320:. People with two X chromosomes could possess multiple cone cell pigments, perhaps born as full tetrachromats who have four simultaneously-functioning kinds of cone cell, each type with a specific pattern of responsiveness to different wavelengths of light in the range of the visible spectrum. One study suggested that 15% of the world's women might have the type of fourth cone whose sensitivity peak is between the standard red and green cones, theoretically giving a significant increase in color differentiation. Another study suggests that as many as 50% of women and 8% of men may have four photopigments and corresponding increased chromatic discrimination, compared to trichromats. In 2010, after twenty years' study of women with four types of cones (non-functional tetrachromats), neuroscientist Gabriele Jordan identified a woman (subject
38:
363:. It is not known how these nerves would respond to a new color channel: Whether they would handle it separately, or just combine it with one of the existing channels. Similarly, visual information leaves the eye by way of the optic nerve, and a variety of final image processing takes place in the brain; it is not known whether the optic nerve or the areas of the brain have any capacity to effectively respond if presented with a stimulus from a
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526:. Most birds have retinas with four spectral types of cone cell that are believed to mediate tetrachromatic color vision. Bird color vision is further improved by filtering by pigmented oil droplets in the photoreceptors. The oil droplets filter incident light before it reaches the visual pigment in the outer segments of the photoreceptors.
200:. However, human tetrachromacy is suspected to exist in a small percentage of the population. Trichromats have three types of cone cells, each type being sensitive to a corresponding portion of the spectrum as shown in the diagram. But at least one woman has been implied to be a tetrachromat. More precisely, she had an additional cone type
451:
394:
are active. While rods typically do not contribute to color vision, in these specific light conditions, they may give a small region of tetrachromacy in the color space. Human rod cell sensitivity is greatest at 500 nm (bluish-green) wavelength, which is significantly different from the peak
324:) who could detect a greater variety of colors than trichromats could, corresponding with a functional or "true" tetrachromat. Specifically, she has been shown to be a trichromat in the range 546–670 nm where people with normal vision are essentially dichromats due to negligeable response of
252:
Mice, which normally have only two cone pigments (and therefore two opponent channels), have been engineered to express a third cone pigment, and appear to demonstrate increased chromatic discrimination, possibly indicating trichromacy, and suggesting they were able to create or re-enable a third
529:
The four cone types, and the specialization of pigmented oil droplets, give birds better color vision than that of humans. However, more recent research has suggested that tetrachromacy in birds only provides birds with a larger visual spectrum than that in humans (humans cannot see ultraviolet
431:) see near ultraviolet light (down to 300 nm) as whitish blue, or for some wavelengths, whitish violet, probably because all three types of cones are roughly equally sensitive to ultraviolet light (with blue cone cells slightly more sensitive).
253:
opponent channel. This would support the theory that humans should be able to utilize a fourth opponent channel for tetrachromatic vision. However, the original publication's claims about plasticity in the optic nerve have also been disputed.
1856:
335:
Variation in cone pigment genes is widespread in most human populations, but the most prevalent and pronounced tetrachromacy would derive from female carriers of major red / green pigment anomalies, usually classed as forms of
1537:
Cuthill, Innes C.; Partridge, Julian C.; Bennett, Andrew T. D.; Church, Stuart C.; Hart, Nathan S.; Hunt, Sarah (2000). Slater, Peter J.B.; Rosenblatt, Jay S.; Snowdon, Charles T.; Roper, Timothy J. (eds.).
522:
and skin coloration show a high level of selection. A typical bird eye responds to wavelengths from about 300–700 nm. In terms of frequency, this corresponds to a band in the vicinity of 430–1000
153:. This means that the organism may see wavelengths beyond those of a typical human's vision, and may be able to distinguish between colors that, to a normal human, appear to be
992:
Jacobs, Gerald H.; Williams, Gary A.; Cahill, Hugh; Nathans, Jeremy (23 March 2007). "Emergence of novel color vision in mice engineered to express a human cone photopigment".
332: cones of 'cDa29' provide independent color perception dimension as they normally do, that would confirm her being a tetrachromat when the whole spectrum is considered.
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theory, humans have three opponent channels, which give trichromacy. It is unclear whether having available a fourth opponent channel is sufficient for tetrachromacy.
