236:
335:. Unfortunately the rate of electron-phonon coupling from the hot and disordered ionic system is not well known, as it can not be treated equally to the fairly well known process of transfer of heat from hot electrons to an intact crystal structure. Finally, the relaxation phase of the cascade, when the defects formed possibly recombine and migrate, can last from a few ps to infinite times, depending on the material, its
180:
348:
161:
208:(MD) simulations. In MD simulations they can be included either as a frictional force or in a more advanced manner by also following the heating of the electronic systems and coupling the electronic and atomic degrees of freedom. However, uncertainties remain on what is the appropriate low-energy limit of electronic stopping power or electron-phonon coupling is.
2236:
432:, both in the linear spike and heat spike regimes. Heat spikes near surfaces also frequently lead to crater formation. This cratering is caused by liquid flow of atoms, but if the projectile size above roughly 100,000 atoms, the crater production mechanism switches to the same mechanism as that of macroscopic craters produced by bullets or asteroids.
268:(the two terms are usually considered to be equivalent). The heat spike cools down to the ambient temperature in 1–100 ps, so the "temperature" here does not correspond to thermodynamic equilibrium temperature. However, it has been shown that after about 3 lattice vibrations, the kinetic energy distribution of the atoms in a heat spike has the
331:, typically lasts 0.1–0.5 ps. If a heat spike is formed, it can live for some 1–100 ps until the spike temperature has cooled down essentially to the ambient temperature. The cooling down of the cascade occurs via lattice heat conductivity and by electronic heat conductivity after the hot ionic subsystem has heated up the electronic one via
272:, making the use of the concept of temperature somewhat justified. Moreover, experiments have shown that a heat spike can induce a phase transition which is known to require a very high temperature, showing that the concept of a (non-equilibrium) temperature is indeed useful in describing collision cascades.
419:
A curious feature of collision cascades is that the final amount of damage produced may be much less than the number of atoms initially affected by the heat spikes. Especially in pure metals, the final damage production after the heat spike phase can be orders of magnitude smaller than the number of
239:
As above, but in the middle the region of collisions has become so dense that multiple collisions occur simultaneously, which is called a heat spike. In this region the ions move in complex paths, and it is not possible to distinguish the numerical order of recoils - hence the atoms are colored with
227:
When the ion is heavy and energetic enough, and the material is dense, the collisions between the ions may occur so near to each other that they can not be considered independent of each other. In this case the process becomes a complicated process of many-body interactions between hundreds and tens
287:
For instance, for copper irradiation of copper, recoil energies of around 5–20 keV are almost guaranteed to produce heat spikes. At lower energies, the cascade energy is too low to produce a liquid-like zone. At much higher energies, the Cu ions would most likely lead initially to a linear cascade,
359:
simulation of a collision cascade. The image shows a cross section of two atomic layers in the middle of a threedimensional simulation cell. Each sphere illustrates the position of an atom, and the colors show the kinetic energy of each atom as indicated by the scale on the right. At the end, both
183:
Schematic illustration of a linear collision cascade. The thick line illustrates the position of the surface, and the thinner lines the ballistic movement paths of the atoms from beginning until they stop in the material. The purple circle is the incoming ion. Red, blue, green and yellow circles
215:(PKA), secondary knock-on atoms (SKA), tertiary knock-on atoms (TKA), etc. Since it is extremely unlikely that all energy would be transferred to a knock-on atom, each generation of recoil atoms has on average less energy than the previous, and eventually the knock-on atom energies go below the
420:
atoms displaced in the spike. On the other hand, in semiconductors and other covalently bonded materials the damage production is usually similar to the number of displaced atoms. Ionic materials can behave like either metals or semiconductors with respect to the fraction of damage recombined.
283:
is low. But once the Cu ion would slow down enough, the nuclear stopping power would increase and a heat spike would be produced. Moreover, many of the primary and secondary recoils of the incoming ions would likely have energies in the keV range and thus produce a heat spike.
