357:. The test aircraft carried cameras looking in various directions, including some looking at the aircraft instruments and radar displays. This allowed the system to be extensively examined on the ground after the flight. Each flight returned data for flights over about 100 miles, and over 250 such flights were carried out. Early tests showed random noise in the measurements which rendered the measurements useless. This was eventually traced to the automatic gain control using very high gain while at the top of the scanning pattern where the terrain was normally at long distances and required the most amplification. This had the side-effect of making spurious reflections in the antenna's
263:, which results in two separate signals being sent in slightly different directions while overlapping in the center. When the signals are received, the receiver uses this extra information to separate the signals back out again. When these signals are oriented vertically, the signal from the lower beam hits the ground closer to the aircraft, producing a spread-out blip as in the case of earlier radars, while the upper beam produces a similar blip but located at a slightly further distance. The two blips overlap to produce an extended ellipse.
271:. The exact midpoint of the beam is where the voltage crosses zero. This results in a measurement that is both precisely aligned with the midline of the signal and is easily identified using simple electronics. The range can then be accurately determined by timing the precise moment when the zero-crossing occurs. Accuracies on the order of a meter for measurements of objects kilometers away are commonly achieved.
31:
537:
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an O-shaped pattern, scanning vertically from 8 degrees over the flight path to 12 degrees below it, while moving a few degrees left and right of the flight path. Additionally, the system read turn rates from the instruments and moved the scanning pattern further left or right to measure the terrain where the aircraft would be in the future.
318:. In the case of the Lightning, the monopulse signal was used to accurately measure the horizontal angle, in order to allow the AIRPASS computer to plot an efficient intercept course at long range. For TFR use, all that had to change was that the antenna would be rotated so it measured the vertical angle instead of horizontal.
458:"medium" that changed the G force of the calculated curve's descent profile from 0.25 to 1 G, while always allowing a maximum 3 G pullup. It also included a second set of electronics to provide hot-backup in case the primary unit failed, and fail-safe modes that executed the 3 G pullup in the case of various system failures.
191:
effect was known as "ballooning". To address this, real-world units had an additional term that was applied that caused the aircraft to climb more rapidly against larger displacements. This resulted in the aircraft reaching the desired clearance altitude earlier than normal and thus levelling off before reaching the peak.
504:
However, radar emissions can be detected by enemy anti-aircraft systems with relative ease once there is no covering terrain, allowing the aircraft to be targeted. The use of terrain-following radar is therefore a compromise between the increased survivability due to terrain masking and the ease with
361:
being amplified to the point of causing interference. This was addressed by moving from an O-shaped pattern to a U-shaped one, and only allowing the gain to increase when scanning upward to prevent it from re-adjusting to high gain when moving downward and thereby avoiding low-lying terrain appearing
345:
is used to produce a reference to calculate actual altitudes. The beamwidth of the radar was small enough that objects to either side of the aircraft's flight path might be a potential hazard if the aircraft was blown sideways or started a turn close to the object. To avoid this, the radar scanned in
466:
Ultimately the F-111 ran into delays and cost overruns not unlike the TSR-2. After examining several concepts, the RAF eventually decided to use the
Buccaneer. Although this platform had been extensively tested with the Ferranti radar, this potential upgrade was not selected for service. Unhappiness
190:
One problem with this simple algorithm is that the calculated path will keep the aircraft in positive pitch as it approaches the crest of a hill. This results in the aircraft flying over the peak while still climbing and taking some time before it begins to descend again into the valley beyond. This
508:
Even an automated system has limitations, and all aircraft with terrain-following radars have limits on how low and fast they can fly. Factors such as system response-time, aircraft g-limits and the weather can all limit an aircraft. Since the radar cannot tell what is beyond any immediate terrain,
396:
As the pilots became familiar with the system, the engineers continually reduced the selected clearance downward until it demonstrated its ability to safely and smoothly operate at an average of only 30 metres (98 ft) clearance. This was tested against rough terrain, including mountain ridges,
194:
Because the radar only sees objects in the line-of-sight, it cannot see hills behind other hills. To prevent the aircraft from diving into a valley only to require a hard pull-up, the negative G limit was generally low, on the order of one-half G. The systems also had problems over water, where the
76:
TFR systems work by scanning a radar beam vertically in front of the aircraft and comparing the range and angle of the radar reflections to a pre-computed ideal manoeuvring curve. By comparing the distance between the terrain and the ideal curve, the system calculates a manoeuvre that will make the
457:
For a variety of reasons, the TSR-2 project was cancelled in 1965 in favor of purchasing the F-111, a platform of similar concept based around a similar radar. In contrast to
Ferranti's design, the APQ-110 offered several additional controls, including a ride quality setting for "hard", "soft" and
170:
The timing of the pulses is much faster than the vertical scanning, so for any one pulse the angle is fixed. When then pulse is sent, the function generator is triggered. When the return is seen, the system sums the output from the generator at that instant with the output from the angle sensor on
84:
radars; terrain avoidance systems scan horizontally to produce a map-like display that the navigator then uses to plot a route that avoids higher terrain features. The two techniques are often combined in a single radar system: the navigator uses the terrain avoidance mode to choose an ideal route
517:
On aircraft with more than one crew, the radar is normally used by the navigator and this allows the pilot to focus on other aspects of the flight besides the extremely intensive task of low flying itself. Most aircraft allow the pilot to also select the ride "hardness" with a cockpit switch, to
178:
To guide the aircraft, a series of these measurements are taken over the period of one complete vertical scan out to some maximum distance on the order of 10 kilometres (6.2 mi). The maximum positive or minimum negative value of the angle error during the scan is recorded. That voltage is a
151:
signal towards the ground area in front of the aircraft while the radar scans up and down. The signal is sent as a series of brief pulses and the reflections of these pulses off the ground produces very powerful returns. The time the pulse takes to travel to and from the terrain produces a range
243:
systems with beamwidths on the order of four degrees. When the beam hits the ground, some of the signal scatters back toward the aircraft, allowing it to measure the distance to the ground in front of it. When looking downwards at an angle, the near and far side of the radar's circular beam was
206:
Terrain avoidance normally works in a relative fashion; that is, the absolute altitudes of objects are not important. In some cases, it is desirable to provide an absolute number to indicate the amount of clearance or lack of it. The height of the top of any particular feature relative to the
393:. The pilot followed the computed path by pitching until the aircraft's velocity vector indicator, a small ring, was centred around the dot. In tests, the pilots very quickly became confident in the system and were happy to fly it at the minimum clearance setting even in bad weather.
167:, while the flat area under the aircraft extends forward a short distance to represent the distance the aircraft moves in a straight line before starting that manoeuvre due to control lag. The resulting compound curve is displaced by a pilot-selected desired clearance distance.
211:, where H is the altitude over the ground measured by the radio altimeter, φ is the angle and R the range measured by the radar, with h being the resulting height of the object over the current flight path. The clearance between the aircraft and terrain is then
509:
the flight path may also suffer from "ballooning" over sharp terrain ridges, where the altitude becomes unnecessarily high. Furthermore, obstacles such as radio antennas and electricity pylons may be detected late by the radar and present collision hazards.
471:, an aircraft very similar to the F-111. After successful initial negotiations, the UK dropped its options on the F-111K. Shortly thereafter, Marcel Dassault began to actively undermine the project, which the French eventually abandoned in 1967.
496:
systems require a line of sight to the target, flying low to the ground and at high speed reduces the time that an aircraft is vulnerable to detection to a minimum by hiding the aircraft behind terrain as far as possible. This is known as
559:
Systems are now available that mount to commercial UAV's, allowing the carriage of Ground
Penetrating Radar or magnetometry sensors for sub-surface survey. This is being exploited in finding unexploded ordnance and in archaeology.