1857:"Mantis Shrimp Eyes Get Even Wilder: UMBC Team Finds Twice The Expected Number Of Light-detecting Proteins - UMBC: University Of Maryland, Baltimore County"
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1971:
245:. However, there must also be the appropriate post-receptoral mechanism to compare the signals from the four classes of receptors. According to the
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2745:
1918:
1432:
Bennett, Andrew T. D.; Cuthill, Innes C.; Partridge, Julian C.; Maier, Erhard J. (1996). "Ultraviolet vision and mate choice in zebra finches".
2881:
2110:
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Davies, Wayne L.; Cowing, Jill A.; Carvalho, Livia S.; Potter, Ian C.; Trezise, Ann E. O.; Hunt, David M.; Collin, Shaun P. (September 2007).
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Although many birds are tetrachromats with a fourth color in the ultraviolet, humans cannot see ultraviolet light directly because the
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While an extended visible range does not denote tetrachromacy, some believe that visual pigments are available with sensitivity in
1939:
The dimensionality of color vision in carriers of anomalous trichromacy--Gabriele Jordan et al--Journal of Vision August 12, 2010:
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such as eagles, falcons, and hawks have limited ability to perceive ultraviolet light. It is believed that UV vision is
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635:) have five or more kinds of color receptors in their retinae, and are therefore believed to be pentachromats, though
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of heterozygotic alleles for retinal pigment genes, which is the same mechanism that gives the majority of female
90:
is four-dimensional, meaning that matching the sensory effect of arbitrarily chosen spectra of light within their
2732:
2625:
2283:
692:
1775:"Functional characterization, tuning, and regulation of visual pigment gene expression in an anadromous lamprey"
1308:
2942:
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616:. However, for her to be a true (strong) pentachromat, these opsins would need to be segregated into different
2937:
2932:
2927:
1275:
1203:
1047:"Comment on 'Emergence of novel color vision in mice engineered to express a human cone photopigment' "
2994:
2947:
1957:
1486:
157:. Species with tetrachromatic color vision may have an unknown physiological advantage over rival species.
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1386:
510:, use the ultraviolet wavelength 300–400 nm specific to tetrachromatic color vision as a tool during
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contains four types of higher-intensity light receptors (called cone cells in vertebrates as opposed to
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2010:
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blocks most light in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the
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Chen, Pei-Ju; Awata, Hiroko; Matsushita, Atsuko; Yang, En-Cheng; Arikawa, Kentaro (8 March 2016).
742:(2000). "Visual pigments, cone oil droplets and ocular media in four species of estrildid finch".
228: components) color discrimination for wavelengths 546–670 nm (to which the fourth type,
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1824:"Extreme Spectral Richness in the Eye of the Common Bluebottle Butterfly, Graphium sarpedon"
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1336:"Violet and blue light blocking intraocular lenses: Photoprotection versus photoreception"
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337:
272:
71:, meaning "color") is the condition of possessing four independent channels for conveying
46:
1447:
1062:
1007:
650:
Invertebrates can have large numbers of different opsin classes, including 15 opsins in
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1932:
1898:
Color
Perception: Philosophical, Psychological, Artistic and Computational Perspectives
1362:
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886:
861:
702:
471:
408:
383:
349:
61:
1571:
Vorobyev, M. (November 1998). "Tetrachromacy, oil droplets and bird plumage colours".
1547:
1202:
Backhaus, Werner G.K.; Backhaus, Werner; Kliegl, Reinhold; Werner, John Simon (1998).
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31:
1894:
Thompson, Evan (2000). "Comparative color vision: Quality space and visual ecology."
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2015:
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evidence of functional pentachromacy is lacking. Research also indicates that some
577:, which is five-dimensional color vision requiring at least 5 different classes of
566:
481:
304:
1949:
1893:
1603:
658:. However, it has not been shown that color vision in these invertebrates is of a
620:
and she would need to have the appropriate post-receptoral mechanisms to handle 5
370:
Tetrachromacy may also enhance vision in dim lighting, or in looking at a screen.
295:, so if the carrier expresses both opsin alleles, they may exhibit tetrachromacy.
1159:
Jordan, G. (July 1993). "A study of women heterozygous for colour deficiencies".
829:
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2609:
2604:
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2437:
2403:
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2170:
2075:
1736:"Wavelength discrimination in the ?visible? and ultraviolet spectrum by pigeons"
1542:. Advances in the Study of Behavior. Vol. 29. Academic Press. p. 159.
