1990:, which were among the many tools of the slave trade, and which were always in short supply. Bilboes were mainly used on men, and they consisted of two iron shackles locked on a post and were usually fastened around the ankles of two men. At best, captives were fed beans, corn, yams, rice, and palm oil. Slaves were fed one meal a day with water, if at all. When food was scarce, slaveholders would get priority over the slaves. Sometimes captives were allowed to move around during the day, but many ships kept the shackles on throughout the arduous journey. Aboard certain French ships, the enslaved were brought on deck to periodically receive fresh air. While the enslaved females were typically permitted to be on deck more frequently, enslaved males would be watched closely to prevent revolt when above deck.
2035:
ship, or 1.5 to 2.4 per ton. The
English ships of the time normally fell on the larger side of this spectrum and the French on the smaller side. Ships purposely designed to be smaller and more maneuverable were meant to navigate the African coastal rivers into farther inland ports; these ships therefore increased the effects of the slave trade on Africa. Additionally, the ships' sizes increased slightly throughout the 1700s; however the number of enslaved Africans per ship remained the same. This reduction in the ratio of enslaved Africans to ship tonnage was designed to increase the amount of space per person and thus improve the survival chances of everyone on board. These ships also had temporary storage decks that were separated by an open
52:
2031:
become known for throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. The new designs that allowed ships to navigate faster and into rivers' mouths ensured access to many more enslaving posts along the West
African coast. The monetary value of enslaved Africans on any given American auction-block during the mid-18th century ranged between $ 800 and $ 1,200, which in modern times would be equivalent to $ 32,000–48,000 per person ($ 100 then is now worth $ 4,000 due to inflation). Therefore, ship captains and investors sought technologies that would protect their human cargo.
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instruments and to amplify their songs. This combination of "instruments" was both a way for the enslaved to communicate as well as creating a new identity since slavers attempted to strip them of that. Although most of the enslaved were from various regions around Africa, their situation allowed them to come together and create a new culture and identity aboard the ships with a common language and method of communication:
1925:
1772:
1936:
2043:. Ship masters would presumably use these chambers to divide enslaved Africans and help prevent mutiny. Some ships developed by the turn of the 19th century even had ventilation ports built into the sides and between gun ports (with hatches to keep inclement weather out). These open deck designs increased airflow and thus helped improve survival rates, diminishing potential investment losses.
2090:
people into obedient enslaved. Pregnant women on the ships who delivered their babies aboard risked the chance of their children being killed in order for the mothers to be sold. The worst punishments were for rebelling; in one instance a captain punished a failed rebellion by killing one involved enslaved man immediately, and forcing two other slaves to eat his heart and liver.
2102:
Slaves resisted in many ways. The two most common types of resistance were refusal to eat and suicide. Suicide was a frequent occurrence, often by refusal of food or medicine or jumping overboard, as well as by a variety of other opportunistic means. If an enslaved person jumped overboard, they would
1973:
The duration of the transatlantic voyage varied widely, from one to six months depending on weather conditions. The journey became more efficient over the centuries: while an average transatlantic journey of the early 16th century lasted several months, by the 19th century the crossing often required
2050:
in the 18th century, followed by some other countries and companies in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, realized that the inclusion of surgeons and other medical practitioners aboard their ships was an endeavor that proved too costly for the benefits. So instead of including medical personnel
1910:
According to modern research, roughly 12.5 million slaves were transported through the Middle
Passage to the Americas. The enslaved were transported in wretched conditions, men and women separated, across the Atlantic. Mortality was high; those with strong bodies survived. Young women and girls were
1814:
The First
Passage was the forced march of African slaves from their inland homes, where they had often been captured by other tribes or by other members of their own tribe, to African ports where they were imprisoned until they were sold and loaded onto a ship. The Final Passage was the journey from
2192:
While the owners and captains of slave ships could expect vast profits, the ordinary sailors were often inadequately paid and subject to brutal discipline. Sailors often had to live and sleep without shelter on the open deck for the entirety of the
Atlantic voyage as the entire space below deck was
2149:
Aboard ships, the captives were not always willing to follow orders. Sometimes they reacted in violence. Slave ships were designed and operated to try to prevent the slaves from revolting. Resistance among the slaves usually ended in failure and participants in the rebellion were punished severely.
2089:
While the enslaved were kept fed and supplied with drink as healthy slaves were more valuable, if resources ran low on the long, unpredictable voyages, the crew received preferential treatment. Punishment of the enslaved and torture was very common, as on the voyage the crew had to turn independent
2077:
voyage slow and lack of drinking water became a concern. The crew decided to drown some slaves at sea, to conserve water and allow the owners to collect insurance for lost cargo. About 130 slaves were killed and a number chose to kill themselves in defiance, by jumping into the water willingly. The
2118:
Suicide by jumping overboard was such a problem that captains had to address it directly in many cases. They used the sharks that followed the ships as a terror weapon. One captain, who had a rash of suicides on his ship, took a woman and lowered her into the water on a rope, and pulled her out as
2110:
Both suicide and self-starving were prevented as much as possible by slaver crews; the enslaved were often force-fed or tortured until they ate, though some still managed to starve themselves to death; the enslaved were kept away from means of suicide, and the sides of the deck were often netted.
