2488:
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2392:
the simplest systems or bodies, their intensive properties are homogeneous, and their pressures are perpendicular to their boundaries. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials, or driving forces, between macroscopically distinct parts of the system. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is: given a system in a well-defined initial equilibrium state, and given its surroundings, and given its constitutive walls, to calculate what will be the final equilibrium state of the system after a specified thermodynamic operation has changed its walls or surroundings.
2349:, also known as statistical thermodynamics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular theories in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and supplemented classical thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining classical thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and
2938:, that increases as the constraints are removed, eventually reaching a maximum value at thermodynamic equilibrium, when the inhomogeneities practically vanish. For systems that are initially far from thermodynamic equilibrium, though several have been proposed, there is known no general physical principle that determines the rates of approach to thermodynamic equilibrium, and thermodynamics does not deal with such rates. The many versions of the second law all express the general
2407:. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are not in stationary states, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.
35:
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boundaries are fixed. For closed systems, boundaries are real while for open systems boundaries are often imaginary. In the case of a jet engine, a fixed imaginary boundary might be assumed at the intake of the engine, fixed boundaries along the surface of the case and a second fixed imaginary boundary across the exhaust nozzle.
3279:
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3346:. Typically, each thermodynamic process is distinguished from other processes in energetic character according to what parameters, such as temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed; Furthermore, it is useful to group these processes into pairs, in which each variable held constant is one member of a
3553:
are different quantitative measures of the stored energy in a system. Potentials are used to measure the energy changes in systems as they evolve from an initial state to a final state. The potential used depends on the constraints of the system, such as constant temperature or pressure. For example,
3071:
Boundaries are of four types: fixed, movable, real, and imaginary. For example, in an engine, a fixed boundary means the piston is locked at its position, within which a constant volume process might occur. If the piston is allowed to move that boundary is movable while the cylinder and cylinder head
3031:
Matter or energy that pass across the boundary so as to effect a change in the internal energy of the system need to be accounted for in the energy balance equation. The volume contained by the walls can be the region surrounding a single atom resonating energy, such as Max Planck defined in 1900; it
2968:
of temperature. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. The entropy determined relative to this point is the absolute entropy. Alternate definitions include "the entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is smallest at absolute zero," or equivalently
2391:
is the study of transfers of matter and energy in systems or bodies that, by agencies in their surroundings, can be driven from one state of thermodynamic equilibrium to another. The term 'thermodynamic equilibrium' indicates a state of balance, in which all macroscopic flows are zero; in the case of
2474:
The zeroth law was not initially recognized as a separate law of thermodynamics, as its basis in thermodynamical equilibrium was implied in the other laws. The first, second, and third laws had been explicitly stated already, and found common acceptance in the physics community before the importance
2333:
reflects the fact that it represents the first level of understanding of the subject as it developed in the 19th century and describes the changes of a system in terms of macroscopic empirical (large scale, and measurable) parameters. A microscopic interpretation of these concepts was later provided
3302:
Once in thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. Systems in equilibrium are much simpler and easier to understand than are systems which are not in equilibrium. Often, when analysing a dynamic thermodynamic process, the simplifying assumption is made
2436:
Thermodynamics is principally based on a set of four laws which are universally valid when applied to systems that fall within the constraints implied by each. In the various theoretical descriptions of thermodynamics these laws may be expressed in seemingly differing forms, but the most prominent
2797:
With due account of the respective fiducial reference states of the systems, when two systems, which may be of different chemical compositions, initially separated only by an impermeable wall, and otherwise isolated, are combined into a new system by the thermodynamic operation of removal of the
3465:
A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that its state parameters are not appreciably altered when it is brought into contact with the system of interest. When the reservoir is brought into contact with the system, the system is brought into equilibrium with the reservoir. For
3554:
the
Helmholtz and Gibbs energies are the energies available in a system to do useful work when the temperature and volume or the pressure and temperature are fixed, respectively. Thermodynamic potentials cannot be measured in laboratories, but can be computed using molecular thermodynamics .
3466:
example, a pressure reservoir is a system at a particular pressure, which imposes that pressure upon the system to which it is mechanically connected. The Earth's atmosphere is often used as a pressure reservoir. The ocean can act as temperature reservoir when used to cool power plants.
1749:
was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854 which stated, "Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency." German physicist and mathematician
1963:
2934:, that are due to internal 'constraints', or impermeable rigid walls, within it, or to externally imposed forces. The law observes that, when the system is isolated from the outside world and from those forces, there is a definite thermodynamic quantity, its
3695:
2908:, while heat and work are modes of energy transfer by which a process may change this state. A change of internal energy of a system may be achieved by any combination of heat added or removed and work performed on or by the system. As a
2471:, it is not necessary to bring them into contact and measure any changes of their observable properties in time. The law provides an empirical definition of temperature, and justification for the construction of practical thermometers.
