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are largely influenced by lobbying from lobster industry itself). Lobster is another resource that is sometimes considered vulnerable to overharvesting, and many people within the industry itself have been predicting a collapse for years. Nonetheless, the lobster industry has remained relatively unscathed by resource depletion. The state government of Maine establishes certain regulations, but they do not limit the number of licenses themselves. In practice there are many restrictive exclusionary systems that are generated, dictated, and upheld by the community through a series of "traditional fishing rights" that have been locally grandfathered in. One must obtain confirmation to fish from the community to actually be granted access. Once an individual is granted access, they are still only able to access the territories held by that community. Outsiders may be persuaded by threats of violence even. It is impossible to know if the lobster resource would have been sustainably used if there was more regulation, or without the internal regulation, but it is certainly being used sustainably in its current state of affairs. It also seems to be run relatively efficiently. This case study of Maine lobster fisheries reflects how a group was able to restrain access to a resource from outsiders, while regulating the communal use in an effective manner. This has allowed the local communities to reap the benefits of the rewards of their restrain for decades. Essentially, the local lobster fishers collaborate without much government intervention to sustain their common-pool resource.
483:, pollution and inequities, which also apply to knowledge. Then, effective alternatives (community-based, non-private, non-state), in line with those of natural commons (involving social rules, appropriate property rights and management structures), solutions are proposed. Thus, the commons metaphor is applied to social practice around knowledge. It is in this context that the present work proceeds, discussing the creation of depositories of knowledge through the organised, voluntary contributions of scholars (the research community, itself a social common), the problems that such knowledge commons might face (such as free-riding or disappearing assets), and the protection of knowledge commons from enclosure and commodification (in the form of intellectual property legislation, patenting, licensing and overpricing). At this point, it is important to note the nature of knowledge and its complex and multi-layered qualities of non-rivalry and non-excludability. Unlike natural commons – which are both rival and excludable (only one person can use any one item or portion at a time and in so doing they use it up, it is consumed) and characterised by scarcity (they can be replenished but there are limits to this, such that consumption/destruction may overtake production/creation) – knowledge commons are characterised by abundance (they are non-rival and non-excludable and thus, in principle, not scarce, so not impelling competition and compelling governance). This abundance of knowledge commons has been celebrated through alternative models of knowledge production, such as
249:. Community forest programs work by giving local areas a financial stake in nearby woodlands, and thereby increasing the incentive to protect them from overuse. Local institutions regulate harvesting and selling of timber and land, and must use any profit towards community development and preservation of the forests. In twenty years, some locals, especially in the middle hills, have noticed a visible increase in the number of trees, although other places have not seen tangible results, especially where opportunity costs to land are high. Community forestry may also contribute to community development in rural areas – for instance school construction, irrigation and drinking water channel construction, and road construction. Community forestry has proven conducive to democratic practices at grass roots level. Many Nepalese forest user groups generate income from the community forests, although the amount can vary widely among groups and is often invested in the community rather than flowing directly to individual households. Such income is generated from external sources involving the sales of timber from thinned pine plantations such as in the community forest user groups of Sindhu Palchok and Rachma, and internally in Nepal's mid-hills' broad leaf forests from membership fees, penalties and fines on rule-breakers, in addition to the sales of forest products. Some of the most significant benefits are that locals are able to use the products they gather directly in their own homes for subsistence use.
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traditional hierarchical structures of production, allowing for a higher collective benefit and a sustainable management of resources. Non-material resources are digitally reproducible and therefore can be shared at a low cost, contrary to physical resources which are quite limited. Shared resources represent in this context data, information, culture and knowledge which are produced and accessible online. In accordance with the "design global, manufacture local" approach digital commons may link the traditional commons theory with existing physical infrastructures. It further connects with the degrowth communities since transformations in use-value creation by employing new technologies, decoupling society from GDP growth and lower CO2 emissions, are envisioned. Moreover, as a decentralized approach, there is a strong emphasis on inclusion and democratic regulation which has led
Commons as an alternative, emancipatory and emerging form of social organization that goes beyond democratic capitalism. Accordingly, through the cooperation of diverse stakeholders and the equitable distribution of means of production, technological development becomes more accessible and bottom-up projects are fostered in communities.
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in harvesting whiting. Being a part of the cooperative gives them consistent access to the best whiting grounds in the area which allows them to be highly successful, sometimes even dominating regional whiting markets during the winter season. It is a relatively high price to be a member of the collective, which limits entry, while also establishing catching quotas for members. They prevent unlimited entry or access to cap the number of members that are allowed in the club. This is done through a closed membership policy, as well as having control over the docking spaces. This leads to exclude outsiders from entering the regional whiting market. The "quotas" are established based on what they estimate can be sold to the regional markets. It directly contrasts government imposed regulations which are typically considered to be inflexible by the fisherman in the local area. The cooperative on the other hand is considered to be effective and flexible in their sustainable use of the resources in the region.
507:"The common is not to be construed, therefore, as a particular kind of thing, asset or even social process, but as an unstable and malleable social relation between a particular self-defined social group and those aspects of its actually existing or yet-to-be-created social and/or physical environment deemed crucial to its life and livelihood. There is, in effect, a social practice of commoning. This practice produces or establishes a social relation with a common whose uses are either exclusive to a social group or partially or fully open to all and sundry. At the heart of the practice of commoning lies the principle that the relation between the social group and that aspect of the environment being treated as a common shall be both collective and non-commodified-off-limits to the logic of market exchange and market valuations."
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to what is known as a "tragedy of the commons". In the 1930s conservation laws were enacted which prohibited outsiders from trapping in the area, and reinforced locals' customary laws. This led to a restoration of the population and commerce that beavers provided by the 1950s. The experience of the 1920s is not an isolated incident in the community either. Business conflicts among fur trading companies has led to a couple other times of resource overuse, but gradually resource use was restored to a proper balance once local control was restored. This case study reflects how communal resource sharing can be effectively propagated by a community.
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was covered in "non-indigenous" plants. While constructing their homes, the locals decided to do something different: rather than erecting security walls to demarcate and guard their individual property, they would restore the fynbos and wetland ecology and establish a public communal garden. As stated by the locals, the initial plan was to build a "blueprint" for communal gardening that would serve as an example for other abandoned green areas, with the goal of "correcting the imbalances of apartheid" and "beautifying and dignifying".
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that are responsible to their communities. The notion of community is not understood as a "gated community", but as "a quality of relations, a principle of cooperation and responsibility to each other and the earth, the forests, the seas, the animals. In communalizing housework, one of the supporting pillars of human activity, it is imperative that this sphere is "not negated but revolutionized". Communalizing housework also serves to de-naturalize it as women's labour, which has been an important part of the
184:, but over which certain classes of manorial tenants and others held certain rights. By extension, the term "commons" has come to be applied to other resources which a community has rights or access to. The older texts use the word "common" to denote any such right, but more modern usage is to refer to particular rights of common, and to reserve the name "common" for the land over which the rights are exercised. A person who has a right in, or over, common land jointly with another or others is called a
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523:, that is, the process of coming together to manage such resources. Commoning thus adds another dimension to the commons, acknowledging the social practices entailed in the process of establishing and governing a commons. These practices entail, for the community of commoners, the creation of a new way of living and acting together, thus involving a collective psychological shift: it also entails a process of subjectivization, where the commoners produce themselves as common subjects.