2059:
Treatment of the enslaved was horrific due to the captured
African men and women being considered less than human; to slavers, they were "cargo", or "goods", and treated as such. Women with children were not as desirable for enslavement for they took up too much space, and toddlers were not wanted
2051:
they just stocked the ships with a large variety of medicines. While this was better than no medicines, and given the fact that many crew members at least had some idea of how disease was spread, without the inclusion of medical personnel the mortality rate was still very high in the 18th century.
2030:
The need for profits in the 18th-century
Atlantic market economy drove changes in ship designs and in managing human cargo, which included enslaved Africans and the mostly European crew. Improvements in air flow on board the ships helped to decrease the infamous mortality rate that these ships had
2207:
The sailors were often employed through coercion as they generally knew about and hated the slave trade. In port towns, recruiters and tavern owners would induce sailors to become very drunk (and indebted) and then offer to relieve their debt if they signed contracts with slave ships. If they did
2127:
In order to interact with each other on the voyage, the enslaved created a communication system unbeknownst to
Europeans: They would construct choruses on the passages using their voices, bodies, and ships themselves; the hollow design of the ships allowed the enslaved to use them as percussive
2093:
As a way to counteract disease and suicide attempts, the crew would force the enslaved onto the deck of the ship for exercise, usually resulting in beatings because the enslaved would be unwilling to dance for them or interact. These beatings would often be severe and could result in the enslaved
2034:
Throughout the height of the
Atlantic slave trade (1570–1808), ships that transported the enslaved were normally smaller than traditional cargo ships, with most ships that transported the enslaved, weighing between 150 and 250 tons. This equated to about 350 to 450 enslaved Africans on each slave
1993:
The enslaved below the decks lived for months in conditions of squalor and indescribable horror. Disease spread and ill health was one of the biggest killers. Mortality rates were high, and death made these conditions below the decks even worse. Even though the corpses were thrown overboard, many
1915:
considerably higher in Africa itself during the process of capturing and transporting slaves to the coast. The total number of deaths directly attributable to the Middle
Passage voyage is estimated at up to two million; a broader look at African deaths directly attributable to the institution of
2021:
The rate of death increased with the length of the voyage, since the incidence of dysentery and of scurvy increased with longer stints at sea as the quality and amount of food and water diminished. In addition to physical sickness, many of the enslaved became too depressed to eat or function
2140:
This communication was a direct subversion of European authority and allowed the enslaved to have a form of power and identity otherwise prohibited. Furthermore, such organization and coming together enabled revolts and uprisings to actually be coordinated and successful at times.
2204:), flogging or slave uprisings. A high crew mortality rate on the return voyage was in the captain's interests as it reduced the number of sailors who had to be paid on reaching the home port. Crew members who survived were frequently cheated out of their wages on their return.
1977:
African kings, warlords, and private kidnappers sold captives to Europeans who held several coastal forts. The captives were usually force-marched to these ports along the western coast of Africa, where they were held for sale to the European or American slave traders in the
1819:
or other destination where they would be put to work. The Middle Passage across the Atlantic joined these two. Voyages on the Middle Passage were large financial undertakings, generally organized by companies or groups of investors rather than individuals.
1550:
2208:
not, they would be imprisoned. Sailors in prison had a hard time getting jobs outside of the slave ship industry since most other maritime industries would not hire "jail-birds", so they were forced to go to the slave ships anyway.
1916:
slavery from 1500 to 1900 suggests up to four million deaths. The "Middle Passage" was considered a time of in-betweenness where captive Africans forged bonds of kinship, which then created forced transatlantic communities.
1994:
crew members avoided going into the hold. The enslaved who had already been ill were not always found immediately. Many of the living enslaved could have been shackled to someone that was dead for hours and sometimes days.
1985:
The male captives were normally chained together in pairs to save space; right leg to the next man's left leg—while the women and children may have had somewhat more room. The chains or hand and leg cuffs were known as
1997:
Most contemporary historians estimate that between 9.4 and 12.6 million Africans embarked for the New World. Disease and starvation due to the length of the passage were the main contributors to the death toll with
2107:, came to be understood as holding substandard value as slaves, because they developed a reputation for being too proud to be enslaved, and for attempting suicide immediately upon losing their freedom.
2160:
When we found ourselves at last taken away, death was more preferable than life, and a plan was concerted amongst us, that we might burn and blow up the ship, and to perish all together in the flames.
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2164:
The number of rebels varied widely; often the uprisings would end with the death of a few slaves and crew. Surviving rebels were punished or executed as examples to the other slaves on board.
1671:
2070:, took too many enslaved on a voyage to the New World in 1781. Overcrowding combined with malnutrition and disease killed several crew members and around 60 enslaved. Bad weather made the
1948:
1535:
1066:
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into the sea. Slaves generally believed that if they jumped overboard, they would be returned to their family and friends in their village or to their ancestors in the afterlife.