3492:, the total energy of a system and its surroundings is conserved. Energy may be transferred into a system by heating, compression, or addition of matter, and extracted from a system by cooling, expansion, or extraction of matter. In
1324:
2315:
The study of thermodynamical systems has developed into several related branches, each using a different fundamental model as a theoretical or experimental basis, or applying the principles to varying types of systems.
2324:
Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermodynamic systems at near-equilibrium, that uses macroscopic, measurable properties. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the
2945:
In macroscopic thermodynamics, the second law is a basic observation applicable to any actual thermodynamic process; in statistical thermodynamics, the second law is postulated to be a consequence of molecular chaos.
7910:
2166:
Clausius, who first stated the basic ideas of the second law in his paper "On the Moving Force of Heat", published in 1850, and is called "one of the founding fathers of thermodynamics", introduced the concept of
4740:
1837:, that describes the direction, thermodynamically, that a system can evolve and quantifies the state of order of a system and that can be used to quantify the useful work that can be extracted from the system.
3290:
As time passes in an isolated system, internal differences of pressures, densities, and temperatures tend to even out. A system in which all equalizing processes have gone to completion is said to be in a
3303:
that each intermediate state in the process is at equilibrium, producing thermodynamic processes which develop so slowly as to allow each intermediate step to be an equilibrium state and are said to be
3454:, the volume of such a sample can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature. Although pressure is defined mechanically, a pressure-measuring device, called a
2972:
Absolute zero, at which all activity would stop if it were possible to achieve, is −273.15 °C (degrees
Celsius), or −459.67 °F (degrees Fahrenheit), or 0 K (kelvin), or 0° R (degrees
3335:
which specifies the relationship between these variables. State may be thought of as the instantaneous quantitative description of a system with a set number of variables held constant.
5047:
The
Newcomen engine was improved from 1711 until Watt's work, making the efficiency comparison subject to qualification, but the increase from the 1865 version was on the order of 100%.
1970:
of the original eight founding schools of thermodynamics. The schools with the most-lasting influence on the modern versions of thermodynamics are the Berlin school, particularly
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Later designs implemented a steam release valve that kept the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a
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4179:
2467:) do not lead to a net change in energy. This law is tacitly assumed in every measurement of temperature. Thus, if one seeks to decide whether two bodies are at the same
1159:
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856:
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Thermodynamic potentials can be derived from the energy balance equation applied to a thermodynamic system. Other thermodynamic potentials can also be obtained through
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2535:
1634:
760:
628:
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994:
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3506:, the second being akin to the resulting "displacement", and the product of the two equaling the amount of energy transferred. The common conjugate variables are:
6516:
2180:
1992:
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1875:
With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to changes in their environment. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in
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Kelvin, William T. (1849) "An
Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat – with Numerical Results Deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam."
6605:
6225:
457:
3439:
states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by
7398:
6647:
4622:
4617:
1840:
In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of the thermodynamic
1313:
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4486:
are derived from quantities that are more directly measurable. Theories that came after, differed in the sense that they made assumptions regarding
2930:
The second law refers to a system of matter and radiation, initially with inhomogeneities in temperature, pressure, chemical potential, and other
2112:
1852:. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, and those properties are in turn related to one another through
1346:
6484:
4591:
3342:
may be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic system proceeding from an initial state to a final state. It can be described by
7705:
6178:
6151:
6110:
6087:
6063:
6025:
5978:
5940:
5810:
5440:
5186:
5127:
5102:
5069:
4975:
4922:
4873:
4734:
4707:
916:
2429:
showing the hot body (boiler), working body (system, steam), and cold body (water), the letters labeled according to the stopping points in
7865:
7827:
3499:
3475:
3347:
1627:
1214:
450:
328:
2912:, the internal energy does not depend on the manner, or on the path through intermediate steps, by which the system arrived at its state.
883:
2499:). The sudden drop of pressure causes a huge drop of temperature. The moisture in the air freezes, creating a smoke of tiny ice crystals.
3304:
266:
7688:
6044:
2960:
As the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the system approaches a minimum value.
2931:
2079:
in 1712. Although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time.