53:
Au self-recoil. This is a typical case of a collision cascade in the heat spike regime. Each small sphere illustrates the position of an atom, in a 2-atom-layer-thick cross section of a three-dimensional simulation cell. The colors show (on a logarithmic scale) the
408:
The defects production can be harmful, such as in nuclear fission and fusion reactors where the neutrons slowly degrade the mechanical properties of the materials, or a useful and desired materials modification effect, e.g., when ions are introduced into
326:
To understand the nature of collision cascade, it is very important to know the associated time scale. The ballistic phase of the cascade, when the initial ion/recoil and its primary and lower-order recoils have energies well above the
310:, can also be considered to produce thermal spikes in the sense that they lead to strong lattice heating and a transient disordered atom zone. However, at least the initial stage of the damage might be better understood in terms of a
38:
172:), the collisions between the initial recoil and sample atoms occur rarely, and can be understood well as a sequence of independent binary collisions between atoms. This kind of a cascade can be theoretically well treated using the
244:
Typically, a heat spike is characterized by the formation of a transient underdense region in the center of the cascade, and an overdense region around it. After the cascade, the overdense region becomes
435:
The fact that many atoms are displaced by a cascade means that ions can be used to deliberately mix materials, even for materials that are normally thermodynamically immiscible. This effect is known as
2162:
1230:
211:
In linear cascades the set of recoils produced in the sample can be described as a sequence of recoil generations depending on how many collision steps have passed since the original collision:
260:
T), one finds that the kinetic energy in units of temperature is initially of the order of 10,000 K. Because of this, the region can be considered to be very hot, and is therefore called a
196:. Note, however, that SRIM does not treat effects such as damage due to electronic energy deposition or damage produced by excited electrons. The nuclear and electronic
30:
For the scenario of collisions between objects in low earth orbit producing a chain reactions of debris colliding with additional objects producing more debris, see
1620:
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T. Pugacheva; F. Gjurabekova; S. Khvaliev (1998). "Effects of cascade mixing, sputtering and diffusion by high dose light ion irradiation of boron nitride".
377:
Since the kinetic energies in a cascade can be very high, it can drive the material locally far outside thermodynamic equilibrium. Typically this results in
176:(BCA) simulation approach. For instance, H and He ions with energies below 10 keV can be expected to lead to purely linear cascades in all materials.
168:
When the initial recoil/ion mass is low, and the material where the cascade occurs has a low density (i.e. the recoil-material combination has a low
443:
The non-equilibrium nature of irradiation can also be used to drive materials out of thermodynamic equilibrium, and thus form new kinds of alloys.
184:
illustrate primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary recoils, respectively. In between the ballistic collisions the ions move in a straight path.
496:
R. S. Averback and T. Diaz de la Rubia (1998). "Displacement damage in irradiated metals and semiconductors". In H. Ehrenfest; F. Spaepen (eds.).
200:
used are averaging fits to experiments, and are thus not perfectly accurate either. The electronic stopping power can be readily included in
148:
The nature of collision cascades can vary strongly depending on the energy and mass of the recoil/incoming ion and density of the material (
1927:
256:
If the kinetic energy of the atoms in the region of dense collisions is recalculated into temperature (using the basic equation E = 3/2·N·k
189:
1739:
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signifies the energy above which a recoil in a material is likely to produce several isolated heat spikes rather than a single dense one.
351:
Image sequence of the time development of a collision cascade in the heat spike regime produced by a 30 keV Xe ion impacting on Au under
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structures to speed up the operation of a laser. or to strengthen carbon nanotubes.
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Series of collisions between nearby atoms, initiated by a single energetic atom
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909:"The effect of electronic energy loss on the dynamics of thermal spikes in Cu"
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787:"Electron promotion and electronic friction in atomic collision cascades"
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for damage production, at which point no more damage can be produced.
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migration and recombination properties, and the ambient temperature.
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Schematic illustration of independent binary collisions between atoms
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306:, i.e. MeV and GeV heavy ions which produce damage by a very strong
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or more), the collisions can permanently displace atoms from their
82:) is a set of nearby adjacent energetic (much higher than ordinary
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of the atoms, with white and red being high kinetic energy from 10
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Collision cascades in the vicinity of a surface often lead to
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Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B
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Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B
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forming long cylindrical damage zones of reduced density.
249:, and the underdense region typically becomes a region of
125:. The initial energetic atom can be, e.g., an ion from a
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1327:
A. Meftah; et al. (1994). "Track formation in SiO
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129:, an atomic recoil produced by a passing high-energy
109:
energies in a collision cascade are higher than the
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355:conditions. The image is produced by a classical
45:computer simulation of a collision cascade in
8:
141:, or be produced when a radioactive nucleus
2001:
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1331:quartz and the thermal-spike mechanism".