2046:
Another major factor in "cargo protection" was the increase in knowledge of diseases and medicines (along with the inclusion of a variety of medicines on the ships). First the
1420:
792:
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for African markets with manufactured goods (first side of the triangle), which were then traded for slaves with rulers of African states and other African slave traders.
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and mythology. They would appeal to their gods for protection and vengeance upon their captors, and would also try to curse and otherwise harm the crew using
1540:
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all and response soundings allowed men and women speaking different languages to communicate about the conditions of their captivity. In fact, on board the
871:
1617:
369:
2549:
Bell, Karen B. (2010). "Rice, Resistance, and Force Transatlantic Communities: (Re)Envisioning the African Diaspora in Low Country Georgia, 1750–1800".
819:
1590:
1410:
583:
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Bush, Barbara (March–June 2010). "African Caribbean Slave Mothers And Children: Traumas Of Dislocation And Enslavement Across The Atlantic World".
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transported the slaves across the Atlantic (second side of the triangle). The proceeds from selling slaves were then used to buy products such as
1748:
2156:, who was enslaved and taken from Africa as a child, later described an uprising aboard the ship on which he was transported to the West Indies:
1775:
A marker on the Long Wharf in Boston serves as a reminder of the active role of Boston in the slave trade, with details about the Middle Passage.
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2968:"Summary of The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself. Vol. I"
1639:
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The enslaved were still successful, especially at jumping overboard. Often when an uprising failed, the mutineers would jump
1104:
1092:
672:
484:
130:
2184:. One crew found fetishes in their water supply, placed by the enslaved who believed they would kill all who drank from it.
2823:
Haines, Robin; Shlomowitz, Ralph (2000). "Explaining the mortality decline in the eighteenth-century British slave trade".
1811:, rum, and raw materials, which would be transported back to Europe (third side of the triangle) to complete the triangle.
3372:
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A crew mortality rate of around 20% was expected during a voyage, with sailors dying as a result of disease (specifically
2173:
1676:
1459:
320:
1681:
1525:
1395:
1056:
824:
804:
364:
332:
1907:, the transatlantic slave trade gradually declined until being fully abolished in the second-half of the 19th century.
2119:
fast as possible. When she came in view, the sharks had already killed her—and bitten off the lower half of her body.
1741:
1691:
1415:
1333:
460:
241:
61:
1600:
1452:
1437:
1328:
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194:
2136:, what began as murmurs and morphed into song erupted before long into the shouts and cries of coordinated revolt.
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677:
182:
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1804:
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1345:
898:
687:
172:
73:
352:
3035:
Bly, Antonio T. (1998). "Crossing the Lake of Fire: Slave Resistance during the Middle Passage, 1720–1842".
1661:
1400:
1350:
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829:
773:
756:
187:
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traders dominated the trade in the 16th and 17th centuries, though by the 18th they were supplanted by the
949:
1876:
1844:
1734:
1703:
1208:
861:
709:
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993:
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1708:
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374:
258:
165:
2890:"The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: A Forgotten Crime Against Humanity as Defined by International Law"
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often be left to drown or shot from the boat. Over the centuries, some African peoples, such as the
2764:
1888:
1868:
1196:
1176:
1061:
1046:
915:
886:
876:
766:
714:
682:
479:
337:
305:
300:
253:
110:
1852:
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2870:
2627:
2568:
1864:
1442:
1288:
1263:
1253:
1218:
1213:
1181:
1146:
1139:
1080:
1073:
930:
749:
744:
734:
504:
357:
315:
310:
263:
231:
221:
158:
379:
325:
3341:
https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102446/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0208/feature4/
3354:
https://web.archive.org/web/20120210012633/http://www.wvculture.org/museum/Marie/henrietta.pdf
3324:
Hereditary Society for descendants of people of African descent enslaved in the United States:
3273:
3240:
3215:
3184:
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3155:
3149:
3108:
2743:
2737:
2657:
2529:
2523:
2448:
2408:
2404:
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2355:
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movement and a major court case, as the insurance company refused to compensate for the loss.
1999:
1832:
1530:
1248:
1243:
1186:
1171:
1151:
973:
968:
903:
866:
699:
665:
494:
347:
236:
115:
3211:
3205:
3046:
2862:
2832:
2793:
2560:
2302:
2239:
1929:
1808:
1792:
1720:
1298:
1293:
1283:
1258:
1223:
1191:
1161:
1034:
1022:
1000:
978:
925:
761:
729:
31:
2153:
1896:
1629:
1520:
1515:
1268:
1238:
1233:
956:
920:
719:
637:
342:
88:
2704:
2505:
1965:
1912:
1892:
1884:
1848:
1840:
1836:
1824:
1713:
1607:
177:
140:
98:
3357:
3366:
3289:
3066:
2874:
2572:
2468:
Wolfe, Brendan (2021). "Slave Ships and the Middle Passage". In Miller, Patti (ed.).