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rules. In the case of the commons, the community manages and sets the rules of access and use of the resource held in common: the fact of having a commons, then, does not mean that anyone is free to use the resource as they like. Studies by Ostrom and others have shown that managing a resource as a commons often has positive outcomes and avoids the so-called tragedy of the commons, a fact that Hardin overlooked.
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3034:– Aalto University Special Interest Group SIG in the Commons (peer-production, co-production, co-governance, co-creation) and Public(s)services. The SIG addresses the relevance of the Commons as a framework to expand the understanding of emerging considerations for the design, provision and maintenance of public services and urban space. Helsinki, Finland.
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been an important source of food and commerce for the area since the fur trade began in 1670. Unfortunately, beavers are an easy target for resource degradation and depletion due to their colonies being easily spotted. Luckily, the area has grandfathered in many traditions, and stewards of the land to safeguard certain territories populations.
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proposed a definition of digital commons as "information and knowledge resources that are collectively created and owned or shared between or among a community and that tend to be non-exclusive, that is, be (generally freely) available to third parties. Thus, they are oriented to favor use and reuse,
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In 2005, the city re-zoned the
Northern shore of Zeekoevlei – a seasonal lake and wetland area – into smaller parcels of land that were bought by people from Grassy Park who shared experiences of oppression and marginalization during apartheid. After 10 years of being utilised as a landfill, the area
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is a method of collective responsibility and management for irrigation systems in desert areas. In New Mexico, a community-run organization known as
Acequia Associations supervises water in terms of diversion, distribution, utilization, and recycling, in order to reinforce agricultural traditions and
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in, especially, southern
Germany, Austria, and the alpine countries) were kept, in some parts, till the present. Some studies have compared the German and English dealings with the commons between late medieval times and the agrarian reforms of the 18th and 19th centuries. The UK was quite radical in
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The process of commoning the material means of reproduction of human life is most promising in the struggle to "disentangle our livelihoods not only from the world market but also from the war machine and prison system". One of the main aims of the process of commoning is to create "common subjects"
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introduced the concept by a hypothetical example of herders overusing a shared parcel of land on which they are each entitled to let their cows graze, to the detriment of all users of the common land. The same concept has been called the "tragedy of the fishers", when over-fishing could cause stocks
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Urban commons situates citizens as key players rather than public authorities, private markets and technologies. David Harvey (2012) defines the distinction between public spaces and urban commons. He highlights that the former is not to be equated automatically with urban commons. Public spaces and
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The information commons may help protect users of commons. Companies that pollute the environment release information about what they are doing. The
Corporate Toxics Information Project and information like the Toxic 100, a list of the top 100 polluters, helps people know what these corporations are
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Land is organised and managed cooperatively; outside enterprises are not involved in any way. The allotment association recognises lot holders as official members, granting them equal voting rights and shares. In turn, the association represents the land owners in various administrative proceedings.
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In Paris, France, there are over 1,200 free drinkable water fountains distributed throughout the city. The first 100 were donated by
Englishman Sir Richard Wallace (1818–1890) in 1872, called the Wallace fountains, and since then the Parisian water company "Eau du Paris" have put more of them around
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In the 1920s there was a massive influx of non-native trappers in the region due to a new railroad coming to the area, as well as an increase in fur prices at the time. The
Amerindian communities' lost control over these territories for a short time during this period which helped to eventually lead
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The use of "commons" for natural resources has its roots in
European intellectual history, where it referred to shared agricultural fields, grazing lands and forests that were, over a period of several hundred years, enclosed, claimed as private property for private use. In European political texts,
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Netherlands use international waters to conduct abortion. Also, in Italy, Obiezione Respinta movement collaboratively map spaces related to birth control such as pharmacies, consultors, hospitals, etc., through which users share their knowledge and experience of the place and provide access to
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Women have traditionally been at the forefront of struggles for commoning "as primary subjects of reproductive work". This proximity and dependence on communal natural resources has made women the most vulnerable by their privatization, and made them their most staunch defendants. Examples include:
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However, Hardin's (1968) argument has been widely criticized, since he is accused of having mistaken the commons, that is, resources held and managed in common by a community, with open access, that is, resources that are open to everyone but where it is difficult to restrict access or to establish
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The widespread success of the Maine lobster industry is often attributed to the willingness of Maine's lobstermen to uphold and support lobster conservation rules. These rules include harbor territories not recognized by the state, informal trap limits, and laws imposed by the state of Maine (which
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A trawl fishery in the Blight region, located in New York, provides a completely different example of a type of community-based solution to what is sometimes referred to as the dilemma or "tragedy of the commons". The multitude of fishermen in the region make up a fishing cooperative who specialize
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As reproductive rights over unwanted pregnancies have been denied in many countries for many years, several resistance groups used diverse commoning strategies in order to provide women safe and affordable abortion. Care, knowledge, and pills have been made commons against abortion restriction. In
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Because of its immense size, governance is extremely difficult. Currently, the project spans 6-7 ha, potentially even more. Its proximity to a busy road and hundreds of residential homes exacerbates the traffic issue. In addition to the disregard shown by the city administration, the neighbourhood
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Hunting wildlife territories in James Bay, Quebec; located in the northeastern part of Canada, provide an example of resources being effectively shared by a community. There is an extensive heritage of local customaries that are used to effectively regulate beaver hunting in the region. Beaver has
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About 50,000 plants were planted (and "weeds" eradicated) along Bottom Road over the course of four years, drawing bees, birds, dragonflies, and toads in addition to humans through the addition of walkways, benches, and areas for barbecues. Here, management is done by the locals themselves, often
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due to livestock grazing in the regions of
Mongolia, Russia, and China. In Mongolia, where shepherds were permitted to move collectively between seasonal grazing pastures, degradation remained relatively low at approximately 9%. Comparatively, Russia and China, which mandated state-owned pastures
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as it sought to re-brand itself "the environmental guardian of the planet", she argues that it is important to adopt a commons discourse that actively resists this re-branding. Secondly, articulations of the commons, although historically present and multiple have struggled to come together as a
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along with her colleague Charlotte Hess, did succeed in extending the commons debate to knowledge, approaching knowledge as a complex ecosystem that operates as a common – a shared resource that is subject to social dilemmas and political debates. The focus here was on the ready availability of
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resources accessible to all members of a society, including natural materials such as air, water, and a habitable Earth. These resources are held in common even when owned privately or publicly. Commons can also be understood as natural resources that groups of people (communities, user groups)
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for people who have to travel for abortion which is considered illegal in their places of origins, and with New York Abortion Access Fund, they are able to provide them with medical and financial assistance. Underground networks outside medical service establishments are where women's networks
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The majority of allotment land in Stockholm is owned by the local municipality, and leaseholds are set for extended periods of time (up to 25 years). The local allotment association makes the decisions about who gets land rights. Only residents of multifamily homes inside the municipality were
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has proposed a 'sky trust' to fix this tragedic problem in worldwide generic commons. He claims that the sky belongs to all the people, and companies do not have a right to over pollute. It is a type of cap and dividend program. Ultimately the goal would be to make polluting excessively more
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in Barcelona were public spaces that transformed to an urban commons as people protested there to support their political statements. Streets are public spaces that have often become an urban commons by social action and revolutionary protests. Urban commons are operating in the cities in a
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Following the narrative of post-growth, the digital commons can present a model of progress that guide commoners to build counter-power in the economic and political field. Being able to digitally share knowledge and resources through internet platforms is a new capacity that challenges the
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The nine residents and the city's conservation managers signed an agreement that allowed the residents to incorporate the public shoreline area into the rehabilitation project, even though the city had retained the area closest to the shoreline as public property. Meanwhile, the city saw an
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In the Stockholm region, green spaces are predominantly owned and managed in either private or municipal forms, allotment gardens being the most common form. The system provide cultural ecosystem services to lot holders, as well as the offer of vegetables, fruits, and ornamental flowers.
