. 18.
548:Status in evolutionary biology
1:
2679:"Cause and effect in biology"
2536:(pp. 313–333). The MIT Press.
1956:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013).
1403:Levinton, Jeffrey S. (2001).
1269:Jacobsen, Eric Paul. (2005).
1140:The English Parson-Naturalist
981:10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80052-5
380:'s argument in his 1930 book
370:modern evolutionary synthesis
2726:10.1016/0039-3681(72)90014-3
2546:Breitenbach, Angela (2009).
2169:10.3998/ptb.6959004.0002.005
1249:Barbieri, Marcello. (2013).
2034:10.1534/genetics.113.151852
1739:; Travis, J., eds. (2009).
1484:(1st ed.). p. 89.
1138:Armstrong, Patrick (2000).
1011:. Routledge. p. 4187.
785:Angela Breitenbach, from a
62:find problematic. The term
3278:
2338:(1): 71–78. Archived from
1201:"The Argument from Design"
630:. They in turn influenced
554:Tinbergen's four questions
551:
467:
393:
362:Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
274:
236:
145:
2941:Evolutionary epistemology
2861:
2472:Teleological explanations
2183:Dawkins, Richard (1987).
2118:10.1007/s12052-010-0272-7
1623:10.1016/j.cub.2014.08.034
1142:. Gracewing. p. 46.
809:coined the similar term '
709:Andrew Askland, from the
457:Sinornithosaurus millenii
308:linked orthogenesis with
2569:10.1515/9783110196672.31
2323:Askland, Andrew (2011).
2150:Depew, David J. (2010).
1530:Strickberger's Evolution
1481:On the Origin of Species
1233:; Paxton, James (1837).
703:On the Origin of Species
489:communicate to predators
303:spiritualist philosopher
2961:Philosophers of biology
2682:. In Lerner, D. (ed.).
2633:Simpson, George Gaylord
2604:10.1002/ajpa.1330190215
2370:10.1242/jeb.201.17.2461
2290:Journal of Biogeography
2135:Reiss, John O. (2009).
1359:Lane, David H. (1996).
789:perspective, argues in
271:Goal-directed evolution
125:and biologists such as
119:philosophers of biology
88:Evolutionary biologists
60:philosophers of science
38:signalling to predators
2255:Biology and Philosophy
2217:Biology and Philosophy
1892:10.1098/rspb.1979.0086
1316:The Scientific Monthly
1273:. p. 100. Peter Lang.
776:result rather than an
605:
559:Reasons for discomfort
534:dinosaurs had feathers
465:
352:George Gaylord Simpson
329:Pierre Lecomte du Noüy
229:
41:
3262:Philosophy of biology
2855:Evolutionary taxonomy
2797:Philosophy of biology
2629:Pittendrigh, Colin S.
2396:Philosophy of Science
1921:Weber, A. S. (2000).
755:biological 'function'
733:Irreducible teleology
636:teleological argument
634:who wrote a detailed
599:
552:Further information:
441:
256:teleological argument
216:
208:philosophy of biology
24:
3257:Evolutionary biology
2251:Ghiselin, Michael T.
1385:The Human Phenomenon
1205:Princeton University
1112:Evolutionary Biology
1033:Wolff, Christian von
644:, starting with the
565:evolutionary biology
517:are adaptations for
131:evolutionary biology
76:designed and created
45:Teleology in biology
2999:Peter Godfrey-Smith
2718:1972SHPSA...3....1.
2702:Wimsatt, William C.
2464:Ayala, Francisco J.
1884:1979RSPSB.205..581G
1700:10.1038/nature10906
1692:2012Natur.484...92X
1329:1957SciMo..85..245K
1167:Ayala, Francisco J.
1108:Futuyma, Douglas J.