2225:
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1872:
1651:
1580:
1027:
1010:
785:
615:
605:
389:
39:
2967:
2722:
2564:
2866:
2247:
2201:
1982:. Typical slave ships contained several hundred slaves with about 30 crew members.
1924:
1904:
1880:
1771:
1656:
1493:
1469:
1375:
1368:
1099:
627:
600:
563:
541:
428:
145:
125:
103:
93:
83:
78:
68:
1935:
908:
17:
2990:
2492:
2292:
2036:
1498:
1486:
839:
642:
632:
590:
404:
3207:
Bury the Chains: Prophets, Slaves, and Rebels in the First Human Rights Crusade
3151:
Bury the Chains: Prophets, Slaves, and Rebels in the First Human Rights Crusade
3263:
2297:
2215:
2177:
2104:
2067:
2022:
efficiently due to loss of freedom, family, security, and their own humanity.
1940:
1816:
1800:
1646:
943:
647:
514:
2691:
Eltis, David and Richardson, David. "The Numbers Game". In: Northrup, David:
2836:
2772:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research. p. 25
2181:
1979:
1828:
891:
556:
418:
573:
3181:
Royal Navy Versus the Slave Traders: Enforcing Abolition at Sea 1808–1898
2011:
2007:
1788:
1481:
1039:
983:
935:
595:
440:
295:
201:
3095:
Deadly Notes: Atlantic Soundscapes and the Writing of the Middle Passage
3058:
2631:
2197:
2018:, and other diseases spread rapidly in the close-quarter compartments.
2015:
1987:
1464:
546:
226:
43:
3008:"Haunting relics from a slave ship headed for African American museum"
2003:
1911:
raped by the crew. An estimated 15% of them died during voyage, with
1900:
1856:
1796:
1166:
988:
568:
551:
413:
248:
216:
3050:
2766:
Determinants of Slave and Crew Mortality in the Atlantic Slave Trade
2172:
The enslaved also resisted through certain manifestations of their
2679:
Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800
2287:
1958:
1923:
1770:
423:
409:
384:
2739:
The Slave Trade: The story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870
2400:
The Slave Trade: the story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870
1823:
The first European slave ship transported enslaved Africans from
1761:
This article is about the slave trade route. For other uses, see
2474:. Charlottesville, VA: Virginia Humanities – Library of Virginia
290:
120:
3302:
Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage
2989:
Johnston, Harry; Johnston, Harry Hamilton; Stapf, Otto (1906).
2150:
About one out of ten ships experienced some sort of rebellion.
1787:
in which millions of enslaved Africans were transported to the
2900:(4). Washington College of Law Journals & Law Reviews: 900
2800:(Cambridge: The University of Cambridge, 1999), pp. 143–146.
2006:
causing the majority of deaths. Additionally, outbreaks of
3327:"Sons & Daughters of the United States Middle Passage"
1875:. The enslaved Africans came mostly from the regions of
2522:
Rosenbaum, Alan S.; Charny, Israel W. (17 April 2018).
3326:
2346:
McKissack, Patricia C.; McKissack, Frederick (1995).
3179:
Bernard Edwards; Bernard Edwards (Captain.) (2007).
2742:. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 422–423.
1421:
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
1947:. (From an Abstract of Evidence delivered before a
3343:"Last Voyage of the Slave Ship Henrietta Marie"],
3288:
2640:Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans
2347:
2060:because of everyday maintenance. For example, the
1815:the port of disembarkation in the Americas to the
3143:
3141:
3139:
2763:Steckel, Richard H.; Jensen, Richard A. (1985).
2094:dying or becoming more susceptible to diseases.
1905:abolitionist movement in Europe and the Americas
1768:Transoceanic segment of the Atlantic slave trade
1536:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution
2656:. : Tate Pub & Enterprises Ll. p. 84.
2350:The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay
2970:. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
2695:, second edition, Houghton Mifflin Co., 2002.
1742:
8:
2894:American University International Law Review
2445:Colonial Blackness: A History of Afro-Mexico
1541:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom
2642:(New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013), 32.
2587:The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas
2055:Treatment of enslaved people and resistance
3356:A Slave Ship Speaks (PDF)], archived from
2681:. Cambridge University Press. p. 155.
2510:The Creation of the British Atlantic World
2403:. New York: Simon & Schuster. p.
1749:
1735:
26:
3383:Pre-emancipation African-American history
3239:. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 138.
3183:. Pen & Sword Books. pp. 26–27.
2723:"The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database"
2789:
2787:
2599:Cottman, Michael H. (February 7, 1999).
2495:, Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade – Estimates
2447:. Indiana University Press. p. 11.
2377:
2375:
1934:
1546:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf
1411:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery
1391:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90
2848:
2846:
2313:
1847:. Other European nations involved were
38:
3111:. The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation
3030:
3028:
2623:
2621:
2322:"Boston Slavery Exhibit | Boston.gov"
2273:European colonization of the Americas
1433:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention
1110:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea
7:
3295:. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
2809:Ron Soodalter, "Hell on the water" (
1625:Slave marriages in the United States
1229:Human trafficking in the Middle East
2888:Muhammad, Esq, Patricia M. (2003).