717:
687:
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102:
87:
50:
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1980:
1943:
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Jordan, Gabriele; Deeb, Samir S.; Bosten, Jenny M.; Mollon, J.D. (July 2010).
682:
570:
507:
310:
197:
122:
114:
1697:
1646:
1507:
1096:"Richer color experience in observers with multiple photopigment opsin genes"
378:
Despite being trichromats, humans can experience slight tetrachromacy at low
2844:
2817:
2812:
2321:
1840:
1823:
1353:
1071:
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534:), while the spectral resolution (the "sensitivity" to nuances) is similar.
387:
379:
299:
262:
76:
42:
17:
1800:
1705:
1668:
Lind, Olle; Mitkus, Mindaugas; Olsson, Peter; Kelber, Almut (15 May 2013).
1654:
1479:"Avian color vision and coloration: Multidisciplinary evolutionary biology"
1371:
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978:
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165:
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953:"The dimensionality of color vision in carriers of anomalous trichromacy"
573:
with color vision greater than tetrachromacy are rare. The next level is
515:
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317:
130:
110:
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442:. However, there is no peer-reviewed evidence supporting this claim.
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1619:"Bird colour vision: Behavioural thresholds reveal receptor noise"
609:
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36:
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preliminary visual processing occurs in the neurons of the retina
30:"Tetrachromat" redirects here. For the chemical ion species, see
2712:
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2672:
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1253:. New York, NY & London, UK: W. W. Norton. pp. 93–104.
707:
628:
450:
185:
106:
2092:
2088:
1953:
1231:
San Diego woman, Concetta Antico, diagnosed with 'super vision'
196:
normally have only three types of cone cell, and are therefore
141:
The normal explanation of tetrachromacy is that the organism's
2788:
2682:
2447:
1670:"Ultraviolet sensitivity and colour vision in raptor foraging"
80:
1617:
Olsson, Peter; Lind, Olle; Kelber, Almut (15 January 2015).
149:, which are lower-intensity light receptors) with different
1935:
By
Radiolab, 21 May 2012 (Explores tetrachromacy in humans)
438:
wavelengths that would enable tetrachromacy in the case of
83:. Organisms with tetrachromacy are called tetrachromats.
279:
of anomalous trichromacy (mild color blindness) possess
1249:
Francis, Richard C. (2011). "Chapter 8. X-Women".
1094:
Jameson, K.A.; Highnote, S.M.; Wasserman, L.M. (2001).
427:
light, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as
101:
Tetrachromacy is demonstrated among several species of
237:
Tetrachromacy requires that there be four independent
1890:. An article about the tetrachromatic vision of birds
1205:
Color Vision: Perspectives from different disciplines
911:
Color vision: perspectives from different disciplines
736:
Figure data, uncorrected absorbance curve fits, from
169:
Normalized responsivity spectra of human cone cells,
1900:, pp. 163–186. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
399:
of the cones (typically 420, 530, and 560 nm).
216:
in its responsivity, and showed 3 dimensional (
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2781:
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2506:
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2136:
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1991:
467:, are typically tetrachromats. Exceptions include:
121:lost two of its four kinds of cone cell, evolving
27:Type of color vision with four types of cone cells
2741:Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate
1251:Epigenetics: The ultimate mystery of inheritance
785:Goldsmith, Timothy H. (2006). "What Birds See".
1307:Autrum, Hansjochem & Jung, Richard (1973).
909:Backhaus, W., Kliegl, R., Werner, J.S. (1998).
589:information through the primary visual system.
348:). The biological basis for this phenomenon is
1929:School of Biological Sciences. March 20, 2009.
2104:
1965:
1313:. Vol. 7. Springer-Verlag. p. 226.
261:It has been theorized that females who carry
117:was a tetrachromat, but a common ancestor of
8:
933:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
49:) extend the range of color vision into the
1477:Bennett, Andrew T. D.; Théry, Marc (2007).
592:A female that is heterozygous for both the
328: cones to those wavelengths. Thus, if
3123:
2915:
2660:
2503:
2133:
2111:
2097:
2089:
1972:
1958:
1950:
1310:Integrative Functions and Comparative Data
553:sensitivity, reducing visual acuity which
275:(CVD) could possess tetrachromacy. Female
1839:
1790:
1734:Emmerton, Jacky; Delhis, Juan D. (1980).