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381:production. The defects can be, e.g.,
94:induced by an energetic particle in a
290:subcascade breakdown threshold energy
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1928:Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter
145:and gives the atom a recoil energy.
874:Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
725:Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
25:
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188:The most commonly used BCA code
1776:E. Chason; et al. (1997).
2131:10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.027601
1544:10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.175503
299:Swift heavy ion thermal spikes
270:Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
202:binary collision approximation
174:binary collision approximation
62:downwards, and blue being low.
1:
2219:10.1016/S0168-583X(98)00139-6
2184:10.1016/S0168-583X(98)00139-6
1459:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.165501
1309:"displacement cascade" Search
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329:threshold displacement energy
217:threshold displacement energy
111:threshold displacement energy
606:10.1016/0927-0256(94)00085-q
223:Heat spikes (thermal spikes)
1994:10.1103/PhysRevLett.50.1478
1949:10.1088/0953-8984/16/49/R03
1851:10.1088/0022-3727/39/13/004
1644:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.3637
1404:10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.3648
1142:10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.1930
393:loops, stacking faults, or
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1786:Journal of Applied Physics
1014:10.1103/PhysRevB.94.014305
894:10.1016/j.nimb.2009.03.080
523:Cambridge University Press
459:Radiation material science
240:a mixture of red and blue.
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1763:10.1080/01418618408237526
1681:10.1103/PhysRevB.47.14011
1355:10.1103/PhysRevB.49.12457
951:J. Phys.: Condens. Matter
812:10.1088/1367-2630/9/2/038
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113:of the material (tens of
2257:Condensed matter physics
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1086:10.1103/PhysRev.120.1229
848:10.1103/PhysRevB.62.2825
651:10.1103/PhysRevE.57.7278
389:, ordered or disordered
333:electron–phonon coupling
68:condensed-matter physics
2110:Physical Review Letters
2065:Physical Review Letters
1973:Physical Review Letters
1705:Applied Physics Letters
1623:Physical Review Letters
1523:Physical Review Letters
1428:Physical Review Letters
1383:Physical Review Letters
1121:Physical Review Letters
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105:If the maximum atom or
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515:R. Smith, ed. (1997).
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247:interstitial defects
127:particle accelerator
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2078:1994PhRvL..72..364G
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1986:1983PhRvL..50.1478W
1941:2004JPCM...16R1491T
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1755:1984PMagA..50..667R
1718:1999ApPhL..74.2720N
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1396:2000PhRvL..85.3648T
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1280:1998PhRvB..57.7556N
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498:Solid State Physics
308:electronic stopping
1599:10.1007/BF00617867
594:Comput. Mater. Sci
464:COSIRES conference
424:Other consequences
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121:sites and produce
80:displacement spike
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43:molecular dynamics
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2239:Media related to
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1793:(10): 6513–6561.
1660:Physical Review B
1578:Applied Physics A
1334:Physical Review B
1274:(13): 7556–7570.
1267:Physical Review B
1128:(17): 1930–1933.
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312:Coulomb explosion
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1313:YouTube.com
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834:(4): 2825.
791:New J. Phys
627:(6): 7278.
391:dislocation
366:dislocation
2251:Categories
2035:(3): 479.
1749:(5): 667.
922:(3): 483.
600:(4): 448.
565:(12): 12.
475:References
430:sputtering
401:doping of
353:channeling
322:Time scale
316:ion tracks
262:heat spike
88:collisions
2012:120756958
1957:123658664
1553:10440/862
1212:204996702
979:122777435
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395:amorphous
385:such as
251:vacancies
232:methods.
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447:See also
135:electron
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2172:Bibcode
2119:Bibcode
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2037:Bibcode
1982:Bibcode
1937:Bibcode
1884:Bibcode
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1002:Bibcode
959:Bibcode
924:Bibcode
882:Bibcode
836:Bibcode
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702:9985796
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639:Bibcode
567:Bibcode
343:Effects
131:neutron
123:defects
119:lattice
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337:defect
143:decays
139:photon
100:liquid
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1953:S2CID
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1855:S2CID
1814:(PDF)
1781:(PDF)
1603:S2CID
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1471:S2CID
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912:(PDF)
852:S2CID
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655:S2CID
629:arXiv
96:solid
92:atoms
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1900:PMID
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