1078:Leroi, Armand Marie
830:backwards causation
713:claims that unlike
586:in his 1759 satire
487:by antelopes is to
333:Edmund Ware Sinnott
299:Karl Ernst von Baer
192:Aristotle's biology
176:Christian von Wolff
166:"end, purpose" and
108:inherited variation
3226:History of biology
3221:Philosophy of mind
3195:John Maynard Smith
3115:Francisco J. Ayala
3099:William C. Wimsatt
3094:Gerard Verschuuren
3004:James R. Griesemer
2267:10.1007/BF00850377
2229:10.1007/bf00857687
1446:Gould, Stephen Jay
825:William C. Wimsatt
646:watchmaker analogy
606:
602:watchmaker analogy
474:Function (biology)
466:
321:Creative Evolution
230:
219:natural theologian
194:does not envisage
86:, such as seeing.
42:
3234:
3233:
3165:Humberto Maturana
3150:Stephen Jay Gould
3044:Roberta Millstein
3009:Paul E. Griffiths
2739:Hull, D. (1973).
2631:(1958). Roe, A.;
2512:. The MIT Press.
2364:(17): 2461–2464.
2345:on 22 April 2017.
1878:(1161): 581–598.
1868:Lewontin, Richard
1864:Gould, Stephen J.
1788:978-0-19-860778-6
1616:(20): 2386–2392.
1540:978-1-4496-4722-3
1513:978-1-936221-17-2
1500:Emlen, Douglas J.
1448:(21 March 2002).
1433:978-1-4051-5625-7
1427:. Wiley. p. 218.
1302:978-0-8018-4391-4
1279:978-0-8204-7231-7
1259:978-1-60021-612-1
1149:978-0-85244-516-7
1121:978-0-87893-189-7
1093:978-1-4088-3622-4
861:Fitness landscape
842:anti-reductionist
807:Colin Pittendrigh
759:natural selection
638:for God in 1802,
405:Natural selection
396:Natural selection
390:Natural selection
331:and the botanist
249:parson-naturalist
200:natural selection
104:natural selection
92:natural selection
3269:
3185:Joan Roughgarden
3155:Richard Lewontin
3140:Michael Ghiselin
3089:Francisco Varela
3084:Alfred I. Tauber
3039:Jane Maienschein
2867:
2790:
2783:
2776:
2767:
2761:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2747:. Prentice-Hall.
2746:
2736:
2730:
2729:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2684:Cause and effect
2681:
2670:
2661:
2660:
2654:
2650:
2648:
2640:
2625:
2616:
2615:
2587:
2581:
2580:
2552:
2543:
2537:
2530:
2524:
2523:
2506:Ayala, Francisco
2502:
2496:
2495:
2489:
2485:
2483:
2475:
2460:
2454:
2453:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2391:
2382:
2381:
2353:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2329:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2296:(6): 1018–1026.
2285:
2279:
2278:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2213:Lennox, James G.
2209:
2203:
2202:
2190:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2132:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2045:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1975:
1966:
1965:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1942:Natural Theology
1933:
1927:
1926:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1843:
1834:(4): 1321–1333.