1687:
1636:
1361:
1116:
1070:
968:
885:
828:
813:"Evolution of vertebrate visual pigments"
600:opsins (and therefore a carrier for both
86:In tetrachromatic organisms, the sensory
75:information, or possessing four types of
2892:International Commission on Illumination
946:
944:
662:commensurate with the number of opsins.
569:of color vision has no upper bound, but
518:. When selecting for mates, ultraviolet
474:– range from monochromacy to trichromacy
1884:Goldsmith, Timothy H. "What Birds See"
1288:from the original on September 13, 2014
862:"Evolution of colour vision in mammals"
806:
804:
802:
800:
798:
738:Hart, NS; Partridge, JC; Bennett, ATD;
729:
291:. These alleles often have a different
2882:Color Association of the United States
926:
1408:"The human is a blocked tetrachromat"
811:Bowmaker, James K. (September 2008).
283:alleles of the genes that encode the
125:, a loss ascribed to the conjectured
7:
1740:Journal of Comparative Physiology A
1675:The Journal of Experimental Biology
1274:Robson, David (September 5, 2014).
744:Journal of Comparative Physiology A
502:Some species of birds, such as the
94:requires mixtures of at least four
2746:Blue–green distinction in language
1828:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution
1276:"The Women with Superhuman Vision"
624:channels, which is contentious.
549:would substantially increase with
25:
1574:Journal of Comparative Physiology
1406:Fulton, James T. (31 July 2009).
1234:(video). 22 Nov 2013 – via
302:pigment genes are present on the
133:then later evolved a third cone.
3122:
3113:
3112:
2903:International Colour Association
2486:
1916:"Exploring the fourth dimension"
1341:British Journal of Ophthalmology
1144:on 14 February 2012 – via
913:. De Gruyter. pp. 163–182.
311:classical type 2 opsin gene
257:Tetrachromacy in carriers of CVD
1624:Journal of Experimental Biology
1385:Hambling, David (29 May 2002).
1104:Psychonomic Bulletin and Review
2898:International Color Consortium
2887:International Colour Authority
1904:Looking for Madam Tetrachromat
1855:Hansen, Sarah (17 July 2020).
1045:Makous, W. (12 October 2007).
673:Dimensionality of color vision
41:The four pigments in a bird's
1:
2963:List of Crayola crayon colors
1548:10.1016/S0065-3454(08)60105-9
113:. The common ancestor of all
1173:10.1016/0042-6989(93)90143-K
830:10.1016/j.visres.2008.03.025
454:Goldfish have tetrachromacy.
2766:Traditional colors of Japan
2543:Achromatic colors (Neutral)
2426:Multi-primary color display
2200:Spectral power distribution
1946:Ágnes Holba & B. Lukács
1933:Colors - The Perfect Yellow
1540:Ultraviolet Vision in Birds
713:Somatosensory amplification
557:birds rely on for hunting.
3165:
386:. In mesopic vision, both
29:
3108:
2626:Color realism (art style)
2484:
2284:Evolution of color vision
1910:magazine, 1 November 2000
1323:– via Google books.
1218:– via Google books.
693:Evolution of color vision
581:as well as 5 independent
561:Pentachromacy and greater
374:Conditional tetrachromacy
2943:List of colors (compact)
2761:Color in Chinese culture
2411:Digital image processing
2144:Electromagnetic spectrum
1387:"Let the light shine in"
647:, may be pentachromats.
2948:List of colors by shade
1896:In Steven Davis (Ed.),
1841:10.3389/fevo.2016.00018
1487:The American Naturalist
1354:10.1136/bjo.2005.086553
1334:Mainster, M.A. (2006).
1072:10.1126/science.1146084
1016:10.1126/science.1138838
273:color vision deficiency
241:classes with different
204:, intermediate between
2953:List of color palettes
878:10.1098/rstb.2009.0039
866:Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B
860:Jacobs, G. H. (2009).
652:bluebottle butterflies
455:
182:
54:
2877:Color Marketing Group
2632:On Vision and Colours
2565:Tinctures in heraldry
2176:Structural coloration
1927:University of Bristol
1792:10.1096/fj.06-8057com
1588:10.1007/s003590050286
1208:. Walter de Gruyter.
756:10.1007/s003590000121
608:) would express five
453:
403:Blocked tetrachromacy
356:trichromatic vision.