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the common wealth was the totality of the material riches of the world, such as the air, the water, the soil and the seed, all nature's bounty regarded as the inheritance of humanity as a whole, to be shared together. In this context, one may go back further, to the Roman legal category
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unified front. For the latter to happen she argues that a "commoning" or "commons" movement that is effectively able to resist capitalist forms of organizing labour and our livelihoods must look to women to take the lead in organizing the collectivization of our daily lives and the
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It has been said the dissolution of the traditional land commons played a watershed role in landscape development and cooperative land use patterns and property rights. However, as in the British Isles, such changes took place over several centuries as a result of land
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among a group of colleagues, such as in a producers' cooperative. The precision of this distinction is not always maintained. Others conflate open access areas with commons; however, open access areas can be used by anybody while the commons has a defined set of users.
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Allied to this is the "comedy of the commons" concept, where users of the commons are able to develop mechanisms to police their use to maintain, and possibly improve, the state of the commons. This term was coined in an essay by legal scholar, Carol M. Rose, in 1986.
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Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (August 2017). "The emergence of a hybrid mode of knowledge production in the Generation Challenge Programme Rice Research Network (GCP-RRN) in India: Exploring the concept of Commons-Based Peer Production (CBPP)".
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In the post-apartheid metropolis of Cape Town, South Africa, the history of land rights is particularly noticeable since a large number of residents have vivid memories of being forcibly evacuated from their homes or of being assigned to live in specific regions.
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Basu, S (2014). An alternative imagination to study commons: beyond state and beyond scientific establishment. Paper presented at the 2nd International Conference on Knowledge Commons for Sustainable Agricultural Innovations. Maringá, Brazil: Maringá State
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digital forms of knowledge and associated possibilities to store, access and share it as a common. The connection between knowledge and commons may be made through identifying typical problems associated with natural resource commons, such as congestion,
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involving immobile settlements and in some cases privatization by household, had much higher degradation, at around 75% and 33% respectively. A collaborative effort on the part of Mongolians proved much more efficient in preserving grazing land.
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the city, this give people living Paris and tourists all around the world access to free drinkable fresh water in Paris. Since then, many other countries like Spain, Brazil, Italy or Portugal have put these fountains on a lower scale.
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While the original work on the tragedy of the commons concept suggested that all commons were doomed to failure, they remain important in the modern world. Work by later economists has found many examples of successful commons, and
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Urban commons present the opportunity for the citizens to gain power upon the management of the urban resources and reframe city-life costs based on their use value and maintenance costs, rather than the market-driven value.
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of the article "The Tragedy of the Commons", that the term gained relevance. Hardin introduced this tragedy as a social dilemma, and aimed at exposing the inevitability of failure that he saw in the commons.
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The Drama of the Commons By Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change, National Research Council, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Environmental Change and Society
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doing away with and enclosing former commons, while southwestern Germany (and the alpine countries as e.g. Switzerland) had the most advanced commons structures, and were more inclined to keep them. The
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3021:– an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed open-access journal dedicated to furthering the understanding of institutions for use and management of resources that are (or could be) enjoyed collectively.
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preserve water as a common resource for future generations. The Congreso de las Acequias has since 1990s, is a statewide federation that represents several hundred acequia systems in New Mexico.
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manage for individual and collective benefit. Characteristically, this involves a variety of informal norms and values (social practice) employed for a governance mechanism. Commons can also be
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rather than to exchange as a commodity. Additionally, the community of people building them can intervene in the governing of their interaction processes and of their shared resources."
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articulates a feminist perspective of the commons in her essay "Feminism and the Politics of the Commons". Since the language around the commons has been largely appropriated by the
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803:. In "Caliban and the Witch", Federici interprets the ascent of capitalism as a reactionary move to subvert the rising tide of communalism and to retain the basic social contract.
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oversee the abortion and assist each other physically or emotionally by sharing the knowledge of herbalism or home abortion. These underground groups operate under codenames like
460:, urban farms on the rooftops and cultural spaces. More recently participatory studies of commons and infrastructures under the conditions of the financial crisis have emerged.
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Linebaugh, Peter, and Marcus Rediker. (2000). The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic (Boston: Beacon Press)
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Basu, S (2016). Knowledge production, Agriculture and Commons: The case of Generation Challenge Programme. (PhD Thesis). Netherlands: Wageningen University. Retrieved from
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Based on a research project by the Environmental and Cultural Conservation in Inner Asia (ECCIA) from 1992 to 1995, satellite images were used to compare the amount of
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Bowers, Chet. (2012). The Way Forward: Educational Reforms that Focus on the Cultural Commons and the Linguistic Roots of the Ecological Crisis. Eco-Justice Press.
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permitted to sign contracts, signifying a commitment to the original goals of allotments, which were to enhance the health of city dwellers in outdoor settings.
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has deteriorated as a result of people setting up barbecues at random and cars driving around freely, both of which have been linked to criminal activity.
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Kostakis, Vasilis and Bauwens, Michel. (2014). Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy. (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan). (
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Newfont, Kathyn. (2012). Blue Ridge Commons: Environmental Activism and Forest History in Western North Carolina (The University of Georgia Press)
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of governing a resource not by state or market but by a community of users that self-governs the resource through institutions that it creates.
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Eynaud, Philippe; Juan, Maïté; Mourey, Damien (2018). "Participatory Art as a Social Practice of Commoning to Reinvent the Right to the City".
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The Digital Library of the Commons defines "commons" as "a general term for shared resources in which each stakeholder has an equal interest".
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have stated; "Prior to the publication of Hardin's article on the tragedy of the commons (1968), titles containing the words 'the commons', '
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sphere. These commons include literature, music, arts, design, film, video, television, radio, information, software and sites of heritage.