1819:
1813:
1812:
1806:
1802:
1800:
1792:
1772:
1763:
1762:
1746:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1718:. Archived from
1677:
1668:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1651:Nature News Blog
1642:
1636:
1635:
1625:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1579:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1562:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1442:
1436:
1421:
1415:
1401:
1395:
1381:
1375:
1374:
1356:
1350:
1339:
1333:
1332:
1310:
1304:
1287:
1281:
1267:
1261:
1247:
1241:
1240:
1227:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1207:. Archived from
1196:
1187:
1186:
1163:
1154:
1153:
1135:
1126:
1125:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1049:
1043:
1042:
1029:
1023:
1022:
999:
993:
992:
969:Animal Behaviour
961:
955:
954:
952:
950:
935:
902:
899:
893:
886:sexual selection
882:
849:J. B. S. Haldane
701:first volume of
698:Michael Ghiselin
622:Physico-Theology
614:conscious design
610:natural theology
576:Richard Lewontin
572:Stephen J. Gould
245:natural theology
239:Natural theology
233:Natural theology
127:J. B. S. Haldane
80:natural theology
3277:
3276:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3268:
3267:
3266:
3237:
3236:
3235:
3230:
3209:
3130:Richard Dawkins
3120:Patrick Bateson
3103:
3049:Sandra Mitchell
2955:
2868:
2859:
2799:
2794:
2764:
2756:
2752:
2738:
2737:
2733:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2672:
2671:
2664:
2651:
2641:
2627:
2626:
2619:
2589:
2588:
2584:
2550:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2531:
2527:
2520:
2504:
2503:
2499:
2486:
2476:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2436:
2435:
2431:
2393:
2392:
2385:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2342:
2327:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2287:
2286:
2282:
2249:
2248:
2244:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2149:
2148:
2144:
2134:
2133:
2126:
2098:
2097:
2093:
2064:
2063:
2059:
2015:
2014:
2010:
1995:10.2307/2709913
1977:
1976:
1969:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1920:
1919:
1915:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1803:
1793:
1789:
1774:
1773:
1766:
1759:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1722:
1686:(7392): 92–95.
1675:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1655:
1653:
1644:
1643:
1639:
1610:Current Biology
1603:
1602:
1598:
1588:
1586:
1581:
1580:
1573:
1560:
1558:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1541:
1526:
1525:
1521:
1514:
1494:
1493:
1489:
1476:Darwin, Charles
1474:
1473:
1469:
1462:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1422:
1418:
1402:
1398:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1340:
1336:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1290:Bowler, Peter J
1288:
1284:
1268:
1264:
1248:
1244:
1229:
1228:
1224:
1214:
1212:
1211:on 16 July 2019
1199:Rosen, Gideon.
1198:
1197:
1190:
1165:
1164:
1157:
1150:
1137:
1136:
1129:
1122:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1061:
1059:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1003:Partridge, Eric
1001:
1000:
996:
963:
962:
958:
948:
946:
937:
936:
915:
911:
906:
905:
900:
896:
883:
879:
874:
857:
782:goal-seeking."
747:Francisco Ayala
735:
719:human condition
694:James G. Lennox
687:Richard Dawkins
682:
584:Doctor Pangloss
561:
556:
550:
476:
468:Main articles:
436:
402:
394:Main articles:
392:
372:, in which the
349:palaeontologist
283:
275:Main articles:
273:
243:Before Darwin,
241:
235:
150:
144:
139:
123:Francisco Ayala
17:
12:
11:
5:
3275:
3273:
3265:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3239:
3238:
3232:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3223:
3217:
3215:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3145:François Jacob
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3125:Charles Darwin
3122:
3117:
3111:
3109:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3069:Sahotra Sarkar
3066:
3061:
3059:Alex Rosenberg
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3024:Philip Kitcher
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2994:Marjorie Grene
2991:
2986:
2981:
2979:Daniel Dennett
2976:
2974:Lindley Darden
2971:
2965:
2963:
2957:
2956:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2920:
2919:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2884:
2878:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2862:
2860:
2858:
2857:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2807:
2805:
2801:
2800:
2795:
2793:
2792:
2785:
2778:
2770:
2763:
2762:
2750:
2731:
2693:
2662:
2617:
2598:(2): 218–219.
2582:
2538:
2525:
2519:978-0262510974
2518:
2497:
2468:Dobzhansky, T.
2455:
2429:
2408:10.1086/288276
2383:
2348:
2315:
2280:
2261:(4): 489–492.
2242:
2223:(4): 409–421.
2204:
2197:
2191:. W W Norton.
2175:
2142:
2124:
2111:(1): 145–152.
2091:
2073:(3–4): 31–98,
2057:
2028:(4): 793–805.
2008:
1989:(1): 117–135.