2071:
and a cylinder engine. He did not, however, follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer
1398:
1372:
893:
347:
5357:
5275:
2475:
of the zeroth law for the definition of temperature was realized. As it was impractical to renumber the other laws, it was named the
2303:
in 1858 to designate the science of relations between heat and power, however, Joule never used that term, but used instead the term
7730:
7443:
6979:
6708:
6279:
5729:
5580:
4840:
2140:
1746:
299:
3048:. When a looser viewpoint is adopted, and the requirement of thermodynamic equilibrium is dropped, the system can be the body of a
1451:
2135:. The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously in the 1850s, primarily out of the works of William Rankine,
2098:
was employed as an instrument maker. Black and Watt performed experiments together, but it was Watt who conceived the idea of the
6799:
5001:
4637:
4632:
3435:. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example, the
3075:
Generally, thermodynamics distinguishes three classes of systems, defined in terms of what is allowed to cross their boundaries:
922:
321:
1954:
is often treated as an extension of the classical treatment, but statistical mechanics has brought many advances to that field.
7880:
7694:
7074:
5751:
1620:
2996:, which is a precisely defined region of the universe under study. Everything in the universe except the system is called the
2421:
2116:(1824), a discourse on heat, power, energy and engine efficiency. The book outlined the basic energetic relations between the
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5559:
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1951:
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83:
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a truer and sounder basis. His most important paper, "On the Moving Force of Heat", published in 1850, first stated the
911:
114:
104:
6243:
3028:, between the system and the surroundings, take place through the walls, according to their respective permeabilities.
7746:
7548:
7059:
6994:
6912:
6824:
6688:
6569:
3489:
3331:
according to how they change when the size of the system changes. The properties of the system can be described by an
2955:
2901:, which states that energy can be transformed (changed from one form to another), but cannot be created or destroyed.
2504:
2028:'s long-held supposition that 'nature abhors a vacuum'. Shortly after Guericke, the Anglo-Irish physicist and chemist
1818:
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109:
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79:
2451:
If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
7948:
7807:
7771:
7573:
7203:
7158:
7086:
6938:
6881:
6208:
4525:
4510:
4505:
4289:
3496:, for example, energy transfer equals the product of the force applied to a body and the resulting displacement.
3428:
3296:
3178:
3065:
2709:
2404:
2005:
1947:
1785:
and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field. Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged.
1196:
944:
390:
203:
193:
2064:, which was a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confined steam until a high pressure was generated.
7995:
7817:
7513:
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6783:
6768:
6506:
6253:
4520:
3003:
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By a surface-level analysis, the word consists of two parts that can be traced back to
Ancient Greek. Firstly,
1730:
4782:
The
Mechanical Theory of Heat – with its Applications to the Steam Engine and to Physical Properties of Bodies
2964:
This law of thermodynamics is a statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the impossibility of reaching
5354:
2463:
under consideration. Systems are said to be in equilibrium if the small, random exchanges between them (e.g.
2380:. The primary objective of chemical thermodynamics is determining the spontaneity of a given transformation.
2272:
8026:
7990:
7915:
7837:
7766:
7710:
7642:
7538:
7453:
7363:
7328:
6804:
4647:
4515:
4474:, a notion that was introduced by Carathéodory himself. In this formulation, thermodynamic concepts such as
4471:
4444:
4432:
4361:
3550:
3514:
3397:
2752:
decrease or be consumed, so that the amount of internal energy lost by that work must be resupplied as heat
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2201:
2185:
2045:
1997:
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936:
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411:
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66:
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1932:
1924:
1814:
1774:
1719:
1683:
1541:
1461:
1258:
342:
96:
71:
3008:
which may be a physical or notional, but serve to confine the system to a finite volume. Segments of the
2220:
in the 19th century wrote about chemical thermodynamics. During the early 20th century, chemists such as
8000:
7678:
7637:
7353:
7024:
6844:
6595:
6564:
6427:
6348:
6238:
5677:
4487:
3747:
3485:
3339:
3292:
3092:
3017:
2997:
2656:(for which heat or work through the system boundary are possible, but matter transfer is not possible),
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2132:
2021:
1979:
1920:
1916:
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61:
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4729:. Vol. 1. London, Cambridge: C.J. Clay, M.A. & Son, Cambridge University Press. p. 232.
4221:
4097:
3690:{\displaystyle \int \left(T\,\mathrm {d} S-p\,\mathrm {d} V+\sum _{i}\mu _{i}\mathrm {d} N_{i}\right)}
7802:
7792:
7736:
7673:
7568:
7148:
7097:
6663:
6554:
6378:
6338:
5760:
5461:
4902:
3503:
3432:
3431:, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is any device which measures any parameter of a
3141:
3104:
2993:
2653:
2539:
2460:
2456:
2213:
2175:
2160:
1912:
1715:
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1471:
271:
145:
133:
6018:
Molecular
Driving Forces: Statistical Thermodynamics in Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and Nanoscience
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6859:
6829:
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6529:
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6343:
6320:
6296:
6248:
4183:
4022:
3909:
3805:
3701:
3440:
3366:
3316:
2905:
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2144:
1896:
1869:
1865:
1501:
1496:
1263:
285:
251:
246:
159:
5829:
Kazakov, Andrei; Muzny, Chris D.; Chirico, Robert D.; Diky, Vladimir V.; Frenkel, Michael (2008).