2601:"THE GHOSTS OF THE HENRIETTA MARIE"
2552:Journal of African American History
964:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia
3006:Ruane, Michael E. (13 July 2016).
2253:Abolitionism in the United Kingdom
1618:last survivors of American slavery
25:
2654:Trace: Our connection to the past
2258:Abolitionism in the United States
579:Field slaves in the United States
446:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate
2232:
2218:
456:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
451:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate
280:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
50:
3304:. University of Illinois Press.
3237:The Slave Ship: A Human History
2721:Eltis, David (3 January 2021).
2565:10.5323/jafriamerhist.95.2.0157
1763:Middle Passage (disambiguation)
1406:Committee of Experts on Slavery
957:East, Southeast, and South Asia
3300:Mustakeem, Sowande M. (2016).
2935:. International Slavery Museum
2867:10.1080/00086495.2010.11672362
1105:Slave raiding in Easter Island
1:
3378:History of the Atlantic Ocean
2432:. Cambridge University Press.
2193:occupied by enslaved people.
2082:incident became fuel for the
3287:Faragher, John Mack (2006).
3210:. Houghton Mifflin. p.
3154:. Houghton Mifflin. p.
1969:, a British slave ship, 1787
1871:as well as traders from the
1396:Temporary Slavery Commission
1057:Slavery in the Mongol Empire
2933:"Life on board slave ships"
2825:The Economic History Review
2443:Bennett, Herman L. (2009).
1416:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery
461:Volga Bulgarian slave trade
3399:
3093:Skeehan, Danielle (2013).
2652:Allen, Weslynn M. (2009).
2528:. Routledge. p. 132.
2430:Transformations in Slavery
2123:Identity and communication
1760:
1601:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
1438:Anti-Slavery International
1203:North Africa and West Asia
3204:Hochschild, Adam (2005).
3148:Hochschild, Adam (2005).
2428:Lovejoy, Paul E. (2000).
2382:Walker, Theodore (2004).
1697:Emancipation Proclamation
1369:Opposition and resistance
1127:Sex trafficking in Europe
1115:Blackbirding in Polynesia
678:Trans-Saharan slave trade
3309:Rediker, Marcus (2007).
3038:Journal of Negro History
2798:The Atlantic Slave Trade
2693:The Atlantic Slave Trade
2525:Is the Holocaust Unique?
2283:Indian Ocean slave trade
2048:Dutch East India Company
1477:Compensated emancipation
688:Indian Ocean slave trade
3235:Marcus Rediker (2007).
2837:10.1111/1468-0289.00160
2709:The African Slave Trade
2677:Thornton, John (1998).
1401:1926 Slavery Convention
1157:Germany in World War II
774:North and South America
296:Contract of manumission
2504:Mancke, Elizabeth and
2384:Mothership Connections
2162:
2138:
1974:fewer than six weeks.
1970:
1956:
1932:
1793:triangular slave trade
1776:
882:British Virgin Islands
434:Circassian slave trade
400:Safavid imperial harem
395:Ottoman Imperial Harem
3269:Los pilotos de altura
3129:Taylor, Eric Robert.
2953:Taylor, Eric Robert.
2736:Thomas, Hugh (1999).
2471:Encyclopedia Virginia
2397:Thomas, Hugh (1999).
2354:. Macmillan. p.
2158:
2130:
1962:
1938:
1927:
1783:was the stage of the
1774:
1121:Europe and North Asia
1081:Australia and Oceania
781:Pre-Columbian America
353:Slave raid of Suðuroy
285:Slavery in al-Andalus
207:Black Sea slave trade
136:21st-century jihadism
3373:Atlantic slave trade
2636:Waldo E. Martin, Jr.
2589:, 2000, pp. 156–157.
2268:Atlantic slave trade
2026:Sailing technologies
1945:Atlantic slave trade
1785:Atlantic slave trade
1576:Indentured servitude
1504:Underground Railroad
1304:United Arab Emirates
693:Zanzibar slave trade
660:By country or region
473:Atlantic slave trade
375:Ma malakat aymanukum
259:Venetian slave trade
3345:National Geographic
2855:Caribbean Quarterly
1963:Description of the
1903:. With the growing
1869:Italian city-states
1662:Slave Route Project
793:Americas indigenous
683:Red Sea slave trade
673:Contemporary Africa
536:Topics and practice
306:Crimean slave trade
301:Bukhara slave trade
254:Genoese slave trade
131:Contemporary Africa
111:Forced prostitution
3133:, 2006, pp. 38–39.
2957:, 2006, pp. 37–38.
2628:Deborah Gray White
2512:, 2005, pp. 30–31.
1971:
1957:
1955:in 1790 and 1791.)
1933:
1777:
1443:Blockade of Africa
750:Somali slave trade
666:Sub-Saharan Africa
358:Turkish Abductions
316:Khivan slave trade
311:Khazar slave trade
264:Balkan slave trade
222:Prague slave trade
18:The Middle Passage
3272:. Madrid: Anaya.