1979:Mayr, Ernst W.
1967:
1948:
1937:Paley, William
1928:
1913:
1855:
1814:
1787:
1764:
1757:
1728:
1725:on 2012-04-17.
1663:
1637:
1596:
1571:
1546:
1539:
1519:
1512:
1487:
1467:
1461:978-0674006133
1460:
1437:
1416:
1396:
1376:
1369:
1351:
1334:
1323:(5): 245–255.
1305:
1282:
1262:
1242:
1231:Paley, William
1222:
1188:
1177:(3): 409–421.
1155:
1148:
1127:
1120:
1099:
1092:
1069:
1044:
1024:
1017:
994:
975:(3): 663–684.
956:
912:
910:
907:
904:
903:
894:
876:
875:
873:
870:
869:
868:
866:Teleomechanism
863:
856:
853:
847:The biologist
734:
731:
681:
678:
627:Astro-Theology
618:William Derham
560:
557:
549:
546:
435:
432:
413:Charles Darwin
391:
388:
359:paleontologist
272:
269:
237:Main article:
234:
231:
226:William Derham
146:Main article:
143:
140:
138:
135:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3274:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3244:
3242:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3212:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3175:Jacques Monod
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3160:Konrad Lorenz
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3135:Jared Diamond
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3106:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3074:Elliott Sober
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3034:Helen Longino
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2966:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2918:
2915:
2914:
2913:
2912:Structuralism
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2892:Catastrophism
2890:
2889:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2882:Adaptationism
2880:
2879:
2877:
2875:
2871:
2866:
2856:
2853:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2827:
2826:Kin selection
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2813:
2812:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2786:
2784:
2779:
2777:
2772:
2771:
2768:
2759:
2754:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2735:
2732:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2694:
2689:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2658:
2646:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2556:Kant Yearbook
2549:
2542:
2539:
2535:
2529:
2526:
2521:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2501:
2498:
2493:
2481:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2459:
2456:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2438:Nagel, Ernest
2433:
2430:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2352:
2349:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2326:
2319:
2316:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2284:
2281:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2246:
2243:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2208:
2205:
2200:
2198:9780393022162
2194:
2189:
2188:
2179:
2176:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2146:
2143:
2138:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2095:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2069:(in Polish),
2068:
2061:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1974:
1972:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1949:
1944:
1943:
1938:
1932:
1929:
1924:
1917:
1914:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1859:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1815:
1810:
1798:
1790:
1784:
1780:
1779:
1771:
1769:
1765:
1760:
1758:9780674031753
1754:
1750:
1745:
1744:
1738:
1737:Ruse, Michael
1732:
1729:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1674:
1667:
1664:
1652:
1648:
1641:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1600:
1597:
1584:
1578:
1576:
1572:
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3190:Rolf Sattler
3079:Kim Sterelny
3064:Michael Ruse
2951:Tree of life
2945:
2902:Orthogenesis
2838:Reductionism
2753:
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1496:Zimmer, Carl
1490:
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959:
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942:
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338:telefinalism
336:
326:biophysicist
324:(1907). The
319:
318:in his book
313:
296:embryologist
291:orthogenesis
284:
277:Orthogenesis
242:
224:, and later
217:The English
204:
182:, where the
171:
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151:
116:
96:orthogenesis
49:evolutionary
44:
43:
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3180:Denis Noble
3054:Susan Oyama
2969:John Beatty
2907:Mutationism
2758:Mayr, Ernst
2712:(1): 1–80.
2674:Mayr, Ernst
2653:|work=
2488:|work=
2402:(1): 1–15.
1805:|work=
819:four causes
757:depends on
666:empirically
650:creationism
519:bird flight
430:over time.
366:Omega Point
190:. However,
184:final cause
3241:Categories
3205:Jonas Salk
3170:Ernst Mayr
3108:Biologists
3029:Tim Lewens
3019:Hans Jonas
3014:David Hull
2989:Carla Fehr
2984:John Dupré
2897:Lamarckism
2833:Naturalism
1292:. (1992).