168:
67:, meaning "four" and
40:
2958:List of color spaces
2850:Tint, shade and tone
2733:Cultural differences
2548:Polychromatic colors
2533:Complementary colors
2521:Monochromatic colors
2011:Intraocular pressure
1682:(Pt 10): 1819–1826.
614:spectral sensitivity
547:chromatic aberration
397:spectral sensitivity
293:spectral sensitivity
243:spectral sensitivity
151:spectral sensitivity
127:nocturnal bottleneck
2938:List of colors: N–Z
2933:List of colors: G–M
2928:List of colors: A–F
1906:By Glenn Zorpette.
1886:Scientific American
1448:1996Natur.380..433B
1063:2007Sci...318..196M
1008:2007Sci...315.1723J
1002:(5819): 1723–1725.
872:(1531): 2957–2967.
791:(July 2006): 69–75.
788:Scientific American
618:photoreceptor cells
463:Fish, specifically
417:photoreceptor cells
234:, is insensitive).
2985:List of web colors
2980:List of RAL colors
2386:Color reproduction
2351:Lüscher color test
2188:Color of chemicals
1921:2016-04-15 at the
1752:10.1007/BF00611877
1689:10.1242/jeb.082834
1638:10.1242/jeb.111187
1412:neuronresearch.net
1118:10.3758/BF03196159
645:Petromyzontiformes
456:
239:photoreceptor cell
183:
55:
45:(in this example,
3136:
3135:
3076:
3075:
2858:
2857:
2650:
2649:
2640:Theory of Colours
2482:
2481:
2394:Color photography
2346:Color preferences
2289:Impossible colors
2279:Color vision test
2274:Color temperature
2252:Color calibration
2181:Animal coloration
2086:
2085:
1785:(11): 2713–2724.
1779:The FASEB Journal
1557:978-0-12-004529-7
1442:(6573): 433–435.
1320:978-0-387-05769-9
1260:978-0-393-07005-7
1167:(11): 1495–1508.
957:Journal of Vision
823:(20): 2022–2041.
643:, members of the
423:are sensitive to
380:light intensities
354:New World monkeys
194:Old World monkeys
47:estrildid finches
16:(Redirected from
3156:
3126:
3125:
3116:
3115:
2916:
2782:Color dimensions
2771:Human skin color
2661:
2538:Analogous colors
2504:
2490:
2416:Color management
2333:Color psychology
2299:Opponent process
2215:Color perception
2134:
2113:
2106:
2099:
2090:
2051:Opponent process
1974:
1967:
1960:
1951:
1944:On Tetrachromacy
1872:
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1483:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1456:10.1038/380433a0
1429:
1423:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1365:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1304:
1298:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1156:
1150:
1149:
1143:
1137:. Archived from
1120:
1100:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1074:
1042:
1036:
1035:
989:
983:
982:
972:
948:
939:
938:
932:
924:
906:
900:
899:
889:
857:
851:
850:
832:
808:
793:
792:
782:
776:
775:
750:(7–8): 681–694.
734:
622:opponent process
543:selected against
482:rod monochromats
425:near ultraviolet
365:new color signal
308:
247:opponent process
92:visible spectrum
21:
3164:
3163:
3159:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3132:
3104:
3072:
2989:
2907:
2864:
2854:
2777:
2756:Blue in culture
2727:
2646:
2593:Secondary color
2569:
2526:black-and-white
2498:
2491:
2478:
2380:
2366:National colors
2361:Political color
2341:Color symbolism
2327:
2257:Color constancy
2235:Color blindness
2209:
2166:Spectral colors
2123:
2117:
2087:
2082:
2034:Color blindness
2020:
1987:
1978:
1923:Wayback Machine
1880:
1875:
1865:
1863:
1854:
1853:
1849:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1718:
1716:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1616:
1615:
1611:
1570:
1569:
1565:
1558:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1481:
1476:
1475:
1471:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1416:
1414:
1405:
1404:
1400:
1384:
1383:
1379:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1306:
1305:
1301:
1291:
1289:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1261:
1248:
1247:
1243:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1201:
1200:
1196:
1161:Vision Research
1158:
1157:
1153:
1141:
1098:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1044:
1043:
1039:
991:
990:
986:
970:10.1167/10.8.12
950:
949:
942:
925:
921:
908:
907:
903:
859:
858:
854:
817:Vision Research
810:
809:
796:
784:
783:
779:
737:
735:
731:
727:
722:
698:Infrared vision
668:
563:
532:300–400 nm
500:
472:Sharks and rays
461:
448:
409:lens of the eye
405:
376:
338:color blindness
303:
298:In humans, two
271:that can cause
259:
163:
139:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3162:
3160:
3152:
3151:
3141:
3140:
3134:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3120:
3109:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3086:
3084:
3078:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
2999:
2997:
2991:
2990:
2988:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2971:
2970:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2924:
2922:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2868:
2866:
2860:
2859:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2752:Color history
2750:
2749:
2748:
2737:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2669:
2667:
2658:
2652:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2636:
2635:(Schopenhauer)
2628:
2623:
2620:Color analysis
2617:
2615:Color triangle