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Kennedy, Kennedy. (2008). Diggers, Levellers, and Agrarian Capitalism: Radical Political Thought in 17th Century England (Lexington Books)
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Bresnihan, P. et Byrne, M. (2015). Escape into the city: Everyday practices of communing and the production of urban space in Dublin.
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by a contributor community in the form of encyclopedic knowledge that can be freely accessed by anyone without a central authority.
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Bowers, Chet. (2006). Revitalizing the Commons: Cultural and Educational Sites of Resistance and Affirmation. Lexington Books.
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Neeson, J. M. (1996). Commoners: Common Right, Enclosure and Social Change in England, 1700–1820 (Cambridge University Press)
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Price, Richard, ed. (1979). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas (The Johns Hopkins University Press)
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The end of the commons as a watershed' The Age of Ecology, Joachim Radkau, John Wiley & Sons, 3 April 2014, p. 15 ff
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95:, which are also known as "commons", and was popularised in the modern sense as a shared resource term by the ecologist
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Linebaugh, Peter. (2008). The Magna Carta Manifesto: Liberties and Commons for All (University of California Press)
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2044:"The convergence of digital commons with local manufacturing from a degrowth perspective: Two illustrative cases"
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to plummet. Forster's pamphlet was little known, and it wasn't until 1968, with the publication by the ecologist
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Colding, Johan; Barthel, Stephan; Bendt, Pim; Snep, Robbert; van der Knaap, Wim; Ernstson, Henrik (2013-10-01).
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for analysing situations where they operate successfully. For example, Ostrom found that grazing commons in the
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in the Wiki-Commons is avoided by community control by individual authors within the Knowledge (XXG) community.
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Rowe, Jonathan. (2013). Our Common Wealth: The Hidden Economy That Makes Everything Else Work (Berrett-Koehler)
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Hill, Christopher. (1984). The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution (Penguin)
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Hill, Christopher. (2006). Winstanley 'The Law of Freedom' and other Writings (Cambridge University Press)
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Governance of online creation communities: Provision of infrastructure for the building of digital commons
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took an intermediate position. However, the UK and the former dominions have till today a large amount of
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Mitchel, John Hanson. (1998). Trespassing: An Inquiry into the Private Ownership of Land (Perseus Books)
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Harvey, Neil. (1998). The Chiapas Rebellion: The Struggle for Land and Democracy (Duke University Press)
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De Angelis, Massimo (2010-08-17). "The Production of Commons and the "Explosion" of the Middle Class".
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381:
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2994:
Simon, Martin. (2014). Your Money or Your Life: time for both. Social Commons. (Freedom Favours)
2985:
Rexroth, Kenneth. (1974). Communalism: From Its Origins to the Twentieth Century (Seabury Press)
1949:
1504:
30:
This article is about the term "commons" in political economics. For the Wikimedia project, see
1966:
https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/2e3f561d-b1f5-4e7c-8da3-ccab0f00501d/UWP-033-REVISED.pdf
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469:
181:
31:
2919:
Hyde, Lewis. (2010). Common as Air: Revolution, Art and Ownership (Farrar, Straus and Giroux)
2784:
Azzellini, Dario (2018). "Labour as a Commons: The Example of Worker-Recuperated Companies".
2130:
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Leaming, Hugo P. (1995). Hidden Americans: Maroons of Virginia and the Carolinas (Routledge)
2882:
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2005:
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opportunity to restore the fynbos and provided labour and plants for clearing and planting.
289:
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1427:
Vergleichende Studien zum Spätmittelalter bis zu den Agrarreformen des 18./19. Jahrhunderts
5656:
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2104:
1866:"Avoiding Tragedy in the Wiki-Commons", by Andrew George, 12 Va. J.L. & Tech. 8 (2007)
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with assistance from the local government, through paid employees and voluntary labour.
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3160:
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2904:
2901:
Fourier, Charles. (1996). The Theory of the Four Movements (Cambridge University Press)
2644:"The abortion underground: Groups quietly help women who have to travel to access care"
1667:"Local Control and Management of Our Water Commons: Stories of Rising to the Challenge"
1036:
1021:
840:
758:
738:
706:
671:
656:
641:
616:
552:
480:
177:
96:
2869:
Dellenbaugh, et al. (2015). Urban Commons: Moving beyond State and Market. Birkhäuser.
2496:
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137:, applied to things common to all to be used and enjoyed by everyone, as opposed to
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133:
57:
2991:
Shantz, Jeff. (2013). Commonist Tendencies: Mutual Aid Beyond Communism. (Punctum)
2059:
2009:
1474:
1228:
439:
goods in the city make a commons when part of the citizens take political action.
389:
350:
2031:
https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/47378/1/9783839454244.pdf
1538:
1400:
1305:"Resilient Commoning: The Reproduction of the Basque Commons in the Longue Durée"
5559:
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4996:
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3338:
3248:
3145:
2042:
Kostakis, Vasilis; Latoufis, Kostas; Liarokapis, Minas; Bauwens, Michel (2018).
1992:
Kostakis, Vasilis; Latoufis, Kostas; Liarokapis, Minas; Bauwens, Michel (2018).
1078:
1026:
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990:
732:
590:
354:
173:
163:
92:
42:
4101:
2982:
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. (1994). What is Property? (Cambridge University Press)
5666:
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Revolution at point zero : housework, reproduction, and feminist struggle
1926:
1068:
774:
711:
676:
594:
201:
3010:
2797:
2728:
2497:"The Comedy of the Commons: Commerce, Custom, and Inherently Public Property"
2449:
2231:
1805:
1642:"Community Forestry Programs in Nepal and their Effects on Poorer Households"
1437:
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1213:
5549:
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have been run successfully for many hundreds of years by the farmers there.
565:
1546:
56:
Sheep grazing on common pasture, a stereotypical environmental commons, at
17:
2388:
Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action
1193:
1013:– Account of historical and present common land use, mainly British Isles.
5676:
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4358:
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3521:
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3395:
3343:
3101:
2454:
The Zero Marginal Cost Society: The Internet of Things, the Collaborative
1846:
1005:
346:
46:
3059:
2875:
Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations
1598:
Capturing the Commons: Devising Institutions to Manage the Maine Lobster
5340:
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1317:
859:
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271:
91:
The term "commons" derives from the traditional English legal term for
68:
2907:. (2001). Free-Born John: A Biography of John Lilburne (Phoenix Press)
2599:
2320:
Samuel Bowles: Microeconomics: Behavior, Institutions, and Evolution,
1288:
1195:
Rebel cities : from the right to the city to the urban revolution
5393:
5358:
5182:
5138:
4986:
4784:
3767:
3719:
3488:
2941:
Lummis, Douglas. (1997). Radical Democracy (Cornell University Press)
2831:
2814:
2424:. Washington D.C: Corporation for Enterprise Development. p. 1.
1358:
1341:
1340:
Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (March 17, 2017).
1172:
1155:
931:
906:
72:
4655:
3017:
1278:
1261:
1154:
Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (17 March 2017).