2593:
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7468:
7463:
7253:
7064:
7049:
6631:
6585:
6462:
6457:
6410:
6128:
5996:
5917:
5702:
5413:
5405:
5157:
4940:
4756:
4530:
4385:
4156:
3534:
3403:
3375:
3328:
3324:
2426:
2369:
2053:
1707:
1590:
1253:
1201:
1114:
1059:
1004:
433:
417:
304:
256:
241:
231:
40:
34:
4700:
On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat
3315:
When a system is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions, it is said to be in a definite
2969:"it is impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature by any finite number of processes".
2143:(Lord Kelvin). The foundations of statistical thermodynamics were set out by physicists such as
1248:
838:
791:
706:
659:
571:
524:
5901:
The
Principles of Chemical Equilibrium: With Applications in Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
5634:"Topology of thermodynamic potentials using physical models: Helmholtz, Gibbs, Grand, and Null"
5334:
2259:
7503:
7458:
7213:
7208:
7138:
7034:
6870:
6673:
6600:
6549:
6494:
6474:
6360:
6219:
6184:
6174:
6157:
6147:
6116:
6106:
6083:
6059:
6040:
6021:
5984:
5974:
5936:
5868:
5850:
5816:
5806:
5776:
5725:
5694:
5653:
5614:
5576:
5555:
5436:
5397:
5192:
5182:
5123:
5098:
5075:
5065:
5030:
4981:
4971:
4928:
4918:
4879:
4869:
4846:
4836:
4730:
4703:
4576:
3955:
3393:
3357:
3332:
2632:
2517:
2350:
2189:
2099:
2009:
1946:
This article is focused mainly on classical thermodynamics which primarily studies systems in
1936:
1892:
1853:
1782:
1687:
1585:
1546:
1536:
1108:
906:
742:
734:
607:
236:
226:
168:
6616:
4077:
3983:
2772:
by an external energy source or as work by an external machine acting on the system (so that
2292:
is used by
Thomson and William Rankine to represent the science of generalized heat engines.
7970:
7725:
7720:
7303:
7009:
6907:
6902:
6897:
6814:
6539:
6479:
6405:
5858:
5842:
5768:
5686:
5645:
5606:
5389:
5023:
5018:
4910:
4490:
with arbitrary initial and final states, as opposed to considering only neighboring states.
3502:
are pairs of thermodynamic concepts, with the first being akin to a "force" applied to some
3384:
3343:
3323:
that do not depend on the process by which the system arrived at its state. They are called
3049:
2229:
2221:
2148:
2131:, originally trained as a physicist and a civil and mechanical engineering professor at the
1983:
1967:
1888:
1793:
predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior. In 1909,
1506:
1491:
1431:
1426:
1243:
1238:
964:
888:
356:
221:
5595:"Eight physical systems of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and computer simulations"
4125:
8021:
7965:
7937:
7579:
7493:
7488:
7433:
7423:
7413:
7343:
7283:
7198:
7183:
7004:
6999:
6974:
6969:
6839:
6763:
6559:
6469:
6415:
6315:
6008:
5361:
5149:
5005:
4952:
4675:
4571:
4367:
4068:
3879:
3775:
3577:
3538:
3416:
3252:
2939:
2510:
2464:
2156:
2136:
2090:, which were necessary for the development of thermodynamics, were developed by Professor
2076:
1971:
1857:
1751:
1742:
1456:
1304:
958:
599:
422:
183:
150:
6258:
5764:
5465:
5271:
4906:
4780:
3458:
may also be constructed from a sample of an ideal gas held at a constant temperature. A
475:
7715:
7612:
7388:
7368:
7333:
7268:
7188:
7029:
7019:
6928:
6748:
6703:
6698:
6489:
6444:
6310:
6099:
5863:
5830:
5799:
5526:
5327:
4597:
4555:
4411:
4391:
4343:
4319:
4295:
4271:
3962:
3858:
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3584:
3320:
3087:
2909:
2775:
2755:
2735:
2715:
2683:
2659:
2568:
2546:
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2061:
2049:
2032:
had learned of
Guericke's designs and, in 1656, in coordination with English scientist
1962:
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1281:
817:
770:
685:
638:
550:
503:
381:
261:
198:
188:
5304:
4998:
1741:(1824) who believed that engine efficiency was the key that could help France win the
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7543:
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6854:
6753:
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6713:
6624:
5706:
5224:
4829:
3448:
3061:
3053:
2973:
2965:
2225:
2117:
2083:
2072:
1987:
1580:
898:
467:
428:
140:
5417:
2267:
2036:, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed a correlation between
7975:
7653:
7553:
7528:
7523:
7518:
7448:
7383:
7263:
7233:
7173:
7168:
7143:
7054:
6933:
6849:
6773:
6758:
6743:
6524:
3412:
3033:
2430:
2217:
2121:
2103:
2091:
2033:
2029:
1928:
1755:
1734:
1711:
1531:
1516:
1466:
949:
5746:
2248:
5143:
3462:
is a device which is used to measure and define the internal energy of a system.