3246:978-1-4406-2084-3
3190:978-1-84415-633-7
3079:Rediker, Marcus.
2918:Rediker, Marcus.
2278:History of Africa
2263:Asiento de Negros
2000:amoebic dysentery
1795:. Ships departed
1759:
1758:
1709:Freedmen's Bureau
1531:Third Servile War
1526:International law
1093:Human trafficking
855:Human trafficking
530:Thirteen colonies
348:Sack of Baltimore
116:Human trafficking
16:(Redirected from
3390:
3347:, archived from
3337:
3335:
3334:
3314:
3313:. Penguin Books.
3305:
3296:
3294:
3283:
3251:
3250:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3145:
3134:
3127:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3116:
3109:"Middle Passage"
3105:
3099:
3098:
3090:
3084:
3077:
3071:
3070:
3032:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3003:
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2951:
2945:
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2910:
2909:
2907:
2905:
2885:
2879:
2878:
2850:
2841:
2840:
2820:
2814:
2807:
2801:
2794:Herbert S. Klein
2791:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2777:
2771:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2718:
2712:
2702:
2696:
2689:
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2682:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2649:
2643:
2625:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2596:
2590:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2546:
2540:
2539:
2519:
2513:
2502:
2496:
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2483:
2481:
2479:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2379:
2370:
2369:
2353:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2318:
2303:Triangular trade
2242:
2240:Caribbean portal
2237:
2236:
2235:
2228:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2188:Sailors and crew
2168:African religion
2076:
1953:House of Commons
1949:select committee
1930:triangular trade
1861:Poland–Lithuania
1751:
1744:
1737:
1721:Emancipation Day
1554:
1521:Slave Trade Acts
212:Byzantine Empire
54:
27:
21:
3398:
3397:
3393:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3388:
3387:
3363:
3362:
3332:
3330:
3325:
3321:
3308:
3299:
3286:
3280:
3262:
3259:
3257:Further reading
3254:
3247:
3234:
3233:
3229:
3222:
3203:
3202:
3198:
3191:
3178:
3177:
3173:
3166:
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3128:
3124:
3114:
3112:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3092:
3091:
3087:
3078:
3074:
3051:10.2307/2649014
3034:
3033:
3026:
3016:
3014:
3012:Washington Post
3005:
3004:
3000:
2988:
2987:
2983:
2973:
2971:
2966:
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2948:
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2930:
2926:
2917:
2913:
2903:
2901:
2887:
2886:
2882:
2852:
2851:
2844:
2822:
2821:
2817:
2811:Civil War Times
2808:
2804:
2792:
2785:
2775:
2773:
2769:
2762:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2735:
2734:
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2715:
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2690:
2686:
2676:
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2671:
2664:
2651:
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2646:
2626:
2619:
2609:
2607:
2605:Washington Post
2598:
2597:
2593:
2584:
2580:
2559:(2): 157–182 .
2548:
2547:
2543:
2536:
2521:
2520:
2516:
2506:Shammas, Carole
2503:
2499:
2491:
2487:
2477:
2475:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2455:
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2329:
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2315:
2311:
2238:
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2231:
2224:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2190:
2170:
2154:Ottobah Cugoano
2147:
2125:
2100:
2074:
2057:
2028:
1922:
1913:mortality rates
1897:Bight of Biafra
1791:as part of the
1769:
1766:
1755:
1726:
1725:
1630:Slave narrative
1586:Fugitive slaves
1566:
1558:
1557:
1548:
1516:Slave rebellion
1371:
1361:
1360:
1319:
1309:
1308:
1131:United Kingdom
1067:Yankee princess
661:
653:
652:
380:Avret Pazarları
326:Avret Pazarları
195:Medieval Europe
161:
151:
150:
89:Forced marriage
64:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3396:
3394:
3386:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3365:
3364:
3361:
3360:
3351:
3338:
3320:
3319:External links
3317:
3316:
3315:
3311:The Slave Ship
3306:
3297:
3284:
3278:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3252:
3245:
3227:
3221:978-0618104697
3220:
3196:
3189:
3171:
3165:978-0618104697
3164:
3135:
3131:If We Must Die
3122:
3100:
3085:
3083:, 2007, p. 40.
3081:The Slave Ship
3072:
3045:(3): 178–186.
3024:
2998:
2995:. p. 110.
2981:
2959:
2955:If We Must Die
2946:
2924:
2922:, 2007, p. 16.
2920:The Slave Ship
2911:
2880:
2861:(1–2): 69–94.
2842:
2815:
2813:, 2011), p. 1.
2802:
2783:
2755:
2748:
2728:
2713:
2711:(1961), p. 95.
2705:Basil Davidson
2697:
2684:
2669:
2663:978-1607998334
2662:
2644:
2617:
2591:
2585:Eltis, David.