171:
the radar. The resulting voltage represents the angle between the actual and preferred location. If the voltage is positive, that means the terrain lies above the curve, negative means it is below. This difference is known as the
491:
Terrain following radar is primarily used by military strike aircraft, to enable flight at very low altitudes (sometimes below 100 feet/30 metres) and high speeds. Since radar detection by enemy radars and interception by
388:
During testing, the radar was not connected to the aircraft's autopilot system and all control was manual. The curve was chosen to produce a one-half G maximum load. The path to fly was indicated by a dot in an AIRPASS
425:
In spite of the early start of
Cornell's work, for reasons that are not well recorded, further development in the US ended for a time with the concept in a semi-complete form. This changed dramatically after the
179:
representation of the change in pitch angle the aircraft needs to fly at to keep itself at the desired clearance altitude above the terrain while manoeuvring at the selected load factor. This can be fed into an
266:
The key feature of the monopulse technique is that the signals overlap in a very specific way; if you invert one of the signals and then sum them, the result is a voltage output that looks something like a
321:
Unsurprisingly, Ferranti won the contract for the radar component sometime in 1957 or 58. Shortly after the project started, in 1959 the project lead, Gus Scott, left for Hughes
Microcircuits in nearby
248:
and not accurate enough for terrain avoidance. It was, however, accurate enough to produce a low-resolution map-like display of the ground below the aircraft, leading to the wartime development of the
77:
aircraft clear the terrain by a pre-selected distance, often on the order of 100 metres (330 ft). Using TFR allows an aircraft to automatically follow terrain at very low levels and high speeds.
614:
None of the existing sources are clear whether this was both positive and negative load, or just negative. The value is smaller than production unit's positive loads, but typical for negative.
556:
Military helicopters may also have terrain-following radar. Due to their lower speed and high maneuverability, helicopters are normally able to fly lower than fixed-wing aircraft.
434:
to the low-altitude "penetrator" approach. In the short term, a number of terrain avoidance radars were introduced for a variety of aircraft. The first true TFR in the US was the
326:, and the team was taken over by Greg Stewart and Dick Starling. The initial system was built from a surplus AI.23B AIRPASS, and could be mounted to a trailer and towed by a
152:
measurement to the terrain in front of the aircraft. The angle relative to the aircraft is returned by a sensor on the vertical gimbal that returns a calibrated voltage.
287:. The TSR-2 project was officially started with the release of GOR.339 in 1955, and quickly settled on the use of TFR to provide the required low-level performance. The
55:
to automatically maintain a relatively constant altitude above ground level and therefore make detection by enemy radar more difficult. It is sometimes referred to as
163:
ramp, flat under the aircraft and then curving upward in front of it. The curve represents the path the aircraft would take if it was manoeuvring at a constant
438:
AN/APQ-101, which launched the company as the market leader in TFR for many years. In the early 1960s, they developed TFR systems for the RF-4C version of the
259:
concept. The monopulse technique produces a beam of the same width as a traditional design, but adds additional information in the radio signal, often using
330:
for testing. A significant issue is that the amount of signal returned varies greatly with the terrain; a building's vertical walls produces a partial
334:
that returns a signal that is about 10 million times stronger than the signal from sand or dry ground. To deal with the rapidly changing signals, an
136:
and the technique is no longer common. Most aircraft of this class have since retired although the Su-24 and
Tornado remain in use in some numbers.
406:
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through lower-altitude terrain features like valleys, and then switches to TFR mode which then flies over that route at a minimum altitude.
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The radar measures only relative angles in reference to the stabilized boresight line using aircraft instruments, so the aircraft's
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Terrain-following radar is sometimes used by civilian aircraft that map the ground and wish to maintain a constant height over it.
439:
229:
89:
638:
Force V: The history of
Britain's airborne deterrent, by Andrew Brookes. Jane's Publishing Co Ltd; First Edition 1 Jan. 1982,
244:
spread out into an ellipse on the ground. The return from this pattern produced a "blip" that was similarly spread out on the
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187:. This process produces a continually computed path that rises and falls over the terrain with a constant manoeuvring load.
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radars have a single antenna that can be used to look forward and at the ground, by electronically steering the beams.
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choose between how closely the aircraft tries to keep itself close to the ground and the forces exerted on the pilot.
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132:
technologies through the 1990s has led to a reduction in low-altitude flight as a solution to the problem of avoiding
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have two separate radars, with the smaller one used for terrain-following. However, more modern aircraft such as the
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with this state of affairs led the RAF to begin discussions with their French counterparts and the emergence of the
474:
The next year, the UK government began negotiations with a wider selection of countries, leading eventually to the
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354:
101:
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40:
at RAF Museum
Cosford, 2002. Ferranti developed the first terrain-following radar specifically for the TSR-2.
541:
478:. Texas Instruments used their experience with the F-111 TFR to win the radar contract for the Tornado IDS.