830:
New York, U.S., the group Haven Coalition volunteer provide pre and
111:', or 'common property' were very rare in the academic literature."
456:
complementary way with the state and the market. Some examples are
5426:
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4979:
3856:
3452:
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1829:
891:
426:
415:
115:
51:
3005:
IASC - The International Association for the Study of the Commons
1405:. Cambridge University Press. p. 90, ff in the German text.
5371:
5227:
5222:
5202:
5076:
5027:
4871:
3053:
2624:"New York Abortion Access Fund | Connecting Rights to Resources"
2118:
Rebel cities: from the right to the city to the urban revolution
1782:"Urban green commons: Insights on urban common property systems"
1752:
902:
4659:
4105:
3074:
3004:
2107:. (2017). Mountain View: Shareable. Retrieved December 28, 2017
576:
expensive than cleaning what is being put into the atmosphere.
5330:
4974:
3829:
3024:
2840:
154:
The examples below illustrate types of environmental commons.
3043:
2294:
Lloyd, William Forster (1833). "Two Lectures on Population".
2156:
204:
which often is used for community or conservation purposes.
3070:
3065:
3037:
2976:
Patel, Raj. (2010). The Value of Nothing (Portobello Books)
511:
Some authors distinguish between the resources shared (the
2247:"Commoning: a different way of living and acting together"
1505:"Revisiting the Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges"
2623:
3906:
The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State
141:, applied to public property managed by the government.
1753:"Wallace Fountains of Paris - Home - Wallace Fountains"
2082:
What makes urban commons different from other commons?
1054:
International Association for the Study of the Commons
1581:
Berkes, F. et al. 1989. The Benefits of the Commons.
1402:
Nature and Power: A Global History of the Environment
2864:
Infrastructural gap: Commons, State and Anthropology
2144:
Infrastructural Gap: Commons, State and Anthropology
1987:
1985:
1961:
1959:
1775:
1773:
1451:"State Policy and Pasture Degradation in Inner Asia"
5675:
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3547:
3433:
3282:
3239:
3184:
3108:
1262:"Traditions and Trends in the Study of the Commons"
353:is an example of the production and maintenance of
1977:https://policyreview.info/concepts/digital-commons
1425:Hartmut Zückert, "Allmende und Allmendaufhebung".
839:in Chicago or Renata in Arizona. Some groups like
2340:Hardin, G. (1968). "The tragedy of the commons".
2813:Basu, S.; Jongerden, J.; Ruivenkamp, G. (2017).
2244:Euler, J. & Gauditz, L. (23 February 2017).
345:Today, the commons are also understood within a
1226:Classical theory based on Elinor Ostrom's book
1921:Fuster Morell, M. (2010, p. 5). Dissertation:
4671:
4117:
3086:
2133:" (personal communication, November 9, 2016)
1260:Laerhoven, Frank Van; Ostrom, Elinor (2007).
8:
2670:"Inside the top-secret abortion underground"
2381:
2379:
2098:Sharing Cities: activating the Urban Commons
1149:
1147:
247:decentralize government control over forests
2475:"Remembering Elinor Ostrom, Nobel Laureate"
1927:http://www.onlinecreation.info/?page_id=338
1045:" – essay on the open source economic model
253:Beaver Hunting in James Bay, Quebec, Canada
77:
5537:
5271:
4699:
4678:
4664:
4656:
4124:
4110:
4102:
3437:
3093:
3079:
3071:
2723:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2533:"Feminism and the Politics of the Commons"
546:, originated in the 18th century. In 1833
2830:
2490:
2488:
2443:
2441:
1828:
1821:Crowdsourcing, Attention and Productivity
1528:
1357:
1316:
1287:
1277:
1171:
844:information that is difficult to obtain.
807:"Feminist Reconstructions" of the Commons
2565:Feminism and the Politics of the Commons
2559:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2360:"The Tragedy of the Commons, Revisited"
1728:"The iconic Wallace fountains in Paris"
1624:"Community Forestry in India and Nepal"
1115:
284:Free drinkable water fountains in Paris
172:the common was an integral part of the
99:in an influential 1968 article called "
1877:"Corporate Toxics Information Project"
1394:
1392:
786:Women and the struggle for the Commons
191:In middle Europe, commons (relatively
5775:Environmental social science concepts
1577:
1575:
1573:
1571:
542:A commons failure theory, now called
7:
3048:Economics and the Commons Conference
3018:International Journal of the Commons
2819:International Journal of the Commons
1882:Political Economy Research Institute
1703:"¡Viva la Acequia! | On the Commons"
1399:Radkau, Joachim (11 February 2008).
1346:International Journal of the Commons
1266:International Journal of the Commons
1187:
1185:
1183:
1160:International Journal of the Commons
1121:
1119:
1622:Mehta, Trupti Ambrish (June 2002).
1601:. University Press of New England.
799:(money commons) and collectivizing
176:, and was thus legally part of the
245:In the late 1980s, Nepal chose to
25:
2296:Population and Development Review
1938:Berry, David (21 February 2005).
1132:The Commons Social Change Library
950:Movement for Justice en el Barrio
848:Historical land commons movements
341:Cultural and intellectual commons
114:Some texts make a distinction in
5739:
5738:
4615:
4614:
4604:
4220:
4073:
4072:
2717:Heiberg, Marianne (1989-09-07).
2364:Scientific American Blog Network
2224:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00783.x
1243:"Digital Library Of The Commons"
888:Bhumi Uchhed Pratirodh Committee
388:Examples of digital commons are
316:Urban green commons in Cape Town
266:Irrigation systems of New Mexico
4389:Science, technology and society
2720:The Making of the Basque Nation
2080:Dellenbaugh-Losse, M. (2017). "
1798:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.05.006
1198:. New York: Verso. p. 73.
3638:Right of way (property access)
2390:. Cambridge University Press.
2189:10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.06.008
1819:Huberman, Bernardo A. (2008),
897:Electronic Frontier Foundation
871:Contemporary commons movements
795:, credit associations such as
299:Allotment gardens in Stockholm
103:". As Frank van Laerhoven and
1:
3060:The Commons Transition Primer
2088:. Retrieved December 28, 2017
2060:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.077
2048:Journal of Cleaner Production
2010:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.077
1998:Journal of Cleaner Production
1475:10.1126/science.281.5380.1147
485:Commons-based peer production
4704:Pollution / quality
4133:Environmental social science
3054:The Commons Strategies Group
3025:Infrastructuring the Commons
2963:. Harvard University Press.
2774:Resources in other libraries
2450:"10 – Comedy of the Commons"
1885:. PERI-Umass. Archived from
1539:10.1126/science.284.5412.278
78:defined as a social practice
4172:Environmental communication
3944:Two Treatises of Government
3044:The Peer to Peer Foundation
1786:Global Environmental Change
1303:Olsen, Jonah (2024-07-09).
1126:Smith, E. T. (2024-01-23).