2232:
applied the mathematical methods of Gibbs to the analysis of chemical processes.
2216:
in such a manner, one can determine if a process would occur spontaneously. Also
7985:
7627:
7584:
7558:
7498:
7478:
7473:
7348:
7308:
7293:
7238:
7163:
7133:
7128:
6944:
6809:
6728:
4483:
3524:
3459:
3444:
3407:
2468:
2300:
2254:
2205:
2087:
2057:
2041:
2013:
1880:
1777:
was quickly extended to the study of chemical compounds and chemical reactions.
1723:
1703:
1691:
1663:
1486:
294:
5594:
4451:, for example by finding a mathematically rigorous way to express the familiar
2732:
done by a system on its surrounding requires that the system's internal energy
2124:, and motive power. It marked the start of thermodynamics as a modern science.
7741:
7663:
7594:
7563:
7438:
7408:
7338:
7288:
7258:
7243:
7218:
7123:
6923:
6819:
6738:
6678:
6544:
6534:
5672:
5610:
4587:
2984:
2942:
of the transitions involved in systems approaching thermodynamic equilibrium.
2795:
For processes that include transfer of matter, a further statement is needed:
2152:
2095:
1900:
1790:
1575:
1521:
5854:
5780:
5698:
5657:
5618:
5401:
5298:
5120:
From Watt to Clausius: The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age
5079:
7700:
7378:
7373:
7323:
7298:
7153:
6949:
6395:
6264:
6188:
6161:
6120:
5820:
5196:
5034:
4985:
4932:
4883:
3518:
3493:
3455:
2025:
1940:
1908:
1798:
1679:
173:
5988:
5872:
4850:
6203:
3443:
in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized
2897:
Adapted for thermodynamics, this law is an expression of the principle of
1766:. In 1865 he introduced the concept of entropy. In 1870 he introduced the
7683:
7617:
7118:
6918:
6718:
6693:
6668:
5846:
5835:
Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology
5825:
A nontechnical introduction, good on historical and interpretive matters.
4337:
3851:
3510:
3388:
3370:
3036:, such as Sadi Carnot defined in 1824. The system could also be just one
2209:
2037:
1289:
1206:
998:
406:
178:
5831:"Web Thermo Tables – an On-Line Version of the TRC Thermodynamic Tables"
5541:, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2010, ISBN 978-3527327522, S. 47
5409:
5377:
4914:
3016:; they have respective defined 'permeabilities'. Transfers of energy as
2056:. Then, in 1679, based on these concepts, an associate of Boyle's named
7193:
6865:
5690:
5633:
5393:
4678:. The opposite sign convention is customary in chemical thermodynamics.
4479:
4313:
3528:
3379:
3037:
2935:
2197:
2168:
1904:
1876:
1834:
1729:
Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the
1699:
1686:, which convey a quantitative description using measurable macroscopic
1671:
1651:
395:
5772:
5649:
2403:
is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in
7870:
7622:
7428:
7178:
6499:
6218:
5179:
The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Volume One: Thermodynamics
4534:
3481:
3025:
2926:
Heat does not spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body.
2365:
2193:
2068:
2017:
1884:
1821:
specifies that energy can be transferred between physical systems as
1675:
1667:
4808:
Clausius, RJE (1870). "On a Mechanical Theorem Applicable to Heat".
7885:
7318:
5951:
Bawendi Moungi G., Alberty Robert A. and Silbey Robert J. (2004).
5309:
the fundamental subject of Natural Philosophy is Dynamics, or the
4448:
3041:
2983:
2486:
2420:
1903:. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of
5254:
Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists
2893:
denote the internal energies of the respective separated systems.