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2579:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2551:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2512:
2510:
2501:
2493:
2492:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2462:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2428:
2421:Color printing
2418:
2413:
2408:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2390:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2356:Kruithof curve
2353:
2348:
2343:
2337:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2318:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2228:Sonochromatism
2219:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2178:
2168:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2140:
2138:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2118:
2116:
2115:
2108:
2101:
2093:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2044:Köllner's rule
2041:
2030:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1997:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1969:
1962:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1941:
1936:
1930:
1913:
1911:
1901:
1891:
1879:
1878:External links
1876:
1874:
1873:
1847:
1814:
1765:
1726:
1660:
1631:(2): 184–193.
1609:
1563:
1556:
1529:
1500:10.1086/510163
1469:
1424:
1398:
1377:
1348:(6): 784–792.
1326:
1319:
1299:
1266:
1259:
1241:
1221:
1214:
1194:
1151:
1111:(2): 244–261.
1086:
1037:
984:
940:
919:
901:
852:
794:
777:
728:
726:
723:
721:
720:
715:
710:
705:
703:RG color space
700:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
669:
667:
664:
637:psychophysical
567:dimensionality
562:
559:
512:mate selection
499:
496:
495:
494:
484:
475:
460:
457:
447:
444:
404:
401:
384:mesopic vision
382:, using their
375:
372:
350:X-inactivation
258:
255:
162:
159:
138:
135:
96:primary colors
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3161:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3144:
3129:
3121:
3119:
3111:
3110:
3107:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2969:
2966:
2965:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2921:
2917:
2914:
2910:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2869:
2867:
2865:organizations
2861:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2814:
2811:
2807:
2806:Pastel colors
2804:
2803:
2802:
2799:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2730:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2666:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2653:
2642:
2641:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2588:Primary color
2586:
2585:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2572:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2555:Light-on-dark
2553:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2509:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2494:
2489:
2475:
2474:Color mapping
2472:
2470:
2467:
2461:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2453:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2444:
2441:
2440:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2399:Color balance
2397:
2396:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2376:Chromotherapy
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2319:
2317:
2316:Tetrachromacy
2314:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2240:Achromatopsia
2238:
2237:
2236:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2224:
2223:Chromesthesia
2221:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2137:Color physics
2135:
2132:
2130:
2129:Color science
2126:
2121:
2114:
2109:
2107:
2102:
2100:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2071:Tetrachromacy
2069:
2067:
2066:Pentachromacy
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2039:Achromatopsia
2037:
2036:
2035:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
2001:Accommodation
1999:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1985:visual system
1982:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1956:
1955:
1952:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1895:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1862:
1858:
1851:
1848:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1766:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1727:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1676:
1671:
1664:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1613:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1582:(5): 621–33.
1581:
1577:
1575:
1567:
1564:
1559:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1533:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1494:(S1): S1–S6.
1493:
1489:
1488:
1480:
1473:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1436:
1428:
1425:
1413:
1409:
1402:
1399:
1394:
1393:
1388:
1381:
1378:
1373:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1342:
1337:
1330:
1327:
1322:
1316:
1312:
1311:
1303:
1300:
1287:
1283:
1282:
1277:
1270:
1267:
1262:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1232:
1225:
1222:
1217:
1215:9783110161007
1211:
1207:
1206:
1198:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1155:
1152:
1147:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1105:
1097:
1090:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1057:(5848): 196.