377:Digital commons (economics)
221:Trawl Fisheries of New York
5791:
4157:Environmental anthropology
3011:Foundation for common land
2571:. Retrieved April 25, 2020
2501:Faculty Scholarship Series
2322:Princeton University Press
1099:Tyranny of small decisions
1049:Tragedy of the anticommons
944:Landless Workers' Movement
928:Homeless Workers' Movement
825:Abortion and Birth Control
535:
467:
423:in Athens as urban commons
374:
367:doing to the environment.
287:
269:
241:Community forests in Nepal
161:
101:The Tragedy of the Commons
40:
29:
5734:
5540:
5275:Types / location
4600:
4218:
4068:
3440:
2887:10.1007/s11266-018-0006-y
2769:Resources in your library
2569:The Wealth of the Commons
2537:The Wealth of the Commons
2261:Federici, Silvia (2012).
820:Feminist Commons Movement
434:in Cairo as urban commons
84:Definition and modern use
4187:Environmental psychology
3996:The Great Transformation
3354:Labor theory of property
2798:10.1177/0896920516661856
2729:10.1017/cbo9780511558023
2142:Dalakoglou, D. (2016). "
1726:Pierre (9 August 2018).
1104:The Goose and the Common
954:United States of America
232:Lobster fishery of Maine
41:Not to be confused with
36:Commons (disambiguation)
4192:Environmental sociology
4167:Environmental economics
4147:Ecological anthropology
3565:Forest-dwelling (India)
3527:restraint on alienation
3307:Common good (economics)
2582:"Caliban and the Witch"
2495:Rose, Carol M. (1986).
1674:www.ourwatercommons.org
1665:Davidson-Harden, Adam.
1595:Acheson, James (2004).
1503:Ostrom, Elinor (1999).
1074:Public good (economics)
793:subsistence agriculture
193:small-scale agriculture
4182:Environmental politics
4004:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
3778:Primitive accumulation
3633:Right of way (transit)
3418:Tragedy of the commons
3300:fictitious commodities
2862:Dalakoglou, Dimitris "
2563:Federici, S. (2012). "
2420:Barnes, Peter (2000).
2386:Elinor Ostrom (2015).
1945:Free Software Magazine
1449:Sneath, David (1998).
1192:Harvey, David (2012).
1128:"Practising Commoning"
959:Narmada Bachao Andolan
544:tragedy of the commons
538:Tragedy of the commons
532:Tragedy of the commons
509:
499:have adopted the term
491:Commoning as a process
435:
424:
361:Tragedy of the commons
150:Environmental resource
60:
34:. For other uses, see
4277:Ecological humanities
4177:Environmental history
4057:The Wealth of Nations
4037:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
4029:The Ethics of Liberty
2531:Federici, S. (2012).
2265:. Between the Lines.
2131:The city as a commons
971:Cosmopolitan localism
878:Abahlali baseMjondolo
766:Feminist perspectives
702:William Forster Lloyd
548:William Forster Lloyd
505:
430:
419:
109:common pool resources
55:
5650:remnant natural area
5287:storage and recovery
4953:habitat conservation
4771:Deforestation (REDD)
4369:Integrated geography
4247:Behavioral geography
4152:Ecological economics
3920:Progress and Poverty
3254:Common-pool resource
2859:(1), pp. 36–54.
2694:"Obiezione Respinta"
2668:Liss-Schultz, Nina.
2116:Harvey, D. (2013). "
1952:on 15 December 2009.
1902:"Justice in the Air"
1847:10.2139/ssrn.1266996
1757:wallacefountains.org
1707:www.onthecommons.org
1247:dlc.dlib.indiana.edu
519:who governs it, and
513:common-pool resource
449:Maidan Nezalezhnosti
398:open-source hardware
208:Mongolian grasslands
124:collective ownership
5604:Earth Overshoot Day
5178:Marine conservation
5159:non-timber products
4640:Research institutes
4162:Environmental crime
4043:The Social Contract
3731:population transfer
3648:prior-appropriation
3327:homestead principle
2358:Frischmann, Brett.
2324:, pp. 27–29 (2004)
2216:2010Antip..42..954D
1839:2008arXiv0809.3030H
1521:1999Sci...284..278.
1467:1998Sci...281.1147S
1461:(5380): 1147–1148.
780:means of production
458:community gardening
122:of the commons and
5589:Ecosystem services
4712:Ambient standards
4610:Environment portal
4364:Industrial ecology
4023:Murray N. Rothbard
3334:Free-rider problem
3030:2013-05-26 at the
2786:Critical Sociology
2698:Obiezione Respinta
2348:(3859), 1243-1248.
2146:". City vol. 6 (2)
2103:2017-12-29 at the
1585:, vol. 340: 91–93.
1438:review (in German)
1318:10.1111/anti.13077
1084:Reproductive labor
1043:The Magic Cauldron
986:Citizen's dividend
965:Take Back the Land
832:post abortion care
801:reproductive labor
749:Gerrard Winstanley
580:Successful commons
453:Plaza de Catalunya
436:
425:
382:Mayo Fuster Morell
198:Lower Rhine region
61:
5752:
5751:
5730:
5729:
5529:
5528:
5208:genetic resources
5144:genetic resources
4779:
4778:
4687:Natural resources
4653:
4652:
4492:Green criminology
4252:Community studies
4207:Political ecology
4099:
4098:
4010:What Is Property?
3803:human trafficking
3788:Regulatory taking
3663:
3662:
3408:Right to property
2755:Library resources
2738:978-0-521-36103-3
2600:"Haven Coalition"
2431:978-1-883187-32-3
2272:978-1-77113-494-1
1515:(5412): 278–282.
1435:978-3-8282-0226-9
1412:978-0-521-85129-9
1205:978-1-84467-882-2
920:primarily in the
918:Geolibertarianism
814:feminist struggle
637:George Caffentzis
605:Notable theorists
527:Economic theories
495:Scholars such as
470:Knowledge commons
464:Knowledge commons
451:in Kyiv, and the
182:lord of the manor
158:European land use
32:Wikimedia Commons
16:(Redirected from
5782:
5742:
5741:
5693:
5640:Natural heritage
5599:overexploitation
5538:
5272:
5218:herbal medicines
5198:FAO Plant Treaty
4738:
4715:
4700:
4680:
4673:
4666:
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4608:
4540:natural resource
4224:
4212:Regional science
4126:
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4103:
4076:
4075:
3980:John Stuart Mill
3900:Friedrich Engels
3881:Frédéric Bastiat
3874:
3726:Forced migration
3694:Collectivization
3438:
3317:First possession
3290:Bundle of rights
3095:
3088:
3081:
3072:
2898:
2836:
2834:
2832:10.18352/ijc.673
2809:
2792:(4–5): 763–776.
2743:
2742:
2714:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2704:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2680:
2665:
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2650:. September 2019
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2492:
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2471:
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2464:
2462:
2460:
2448:Rifkin, Jeremy.