451:
335:
279:
The
Cornell reports were picked up in the UK where they formed the basis of an emerging concept for a new
117:
974:
572:, a terrain-referenced navigation system provides a limited but passive terrain-following functionality.
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blind valleys and even cliff faces. It was also found to property guide over artificial objects like the
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is producing a varying voltage representing a preferred manoeuvring curve. This is similar in shape to a
1001:
The
Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Communications, Signal Processing, and Systems
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There are very few alternatives to using terrain-following radar for high-speed, low altitude flight.
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373:, producing a much smaller system overall. As the system was further developed it was moved to a
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radar beam tended to scatter forward and returned little signal to the aircraft except in high
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To provide the accuracy required for terrain following, TFR systems have to be based on the
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1038:, lengthy film with complete details of the AIRPASS II development and operational concept
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925:"Altimeter for precise terrain following to enable drone flight at low and constant AGL"
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See images page 13. The system is about half as large as the original AIRPASS unit.
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project was ultimately abandoned, the concept was widely deployed in 1960s and 70s
69:
flight may also apply but is more commonly used in relation to low-flying military
30:
306:. The Lightning was equipped with the world's first airborne monopulse radar, the
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199:. In such conditions, the system would fail back to a constant clearance using a
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built a simulator of the system using discrete electronics that filled a room.
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Tests of the system were carried out using Ferranti Test Flight's existing
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52:
998:
Mu, Jiasong; Liang, Qilian; Wang, Wei; Zhang, Baoju; Pi, Yiming (2015).
901:
Project Cancelled: The Disaster of Britain's Abandoned Aircraft Projects
92:
in the 1950s. It was first built in production form starting in 1959 by
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430:, which led to the rapid switch from high-altitude flying over the
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1048:"Automatic flight control system for automatic terrain-following"
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The TFR concept traces its history to studies carried out at the
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Advances in electronics during development allowed the original
236:. This led to the development of a system known as "Autoflite."
385:, close to Ferranti's radar development site in the city.
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for higher-speed testing. The tests were carried out from
80:
Terrain-following radars differ from the similar-sounding
943:"TSR2 Terrain Following Radar Development – 1959 to 1964"
759:
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At the same time that the radar is sending out pulses, a
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73:, which typically do not use terrain-following radar.
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962:"Attack Planes Hug Hostile Terrain with New Radar"
505:which the aircraft can be targeted if it is seen.
838:
788:
655:
973:Starling, Dick; Stewart, Greg (1 April 1971).
960:Mason, John; Hood, Harold (21 February 1964).
979:Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
353:and, starting over the winter of 1961/62, an
8:
975:"The Development of Terrain Following Radar"
1036:Ferranti Strike and Terrain Following Radar
1021:Ferranti Strike and Terrain Following Radar
88:The concept was initially developed at the
100:aircraft, flying for the first time in an
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338:with 100 dB of range was developed.
51:technology that allows a very-low-flying
27:Radar used for extremely low level flight
239:Early radars installed in aircraft used
207:aircraft can then be calculated through
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283:, which would eventually emerge as the
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862:
850:
804:Echoes of War: The Story of H2S Radar
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128:"Fencer". The wider introduction of
587:Active electronically scanned array
407:Kirk o' Shotts transmitting station
144:The system works by transmitting a
1042:Krachmalnick, F.M.; Vetsch, G.J.;
234:USAF Aeronautical Systems Division
25:
362:in the sidelobes with high gain.
369:electronics to be increasingly
230:Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory
90:Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory
1:
294:During this same period, the
1106:Military air traffic control
487:Advantages and disadvantages
289:Royal Aircraft Establishment
183:or displayed on the pilot's
839:Starling & Stewart 1971
789:Starling & Stewart 1971
656:Starling & Stewart 1971
298:was introducing its newest
104:testbed in 1962. While the
1122:
941:Blain, Bill (2011-07-24).
521:Some aircraft such as the
304:English Electric Lightning
355:English Electric Canberra
102:English Electric Canberra
801:Lovell, Bernard (1991).
224:Initial work at Cornell
45:Terrain-following radar
18:Terrain following radar
545:
482:Use in strike aircraft
452:General Dynamics F-111
336:automatic gain control
118:General Dynamics F-111
41:
887:Mason & Hood 1964
764:Mason & Hood 1964
539:
421:Development in the US
275:Development in the UK
134:anti-aircraft weapons
33:
1076:on 26 February 2009.