7393:
7313:
6037:
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics: An Integrated Approach
4475:
3361:
3097:
3021:
3002:. A system is separated from the remainder of the universe by a
1822:
1655:
371:
6620:
6268:
5378:"William Thomson and the Creation of Thermodynamics: 1840-1855"
5256:, 1st edition 1949, 5th edition 1967, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
4458:
The first attempt at an axiomatic theory of thermodynamics was
5632:
Nitzke, Isabel; Stephan, Simon; Vrabec, Jadran (3 June 2024).
5458:
Thermodynamics of Complex Systems: Principles and applications
5435:. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 4.
4623:
List of textbooks on thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
2174:
During the years 1873–76 the American mathematical physicist
5973:. Vol. 48. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 1–458.
5313:.... Every phenomenon in nature is a manifestation of force.
5145:
Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences
2024:. Guericke was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove
1781:
studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of
5352:
Transactions of the Edinburg Royal Society, XVI. January 2.
4702:. Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik, LXXIX (Dover Reprint).
3447:
is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the
1813:
A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four
1682:. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four
4447:
that aims to describe thermodynamics in terms of rigorous
3319:. The state of the system can be described by a number of
2178:
published a series of three papers, the most famous being
2052:
was formulated, which states that pressure and volume are
5554:, American Institute of Physics, AIP Press, Woodbury NY,
5499:. Chemistry Europe (chemistryviews.org). 17 December 2010
5226:
Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances
4798:
Contains English translations of many of his other works.
6056:
Biomolecular Thermodynamics: From Theory to Applications
5519:
Sekt, Champagner & Co. So prickelnd kann Chemie sein
2127:
The first thermodynamic textbook was written in 1859 by
1698:. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in
6234:
Thermodynamics Data & Property Calculation Websites
5971:
Biochemical Thermodynamics: Applications of Mathematica
5908:
Stull, D.R., Westrum Jr., E.F. and Sinke, G.C. (1969).
3378:: a reversible adiabatic process, occurs at a constant
2871:
denotes the internal energy of the combined system, and
2509:
In a process without transfer of matter, the change in
5882:
The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs Thermodynamics
5673:"Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik"
5573:
Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics
3353:
Several commonly studied thermodynamic processes are:
2455:
This statement implies that thermal equilibrium is an
5935:. St. Petersburg: Lan publishing house. p. 384.
5892:
Modern thermodynamics by the methods of Willard Gibbs
5575:, second edition, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken NY,
4414:
4394:
4370:
4346:
4322:
4298:
4274:
4224:
4186:
4159:
4128:
4100:
4080:
4025:
3986:
3965:
3912:
3882:
3861:
3808:
3778:
3757:
3704:
3608:
3587:
2808:
2778:
2758:
2738:
2718:
2686:
2662:
2635:
2596:
2571:
2549:
2520:
2271:("science of force ") can be traced back to the root
1117:
1062:
1007:
967:
841:
820:
794:
773:
745:
709:
688:
662:
641:
610:
574:
553:
527:
506:
478:
2792:
is recovered) to make the system work continuously.
1737:, particularly through the work of French physicist
7958:
7924:
7851:
7755:
7603:
7106:
6792:
6654:
6578:
6515:
6443:
6359:
6331:
6303:
6144:
Concise Thermodynamics: Principles and Applications
5303:. Vol. 1. MacMillan and Co., Limited. p.
4899:
Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics
4464:
Investigations on the Foundations of Thermodynamics
2012:who, in 1650, built and designed the world's first
6098:
6097:Cengel, Yunus A., & Boles, Michael A. (2002).
5798:
5333:(2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p.
5326:
5300:The Life of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs
5241:Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of J.W. Gibbs
5022:
4897:Smith, J.M.; Van Ness, H.C.; Abbott, M.M. (2005).
4828:
4420:
4400:
4376:
4352:
4328:
4304:
4280:
4255:
4209:
4173:
4146:
4113:
4086:
4056:
4010:
3971:
3943:
3897:
3867:
3839:
3793:
3763:
3735:
3689:
3593:
2847:
2784:
2764:
2744:
2724:
2708:its surroundings. An equivalent statement is that
2692:
2668:
2644:
2617:
2577:
2555:
2529:
1864:, which are useful for determining conditions for
1153:
1098:
1043:
988:
850:
826:
803:
779:
754:
718:
694:
671:
647:
622:
583:
559:
536:
512:
487:
6254:Engineering Thermodynamics – A Graphical Approach
6229:. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). pp. 808–814.