909:References
815:Ernst Mayr
801:analogical
768:Ernst Mayr
657:Lamarckism
542:insulation
538:exaptation
511:hypothesis
503:adaptation
470:Adaptation
462:insulation
460:, perhaps
434:Adaptation
428:population
315:élan vital
106:acting on
98:), and in
56:biologists
52:adaptation
3252:Causality
3247:Teleology
2946:Teleology
2936:Darwinism
2874:Evolution
2848:Emergence
2821:Dysgenics
2655:ignored (
2645:cite book
2612:0002-9483
2577:171216322
2490:ignored (
2480:cite book
2450:874878031
2416:0031-8248
2310:0305-0270
2275:170997321
2237:170767015
2079:0023-589X
1939:(2006) .
1807:ignored (
1797:cite book
838:entelechy
811:teleonomy
797:heuristic
763:appendage
726:shorthand
452:theropods
421:heritable
417:phenotype
409:evolution
400:Evolution
196:evolution
180:Aristotle
153:Teleology
148:Teleology
142:Teleology
112:teleology
84:functions
64:teleonomy
27:springbok
2929:Vitalism
2924:Theistic
2917:Spandrel
2816:Eugenics
2676:(1965).
2635:(eds.).
2466:(1977).
2440:(1961).
2424:84638701
2087:20481104
2052:23908372
2022:Genetics
1850:25650703
1716:29689629
1708:22481363
1632:25264248
1502:(2013).
1478:(1859).
1215:10 April
1183:23334140
1110:(1998).
1080:(2014).
1035:(1732).
1005:(1977).
989:53155678
855:See also
834:vitalism
779:a priori
580:Voltaire
531:theropod
515:feathers
485:stotting
481:function
310:vitalism
287:vitalism
281:Vitalism
252:John Ray
222:John Ray
188:function
155:, from
121:such as
100:vitalist
34:function
30:stotting
3214:Related
2714:Bibcode
2470:(ed.).
2378:9698580
2043:3730912
2003:2709913
1908:2129408
1880:Bibcode
1688:Bibcode
1656:4 April
1589:29 July
1561:28 July
1557:. NHPTV
1325:Bibcode
1062:28 July
949:28 July
890:peacock
787:Kantian
648:. Such
589:Candide
523:fitness
493:primate
448:adapted
374:genetic
137:Context
2843:Holism
2811:Ethics
2804:Themes
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1680:Nature
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507:enzyme
444:flight
424:traits
356:Jesuit
344:telism
168:-λογία
68:Darwin
2688:33–50
2573:S2CID
2551:(PDF)
2420:S2CID
2343:(PDF)
2328:(PDF)
2271:S2CID
2233:S2CID
1999:JSTOR
1904:S2CID
1900:42062
1723:(PDF)
1712:S2CID
1676:(PDF)
1345:. In
1179:JSTOR
985:S2CID
872:Notes
840:, or
527:birds
513:that
454:like
426:of a
172:logia
164:telos
160:τέλος
157:Greek
2657:help
2608:ISSN
2561:2009
2514:ISBN
2492:help
2446:OCLC
2412:ISSN
2374:PMID
2306:ISSN
2193:ISBN
2083:PMID
2075:ISSN
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1896:PMID
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1783:ISBN
1753:ISBN
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1658:2012
1628:PMID
1591:2016
1563:2016
1535:ISBN
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1456:ISBN
1429:ISBN
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1389:ISBN
1365:ISBN
1298:ISBN
1275:ISBN
1255:ISBN
1217:2017
1144:ISBN
1116:ISBN
1088:ISBN
1064:2016
1013:ISBN
951:2016
600:The
574:and
496:hand
472:and
398:and
341:and
279:and
265:lens
263:and
261:iris
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