2578:
2541:
2534:
2514:
2497:
2485:
2460:
2453:
2435:
2420:
2413:
2389:
2371:
2364:
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2326:www.boston.gov
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2096:
2056:
2053:
2027:
2024:
1921:
1918:
1893:Bight of Benin
1885:Windward Coast
1867:, and various
1853:Denmark–Norway
1805:furs and hides
1781:Middle Passage
1767:
1757:
1756:
1754:
1753:
1746:
1739:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1724:
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1621:
1620:
1615:
1608:List of slaves
1605:
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1152:Dutch Republic
1149:
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1129:
1123:
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659:
658:
655:
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645:
640:
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630:
624:
623:
619:
618:
613:
611:Child soldiers
608:
603:
598:
593:
588:
587:
586:
576:
571:
566:
561:
560:
559:
554:
549:
538:
537:
533:
532:
527:
522:
520:Spanish Empire
517:
512:
507:
502:
500:Middle Passage
497:
492:
487:
482:
476:
475:
469:
468:
463:
458:
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328:
321:Ottoman Empire
318:
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308:
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288:
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276:
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269:
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190:
185:
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149:
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143:
141:Sexual slavery
138:
133:
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
107:
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101:
99:Child marriage
96:
86:
81:
76:
74:Child soldiers
71:
65:
60:
59:
56:
55:
47:
46:
36:
35:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3395:
3384:
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3376:
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3355:
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3328:
3323:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3307:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3292:
3285:
3281:
3279:84-667-1681-5
3275:
3271:
3270:
3265:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3248:
3242:
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3231:
3228:
3223:
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3209:
3208:
3200:
3197:
3192:
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3182:
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3153:
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3126:
3123:
3110:
3104:
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3076:
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3068:
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3056:
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3048:
3044:
3040:
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3025:
3013:
3009:
3002:
2999:
2994:
2993:
2985:
2982:
2969:
2963:
2960:
2956:
2950:
2947:
2934:
2928:
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2921:
2915:
2912:
2899:
2895:
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2884:
2881:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
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2830:
2826:
2819:
2816:
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2806:
2803:
2799:
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2768:
2767:
2759:
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2751:
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2724:
2717:
2714:
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2701:
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2535:9780429974762
2531:
2527:
2526:
2518:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2501:
2498:
2494:
2493:Slave Voyages
2489:
2486:
2473:
2472:
2464:
2461:
2456:
2454:9780253223319
2450:
2446:
2439:
2436:
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2424:
2421:
2416:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2401:
2393:
2390:
2386:. p. 10.
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2230:
2227:
2226:Africa portal
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2019:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1995:
1991:
1989:
1983:
1981:
1975:
1968:
1967:
1961:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1939:Diagram of a
1937:
1931:
1926:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1898:
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1890:
1886:
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1878:
1874:
1873:United States
1870:
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1842:
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1652:Slave catcher
1650:
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1592:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1581:Forced labour
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606:Slave raiding
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40:Forced labour
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3358:the original
3349:the original
3344:
3331:. Retrieved
3310:
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3206:
3199:
3180:
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3150:
3130:
3125:
3113:. Retrieved
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3042:
3036:
3015:. Retrieved
3011:
3001:
2991:
2984:
2974:November 15,
2972:. Retrieved
2962:
2954:
2949:
2939:November 15,
2937:. Retrieved
2927:
2919:
2914:
2902:. Retrieved
2897:
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2797:
2774:. Retrieved
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2708:
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2692:
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2678:
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2647:
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2608:. Retrieved
2604:
2594:
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2524:
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2509:
2500:
2488:
2476:. Retrieved
2470:
2463:
2444:
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2429:
2423:
2399:
2392:
2383:
2349:
2341:
2330:. Retrieved
2328:. 2024-02-23
2325:
2316:
2248:Abolitionism
2206:
2202:yellow fever
2195:
2191:
2171:
2163:
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2152:
2148:
2139:
2133:
2131:
2126:
2117:
2112:
2109:
2101:
2092:
2088:
2084:abolitionist
2079:
2071:
2066:, a British
2062:
2058:
2045:
2033:
2029:
2020:
1996:
1992:
1984:
1976:
1972:
1964:
1909:
1881:Upper Guinea
1822:
1813:
1780:
1778:
1657:Slave patrol
1494:Freedom suit
1470:Sierra Leone
1460:Colonization
1376:Abolitionism
1356:Baháʼí Faith
1329:Christianity
1279:Saudi Arabia
1135:Penal Labour
1100:Blackbirding
1006:Debt bondage
994:penal system
820:Contemporary
810:Field slaves
798:U.S. Natives
757:South Africa
628:Galley slave
601:Slave market
591:House slaves
564:Blackbirding
542:Conscription
499:
466:21st century
429:Umm al-walad
273:Muslim world
242:Emancipation
146:Wage slavery
126:Penal labour
104:Wife selling
94:Bride buying
79:Conscription
69:Child Labour
62:Contemporary
3291:Out of many
3264:Baroja, Pio
2037:latticework
1928:Map of the
1807:, tobacco,
1801:Slave ships
1672:court cases
1549: [
1499:Slave Power
1487:Manumission
1334:Catholicism
1209:Afghanistan
950:Puerto Rico
862:The Bahamas
840:Slave codes
643:Shanghaiing
633:Impressment
525:Slave Coast
405:Qajar harem
365:Concubinage
338:slave trade
3367:Categories
3333:2023-05-14
3115:5 December
2831:(2): 262.