5433:Chemical Thermodynamics: Basic Theory and Methods
3480:The central concept of thermodynamics is that of
2192:, could be graphically analyzed, by studying the
2106:efficiency. Drawing on all the previous work led
2008:as a scientific discipline generally begins with
1789:, or statistical mechanics, concerns itself with
5910:The Chemical Thermodynamics of Organic Compounds
5211:Le Potential Thermodynamique et ses Applications
4774:
4772:
4618:List of important publications in thermodynamics
1986:, and the Gibbsian school at Yale University of
1801:formulation, a description often referred to as
6169:Kroemer, Herbert & Kittel, Charles (1980).
5724:(second ed.). Cambridge University Press.
5593:Graben, H.W.; Ray, John R. (10 December 1993).
5525:8. Dezember 2009: Vol. 43, Issue 6, S. 418-432
5478:Moran, Michael J. and Howard N. Shapiro, 2008.
4428:is the count of particles types in the system.
2904:Internal energy is a principal property of the
2652:denotes the change in the internal energy of a
1797:presented a purely mathematical approach in an
4723:William Thomson, LL.D. D.C.L., F.R.S. (1882).
2992:An important concept in thermodynamics is the
2700:denotes the amount of thermodynamic work done
2181:On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances
1993:On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances
6632:
6280:
5493:"Sparkling Wine, Champagne & Co - Part 2"
5346:
5344:
4551:Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics
2425:Annotated color version of the original 1824
2110:, the "father of thermodynamics", to publish
1773:The initial application of thermodynamics to
1628:
8:
6133:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5922:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5162:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5093:Cengel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. (2005).
4901:. Vol. 27 (7th ed.). p. 584.
4761:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4250:
4237:
4051:
4038:
3938:
3925:
3834:
3821:
3730:
3717:
2307:in reference to Thomson's 1849 phraseology.
4408:the number of particles in the system, and
3360:: occurs without loss or gain of energy by
2988:A diagram of a generic thermodynamic system
1833:defines the existence of a quantity called
1722:, but also in other complex fields such as
7399:High efficiency glandless circulating pump
6648:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
6639:
6625:
6617:
6287:
6273:
6265:
5480:Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics
5371:
5369:
5223:Lewis, Gilbert N.; Randall, Merle (1923).
1635:
1621:
1184:
336:
155:
33:
22:
6073:The following titles are more technical:
5862:
5055:
5053:
4413:
4393:
4369:
4345:
4321:
4297:
4273:
4244:
4223:
4201:
4191:
4185:
4170:
4164:
4158:
4127:
4105:
4099:
4079:
4045:
4024:
3985:
3964:
3932:
3911:
3881:
3860:
3828:
3807:
3777:
3756:
3724:
3703:
3676:
3667:
3661:
3651:
3636:
3635:
3621:
3620:
3607:
3586:
3557:The five most well known potentials are:
2839:
2826:
2813:
2807:
2777:
2757:
2737:
2717:
2685:
2661:
2634:
2595:
2586:, done by the system on its surroundings.
2570:
2548:
2519:
1754:restated Carnot's principle known as the
1116:
1061:
1006:
966:
840:
819:
793:
772:
744:
708:
687:
661:
640:
609:
573:
552:
526:
505:
477:
7833:Mold growth, assessment, and remediation
6259:Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
6249:Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
6101:Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach
5797:Goldstein, Martin & Inge F. (1993).
5722:The Geometry of Physics: An Introduction
5095:Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach
4666:The sign convention (Q is heat supplied
3559:
3077:
2676:denotes the quantity of energy supplied
1961:
1856:. Properties can be combined to express
5962:Thermodynamics of Biochemical Reactions
5266:
5264:
5262:
4690:
4659:
2712:of the first kind are impossible; work
2113:Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire
1381:
1358:
1312:
1272:
1222:
1187:
380:
355:
284:
211:
158:
25:
6485:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
6126:
6004:
5994:
5915:
5155:
4948:
4938:
4754:
3079:Interactions of thermodynamic systems
2542:is equal to the energy gained as heat,
2102:which resulted in a large increase in
18:Physics of heat, work, and temperature
7706:Programmable communicating thermostat
6016:Dill Ken A., Bromberg Sarina (2011).
5903:. London: Cambridge University Press.
5747:"Classical Thermodynamics Simplified"
5382:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
5148:. Vol. III. New Haven. pp.
3400:(also called isometric/isovolumetric)
2364:is the study of the interrelation of
2265:, meaning "heat". Secondly, the word
7:
7828:Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
5955:. J. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
5278:from the original on 29 October 2023
2094:at the University of Glasgow, where
2075:built the first engine, followed by
6239:Thermodynamics Educational Websites
6217:Callendar, Hugh Longbourne (1911).