1056:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
996:
988:
985:
980:
976:
971:
966:
962:
958:
954:
947:
945:
941:
936:
930:
922:
920:9783110806984
916:
912:
905:
902:
897:
893:
888:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
856:
853:
848:
844:
840:
836:
831:
826:
822:
818:
814:
807:
805:
803:
801:
799:
795:
790:
789:
781:
778:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
733:
730:
724:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
670:
665:
663:
661:
657:
656:mantis shrimp
653:
648:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
625:
623:
619:
615:
612:of different
611:
607:
606:deuteranomaly
603:
599:
595:
590:
588:
584:
580:
579:photoreceptor
576:
575:pentachromacy
572:
568:
560:
558:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
539:birds of prey
537:Many diurnal
535:
533:
527:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
497:
492:
491:pentachromacy
488:
485:
483:
479:
478:Deep-sea fish
476:
473:
470:
469:
468:
466:
458:
452:
446:Other animals
445:
443:
441:
437:
432:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
402:
400:
398:
393:
389:
385:
381:
373:
371:
368:
366:
362:
357:
355:
351:
347:
346:deuteranomaly
343:
339:
333:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
312:
306:
301:
296:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
267:
264:
256:
254:
250:
248:
244:
240:
235:
233:
232:
227:
223:
219:
215:
214:
209:
208:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
180:
176:
172:
167:
160:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
136:
134:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
99:
97:
93:
89:
84:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
63:
59:
58:Tetrachromacy
52:
48:
44:
39:
33:
32:Tetrachromate
19:
3149:Color vision
2838:Fluorescence
2801:Colorfulness
2794:Dichromatism
2638:
2630:
2600:Chromaticity
2583:Color mixing
2575:Color theory
2508:Color scheme
2371:Chromophobia
2320:
2315:
2070:
2061:Monochromacy
2026:Color vision
2016:Visual field
1907:
1897:
1885:
1864:. Retrieved
1860:
1850:
1831:
1827:
1817:
1782:
1778:
1768:
1746:(1): 47–52.
1743:
1739:
1729:
1717:. Retrieved
1679:
1673:
1663:
1628:
1622:
1612:
1579:
1572:
1566:
1539:
1532:
1491:
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1392:The Guardian
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1292:December 30,
1290:. Retrieved
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18:Tetrachromat
2975:Color chart
2833:Iridescence
2665:Basic terms
2656:Color terms
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2605:Color solid
2469:Color space
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2438:Color model
2309:Unique hues
2205:Colorimetry
2171:Chromophore
2076:Trichromacy
1908:Red Herring
740:Cuthill, IC
718:Supertaster
688:Trichromacy
602:protanomaly
571:vertebrates
504:zebra finch
489:– arguably
359:In humans,
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2995:Shades of:
2828:Brightness
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2304:Afterimage
2294:Metamerism
2267:Color code
2262:Color task
2245:Dichromacy
2056:Dichromacy
1981:Physiology
963:(12): 12.
725:References
683:Dichromacy
508:Columbidae
388:cone cells
137:Physiology
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43:cone cells
2845:Grayscale
2818:Lightness
2813:Luminance
2622:(fashion)
2322:The dress
1888:July 2006
1866:7 October
1698:0022-0949
1647:0022-0949
1508:0003-0147
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631:(notably
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3143:Category
3118:Category
3100:Lighting
2823:Darkness
2643:(Goethe)
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1801:17463225
1760:12462107
1706:23785106
1655:25609782
1372:16714268
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1189:17648762
1146:Cal Tech
1127:11495112
1081:17932271
1032:85273369
1024:17379811
979:20884587
896:19720656
847:52808112
839:18590925
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764:11016784
666:See also
641:lampreys
583:channels
545:because
516:foraging
506:and the
480:– often
465:teleosts
277:carriers
131:primates
111:reptiles
3082:Related
3043:Magenta
2968:history
2872:Pantone
2159:Visible
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1983:of the
1809:5932623
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1596:9839454
1524:2484928
1464:4347875
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1059:Bibcode
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1004:Bibcode
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520:plumage
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322:'cDa29'
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190:humans
177:, and
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109:, and
107:fishes
69:chroma
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3068:Black
3058:White
3053:Brown
3018:Green
2920:Lists
2912:Names
2894:(CIE)
2863:Color
2723:Brown
2718:White
2708:Black
2678:Green
2497:Color
2193:Water
2149:Light
2120:Color
1805:S2CID
1756:S2CID
1710:S2CID
1600:S2CID
1520:S2CID
1512:JSTOR
1482:(PDF)
1460:S2CID
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1131:S2CID
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1315:ISBN
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