2749:0684835657
2414:0684835657
2365:0805042598
2332:2024-04-25
2309:References
2298:Slave ship
2293:Press gang
2068:slave ship
1980:barracoons
1941:slave ship
1889:Gold Coast
1877:Senegambia
1833:Portuguese
1817:plantation
1687:J.Q. Adams
1677:Washington
1647:Slave name
1596:convention
1571:Common law
944:Encomienda
740:Seychelles
725:Mauritania
648:Slave ship
515:Panyarring
510:New France
159:Historical
3067:140948545
2875:141289167
2573:140985496
2174:religions
2145:Uprisings
2039:or grate
1943:from the
1831:in 1525.
1829:New Spain
1682:Jefferson
1339:Mormonism
1274:Palestine
1088:Australia
1018:Indonesia
909:Lei Áurea
892:Code Noir
872:Caribbean
845:Treatment
584:Treatment
557:Devshirme
419:Odalisque
237:In Russia
178:Babylonia
166:Antiquity
3266:(2002).
2610:July 21,
2212:See also
2182:fetishes
2134:Hubridas
2113:en masse
2041:bulkhead
2012:syphilis
2008:smallpox
1825:São Tomé
1789:Americas
1714:Iron bit
1704:40 acres
1667:breeding
1482:Freedman
1317:Religion
1177:Portugal
1062:Thailand
1052:Maldives
1047:Malaysia
1040:Kwalliso
984:Booi Aha
936:Restavek
916:Colombia
887:Trinidad
877:Barbados
767:Zanzibar
715:Ethiopia
596:Saqaliba
490:Database
441:Saqaliba
202:Ancillae
32:a series
30:Part of
3059:2649014
3017:5 March
2992:Liberia
2904:7 March
2776:7 March
2632:Mia Bay
2478:4 March
2198:malaria
2098:Suicide
2016:measles
1988:bilboes
1966:Brookes
1951:of the
1920:Journey
1865:Prussia
1841:British
1692:Lincoln
1565:Related
1465:Liberia
1351:Judaism
1289:Tunisia
1264:Morocco
1254:Lebanon
1219:Bahrain
1214:Algeria
1182:Romania
1147:Denmark
1140:Slavery
1074:Vietnam
745:Somalia
735:Nigeria
710:Comoros
638:Pirates
547:Ghilman
480:Bristol
370:history
343:pirates
232:History
121:Peonage
44:slavery
3329:. 2023
3276:
3243:
3218:
3187:
3162:
3065:
3057:
2873:
2746:
2660:
2634:, and
2571:
2532:
2451:
2411:
2362:
2075:'s
2004:scurvy
1901:Angola
1899:, and
1857:Sweden
1845:French
1797:Europe
1613:owners
1249:Kuwait
1244:Jordan
1197:Sweden
1187:Russia
1172:Poland
1167:Norway
989:Laogai
974:Brunei
969:Bhutan
931:revolt
904:Brazil
867:Canada
830:partus
815:female
700:Angola
569:Coolie
552:Mamluk
505:Nantes
485:Brazil
414:Cariye
249:Thrall
217:Kholop
183:Greece
3063:S2CID
3055:JSTOR
2871:S2CID
2770:(PDF)
2569:S2CID
2288:Maafa
2178:idols
1849:Spain
1837:Dutch
1809:sugar
1640:songs
1635:films
1553:]
1509:songs
1346:Islam
1324:Bible
1299:Yemen
1294:Qatar
1284:Syria
1259:Libya
1224:Egypt
1192:Spain
1162:Malta
1035:Korea
1023:Japan
1001:India
979:China
926:Haiti
786:Aztec
762:Sudan
730:Niger
622:Naval
495:Dutch
424:Qiyan
410:Jarya
385:Harem
227:Serfs
173:Egypt
3274:ISBN
3241:ISBN
3216:ISBN
3185:ISBN
3160:ISBN
3117:2017
3019:2021
2976:2017
2941:2017
2906:2021
2778:2021
2744:ISBN
2658:ISBN
2612:2015
2530:ISBN
2480:2021
2449:ISBN
2409:ISBN
2360:ISBN
2200:and
2180:and
2080:Zong
2072:Zong
2063:Zong
2002:and
1843:and
1835:and
1779:The
1591:laws
1453:U.S.
1448:U.K.
1386:U.S.
1381:U.K.
1269:Oman
1239:Iraq
1234:Iran
921:Cuba
825:maps
720:Mali
705:Chad
291:Baqt
188:Rome
84:Debt
42:and
3156:114
3047:doi
2863:doi
2833:doi
2561:doi
2405:293
2356:109
2105:Kru
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