2445:
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2411:
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2199:
2193:
2192:
2171:
2165:
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2147:
2140:
2134:
2127:
2121:
2120:". London: Verso
2114:
2108:
2095:
2089:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2039:
2033:
2028:
2022:
2021:
1989:
1980:
1974:
1968:
1963:
1954:
1953:
1948:. Archived from
1935:
1929:
1919:
1913:
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1906:
1897:
1891:
1890:
1873:
1867:
1864:
1858:
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1810:
1809:
1792:(5): 1039–1051.
1777:
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1749:
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1738:
1723:
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1716:
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1688:
1682:
1676:. Archived from
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1638:
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1619:
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1592:
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1532:
1509:Science Magazine
1500:
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1455:Science Magazine
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1173:10.18352/ijc.673
1151:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1138:
1123:
1089:Social ownership
1059:Municipalization
1032:Homo reciprocans
1001:Creative Commons
996:Common ownership
973:or cosmolocalism
937:The Land is Ours
865:Kett's Rebellion
854:The Carlist Wars
731:John Platt (see
697:Vasilis Kostakis
290:Wallace fountain
214:land degradation
170:medieval England
120:common ownership
27:Shared resources
21:
5790:
5789:
5785:
5784:
5783:
5781:
5780:
5779:
5755:
5754:
5753:
5748:
5726:
5691:
5671:
5657:Systems ecology
5623:Natural capital
5525:
5410:
5399:reclaimed water
5261:
5223:UPOV Convention
5071:
4866:
4775:
4749:
4745:Ozone depletion
4736:
4713:
4689:
4684:
4654:
4649:
4596:
4445:
4416:Systems ecology
4400:Sustainability
4394:science studies
4379:Rural sociology
4225:
4216:
4202:Human geography
4135:
4130:
4100:
4095:
4064:
3868:
3867:
3861:
3811:husband-selling
3748:Illegal logging
3743:Illegal fishing
3672:
3659:
3570:Freedom to roam
3543:
3456:(agrarian land)
3429:
3386:Property rights
3278:
3235:
3197:Estate (landed)
3180:
3104:
3099:
3032:Wayback Machine
3001:
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2749:Further reading
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2604:Haven Coalition
2598:
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2586:www.akpress.org
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2111:
2105:Wayback Machine
2096:
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2079:
2075:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2029:
2025:
1991:
1990:
1983:
1975:
1971:
1964:
1957:
1937:
1936:
1932:
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1589:
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1569:
1559:
1557:
1530:10.1.1.510.4369
1502:
1501:
1497:
1487:
1485:
1448:
1447:
1443:
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1413:
1398:
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1371:
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1279:10.18352/ijc.76
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1181:
1153:
1152:
1145:
1136:
1134:
1125:
1124:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1094:State ownership
1064:Nationalization
981:
976:
873:
850:
837:Jane Collective
827:
822:
809:
788:
771:Silvia Federici
768:
763:
744:Kenneth Rexroth
687:Peter Linebaugh
682:Lawrence Lessig
647:Silvia Federici
627:Murray Bookchin
607:
582:
540:
534:
529:
493:
472:
466:
441:Syntagma Square
421:Syntagma Square
410:
390:Knowledge (XXG)
379:
373:
371:Digital commons
351:Knowledge (XXG)
343:
318:
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286:
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28:
23:
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15:
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5788:
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5778:
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5770:Public commons
5767:
5757:
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5749:
5747:
5746:
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5732:
5731:
5728:
5727:
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5710:
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5700:
5695:
5692:(perpetuation)
5687:
5681:
5679:
5673:
5672:
5670:
5669:
5664:
5659:
5654:
5653:
5652:
5645:Nature reserve
5642:
5637:
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5146:
5136:
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5134:
5129:
5124:
5122:climate change
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5098:
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5090:Bioprospecting
5087:
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4735:Clean Air Act
4727:
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4706:
4697:
4691:
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4398:
4397:
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4361:
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4354:
4349:
4344:
4334:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4296:Environmental
4294:
4293:
4292:
4287:
4279:
4274:
4273:
4272:
4267:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
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3982:
3977:
3976:
3975:
3963:
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3961:
3949:
3948:
3947:
3935:
3930:
3928:Garrett Hardin
3925:
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3723:
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3711:
3706:
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3699:Eminent domain
3696:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3682:Bioprospecting
3678:
3676:
3674:redistribution
3665:
3664:
3661:
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3658:
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3403:
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3393:
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3376:Natural rights
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3098:
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3090:
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3063:
3057:
3051:
3041:
3038:On the Commons
3035:
3022:
3014:
3008:
3000:
2999:External links
2997:
2996:
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2992:
2989:
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2951:Negri, Antonio
2948:
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2914:
2911:
2908:
2905:Gregg, Pauline
2902:
2899:
2881:(4): 621–636.
2870:
2867:
2866:". City 20(6).
2860:
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2422:Pie in the Sky
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2302:(3): 473–496.
2286:
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2210:(4): 954–977.
2194:
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2109:
2090:
2073:
2034:
2023:
1981:
1969:
1955:
1930:
1914:
1911:. PERI- Umass.
1900:Ash, Michael.
1892:
1889:on 2011-07-25.