966:Electronics Magazine
899:Wood, Derek (1986).
682:, pp. 224, 225.
415:overhead power lines
310:system developed by
300:interceptor aircraft
47:(TFR) is a military
1055:Journal of Aircraft
513:Integration and use
446:, and the advanced
444:Grumman OV-1 Mohawk
409:, bridges over the
399:television antennas
375:Blackburn Buccaneer
546:
157:function generator
42:
469:BAC/Dassault AFVG
436:Texas Instruments
428:1960 U-2 incident
383:Edinburgh Airport
96:for use with the
82:terrain avoidance
63:flight. The term
16:(Redirected from
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1069:. Archived from
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991:10.1108/eb034756
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955:on 24 July 2011.
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948:. Archived from
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865:, pp. 2, 3.
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391:heads-up display
241:conical scanning
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185:heads-up display
130:stealth aircraft
116:, including the
66:nap-of-the-earth
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1091:Aircraft radars
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476:Panavia Tornado
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450:system for the
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403:Cairn O' Mounth
343:radio altimeter
296:Royal Air Force
281:strike aircraft
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257:monopulse radar
226:
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209:h = H - R sin φ
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201:radio altimeter
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122:Panavia Tornado
110:strike aircraft
61:terrain hugging
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1061:(2): 168–175.
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174:
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147:
139:
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127:
123:
119:
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111:
107:
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99:
95:
91:
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83:
78:
74:
72:
68:
67:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
39:
36:
32:
19:
1071:the original
1058:
1054:
1020:
1004:. Springer.
1000:
985:(4): 13–15.
982:
978:
965:
950:the original
935:Bibliography
919:
900:
894:
882:
877:, p. 6.
870:
858:
853:, p. 2.
846:
803:
796:
744:
739:, p. 3.
675:
663:
651:
634:
610:
601:
582:Phased array
567:
564:Alternatives
558:
555:
552:
531:phased array
520:
516:
507:
503:
490:
473:
465:
456:
424:
395:
387:
364:
348:
340:
320:
293:
278:
265:
261:polarization
254:
238:
227:
205:
193:
189:
177:
172:
169:
154:
143:
126:Sukhoi Su-24
114:interdictors
87:
79:
75:
64:
60:
56:
44:
43:
37:
544:employs TFR
523:Tornado IDS
411:River Forth
367:vacuum tube
351:DC-3 Dakota
332:corner cube
173:angle error
146:pencil beam
71:helicopters
1101:Low flying
1085:Categories
903:. Jane's.
875:Blain 2011
863:Blain 2011
851:Blain 2011
749:Third 2015
737:Blain 2011
716:Blain 2011
680:Third 2015
668:Blain 2011
644:0710602383
622:References
549:Other uses
448:AN/APQ-110
440:Phantom II
359:side lobes
328:Land Rover
324:Glenrothes
197:sea states
140:Technology
697:Following
627:Citations
316:Edinburgh
285:BAC TSR-2
269:sine wave
250:H2S radar
181:autopilot
49:aerospace
1096:Ferranti
1046:(1968).
646:, p.151.
576:See also
405:and the
312:Ferranti
232:for the
161:ski jump
94:Ferranti
53:aircraft
570:TERPROM
381:at the
308:AIRPASS
219:History
165:g-force
1008:
907:
811:
642:
542:F-111C
527:Rafale
462:Spread
413:, and
302:, the
1074:(PDF)
1051:(PDF)
953:(PDF)
946:(PDF)
593:Notes
529:with
213:H - h
149:radar
106:TSR-2
98:TSR-2
38:XR220
35:TSR-2
1006:ISBN
905:ISBN
809:ISBN
640:ISBN
540:The
432:USSR
124:and
112:and
1063:doi
987:doi
401:at
314:in
59:or
1087::
1057:.
1053:.
983:43
981:.
977:.
964:.
823:^
771:^
756:^
723:^
704:^
687:^
501:.
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252:.
215:.
203:.
175:.
120:,
1065::
1059:5
1024:.
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989::
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927:.
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817:.
699:.
670:.
658:.
20:)
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