1868:
1859:
1811:
1769:
1744:
1732:French Moments
1718:
1694:
1683:on 3 June 2016
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826:
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759:Michel Bauwens
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729:
724:
719:
714:
709:
707:William Morris
704:
699:
694:
689:
684:
679:
674:
672:Silke Helfrich
669:
664:
659:
657:Garrett Hardin
654:
649:
644:
642:Barry Commoner
639:
634:
629:
624:
619:
617:Yochai Benkler
614:
608:
606:
603:
581:
578:
553:Garrett Hardin
536:Main article:
533:
530:
528:
525:
492:
489:
481:overharvesting
468:Main article:
465:
462:
409:
406:
375:Main article:
372:
369:
342:
339:
317:
314:
300:
297:
288:Main article:
285:
282:
270:Main article:
267:
264:
242:
239:
233:
230:
209:
206:
178:estate in land
168:Originally in
162:Main article:
159:
156:
151:
148:
146:
143:
97:Garrett Hardin
85:
82:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5787:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5762:
5760:
5745:
5737:
5736:
5733:
5723:
5722:Non-renewable
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5682:
5680:
5678:
5674:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5662:Urban ecology
5660:
5658:
5655:
5651:
5648:
5647:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5625:
5624:
5621:
5617:
5614:
5613:
5612:
5609:
5605:
5602:
5600:
5597:
5596:
5595:
5592:
5590:
5587:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5574:
5573:
5570:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5547:
5546:
5543:
5542:
5539:
5536:
5532:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5511:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5494:Privatization
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5448:
5445:
5444:
5443:
5440:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5419:
5417:
5413:
5407:
5404:
5400:
5397:
5396:
5395:
5392:
5390:
5389:Surface water
5387:
5385:
5382:
5378:
5375:
5374:
5373:
5370:
5368:
5365:
5361:
5360:
5356:
5355:
5354:
5351:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5333:
5332:
5329:
5327:
5324:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5306:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5288:
5285:
5284:
5283:
5280:
5279:
5277:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5264:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5247:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5195:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5164:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5141:
5140:
5137:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5119:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5096:
5093:
5092:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5082:
5080:
5078:
5074:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5057:
5056:
5053:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5030:
5029:
5026:
5022:
5019:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5006:
5005:
5002:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4989:
4988:
4985:
4981:
4978:
4977:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4962:
4961:
4958:
4954:
4951:
4950:
4949:
4946:
4942:
4939:
4938:
4937:
4934:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4911:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4891:
4890:peak farmland
4888:
4887:
4886:
4883:
4882:
4881:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4873:
4869:
4863:
4860:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4847:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4790:
4788:
4786:
4782:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4758:
4756:
4752:
4746:
4743:
4739:
4733:
4732:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4710:
4709:
4707:
4705:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4681:
4676:
4674:
4669:
4667:
4662:
4661:
4658:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4613:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4602:
4599:
4591:
4590:environmental
4588:
4586:
4583:
4582:
4580:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4555:environmental
4553:
4552:
4550:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4525:environmental
4523:
4522:
4520:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4500:environmental
4498:
4497:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4486:
4485:environmental
4483:
4481:
4478:
4477:
4475:
4473:
4472:Ecopsychology
4470:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4457:
4456:Architecture
4455:
4454:
4452:
4448:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4401:
4399:
4395:
4392:
4391:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4339:
4338:
4335:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4271:
4270:environmental
4268:
4266:
4263:
4262:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4242:Anthrozoology
4240:
4238:
4235:
4234:
4232:
4228:
4223:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4197:Human ecology
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4127:
4122:
4120:
4115:
4113:
4108:
4107:
4104:
4090:
4087:
4086:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:Categories:
4071:
4070:
4067:
4059:
4058:
4054:
4053:
4052:
4049:
4045:
4044:
4040:
4039:
4038:
4035:
4031:
4030:
4026:
4025:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4018:David Ricardo
4016:
4012:
4011:
4007:
4006:
4005:
4002:
3998:
3997:
3993:
3992:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3985:Elinor Ostrom
3983:
3981:
3978:
3974:
3973:
3969:
3968:
3967:
3964:
3960:
3959:
3955:
3954:
3953:
3950:
3946:
3945:
3941:
3940:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3922:
3921:
3917:
3916:
3915:
3912:
3908:
3907:
3903:
3902:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3889:
3888:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3872:
3864:
3858:
3855:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3831:
3828:
3824:
3821:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3808:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3795:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3783:Privatization
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3763:Legal plunder
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3728:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3721:
3717:
3715:
3714:Expropriation
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3680:
3679:
3677:
3675:
3670:
3666:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3627:
3626:
3622:
3621:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3594:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3581:
3578:
3577:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3552:
3550:
3546:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3514:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3501:
3498:
3497:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3490:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3463:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3455:
3451:
3449:
3448:(watercourse)
3447:
3443:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3432:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3391:primogeniture
3389:
3388:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3371:Legal plunder
3369:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3322:appropriation
3320:
3319:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3312:Excludability
3310:
3308:
3305:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3281:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3230:
3227:
3226:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3096:
3091:
3089:
3084:
3082:
3077:
3076:
3073:
3067:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3045:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3033:
3029:
3026:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3003:
3002:
2998:
2993:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2981:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2961:
2956:
2955:Michael Hardt
2952:
2949:
2946:
2943:
2940:
2937:
2934:
2931:
2928:
2924:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2903:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2844:
2841:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2781:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2748:
2740:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2721:
2713:
2710:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2686:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2661:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2636:
2625:
2619:
2616:
2605:
2601:
2595:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2577:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2524:
2518:
2515:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2476:
2470:
2467:
2455:
2451:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2433:
2427:
2423:
2416:
2413:
2407:
2404:
2399:
2397:9781107569782
2393:
2389:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2365:
2361:
2354:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2337:
2334:
2331:
2330:0-691-09163-3
2327:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2290:
2287:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2268:
2264:
2257:
2254:
2251:Degrowth.info
2250:
2248:
2241:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2198:
2195:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2170:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2157:"infra-demos"
2152:
2149:
2145:
2139:
2136:
2132:
2126:
2123:
2119:
2113:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2099:
2094:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2054:: 1684–1693.
2053:
2049:
2045:
2038:
2035:
2032:
2027:
2024:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2004:: 1684–1693.
2003:
1999:
1995:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1973:
1970:
1967:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1940:"The commons"
1934:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1918:
1915:
1910:
1903:
1896:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1878:
1872:
1869:
1863:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1812:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1774:
1770:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1745:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1719:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1695:
1679:
1675:
1668:
1661:
1658:
1647:
1643:
1637:
1634:
1629:
1625:
1618:
1615:
1610:
1608:9781584653936
1604:
1600:
1599:
1591:
1588:
1584:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1568:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1496:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1422:
1419:
1414:
1408:
1404:
1403:
1395:
1393:
1389:
1376:
1369:
1366:
1360:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1336:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1299:
1296:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1256:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1238:
1235:
1230:
1223:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1201:
1197:
1196:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1180:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1133:
1129:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1110:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
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4505:epidemiology
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5319:remediation
5304:Groundwater
4899:Degradation
4521:Management
4465:sustainable
4237:Agroecology
3958:Das Kapital
3845:progressive
3835:inheritance
3758:Land reform
3532:real estate
3507:Land tenure
3495:Inheritance
3423:anticommons
3359:Law of rent
3339:Game theory
3269:Information
3249:Common land
3146:Cooperative
2857:Antipode 47
2846:University.
2183:: 107–116.
2161:infra-demos
1646:www.fao.org
1079:Public land
1027:Game theory
1011:Common land
991:Common good
733:Social trap
591:Nobel prize
443:in Athens,
164:Common land
139:res publica
93:common land
43:common land
18:The commons
5759:Categories
5708:Extraction
5667:Wilderness
5628:accounting
5611:Management
5577:ecological
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4924:soundscape
4830:Geothermal
4480:ecological
4434:metabolism
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4281:Economics
4265:ecological
4257:Demography
4089:by country
4051:Adam Smith
3938:John Locke
3602:indigenous
3597:aboriginal
3517:alienation
3212:indigenous
3202:Intangible
3116:Collective
2969:0674060288
2957:. (2009).
2703:2020-04-29
2679:2020-04-29
2654:2020-04-29
2629:2020-04-29
2609:2020-04-29
2459:2 February
2369:2020-04-28
2281:1129596584
1712:2020-12-19
1651:2020-12-19
1375:"Commoner"
1289:10535/3137
1166:(1): 144.
1137:2024-02-20
1111:References
1069:Patentleft
775:World Bank
712:Fred Moten
677:Lewis Hyde
595:Swiss Alps
571:Economist
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400:projects.
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4803:Resources
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4460:landscape
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2806:152137747
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2232:0066-4812
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1483:128377756
1327:0066-4812
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1017:Enclosure
967:in the US
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727:Raj Patel
692:Karl Linn
632:Iain Boal
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521:commoning
517:community
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5765:Property
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