6080:Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics
5912:. London: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
5884:. New York: Longmans, Green and Co.
3032:can be a body of steam or air in a
2295:Pierre Perrot claims that the term
1690:, but may be explained in terms of
7689:Minimum efficiency reporting value
5497:Sparkling Wine, Champagne & Co
4743:from the original on 18 April 2021
4102:
4081:
3668:
3637:
3622:
3056:theorized in 1986 in the field of
2636:
2597:
2521:
2252:("of heat"; used in words such as
842:
795:
710:
663:
575:
528:
348:Intensive and extensive properties
14:
7731:Standard temperature and pressure
7444:Packaged terminal air conditioner
6980:Passive daytime radiative cooling
6709:Heat pump and refrigeration cycle
5801:The Refrigerator and the Universe
5745:Rastall, Peter (1 October 1970).
3415:: occurs without a change in the
2848:{\displaystyle U_{0}=U_{1}+U_{2}}
2258:) can be traced back to the root
1674:, and the physical properties of
6800:Absorption-compression heat pump
6202:
5894:. London: Methuen & co. ltd.
5142:Gibbs, Willard, J. (1874–1878).
4866:Entropy and its Physical Meaning
4726:Mathematical and Physical Papers
4638:Table of thermodynamic equations
4633:List of thermodynamic properties
4590:
4256:{\displaystyle T,V,\{\mu _{i}\}}
4114:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\text{G}}}
3277:
3267:
3257:
3240:
3230:
3220:
3203:
3193:
3183:
3166:
3156:
3146:
3129:
3119:
3109:
2437:formulations are the following.
1604:
1603:
923:Table of thermodynamic equations
7695:Normal temperature and pressure
7075:Vapor-compression refrigeration
6606:Timeline of physics discoveries
6142:Dunning-Davies, Jeremy (1997).
5752:Journal of Mathematical Physics
5638:The Journal of Chemical Physics
5460:. IOP Publishing, Bristol, UK.
1829:, and with transfer of matter.
1399:Maxwell's thermodynamic surface
6039:. Cambridge University Press.
5252:Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967).
4970:. Cambridge University Press.
4670:the system as, W is work done
4628:List of thermal conductivities
4546:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
4541:Maximum entropy thermodynamics
4443:Axiomatic thermodynamics is a
2564:, less the thermodynamic work,
2401:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
2396:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
1978:, the Vienna school, with the
1952:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
1817:that form an axiomatic basis.
1133:
1121:
1078:
1066:
1023:
1011:
983:
971:
1:
7843:Testing, adjusting, balancing
7787:Building information modeling
7782:Building services engineering
7359:Ground-coupled heat exchanger
6887:Demand controlled ventilation
6835:Building insulation materials
5482:. 6th ed. Wiley and Sons: 16.
5456:Pokrovskii, Vladimir (2020).
4210:{\displaystyle \mu _{i}N_{i}}
4057:{\displaystyle T,p,\{N_{i}\}}
3944:{\displaystyle S,p,\{N_{i}\}}
3840:{\displaystyle T,V,\{N_{i}\}}
3736:{\displaystyle S,V,\{N_{i}\}}
2920:A traditional version of the
2372:or with a physical change of
2305:perfect thermo-dynamic engine
1976:The Mechanical Theory of Heat
1300:Mechanical equivalent of heat
7404:High-pressure cut-off switch
6955:Ice storage air conditioning
6876:Dedicated outdoor air system
5805:. Harvard University Press.
5272:"Thermodynamics (etymology)"
5025:A Short History of Chemistry
4831:Understanding Thermodynamics
4568:, i.e. Statistical mechanics
2922:second law of thermodynamics
2618:{\displaystyle \Delta U=Q-W}
2447:zeroth law of thermodynamics
2285:is used by William Thomson.
2243:has an intricate etymology.
2082:The fundamental concepts of
1764:second law of thermodynamics
912:Onsager reciprocal relations
7747:Thermostatic radiator valve
7549:Thermostatic radiator valve
7060:Underfloor air distribution
6995:Radiant heating and cooling
6913:Energy recovery ventilation
6825:Automobile air conditioning
6689:Domestic energy consumption
6570:Quantum information science
6244:Biochemistry Thermodynamics
6054:Douglas E. Barrick (2018).
5297:Thompson, Silvanus (1910).
5229:. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.
5064:. Oxford University Press.
4835:. Dover Publications, Inc.
4174:{\displaystyle \sum _{i}\,}
2956:third law of thermodynamics
2505:first law of thermodynamics
2376:within the confines of the
1404:Entropy as energy dispersal
1215:"Perpetual motion" machines
1154:{\displaystyle G(T,p)=H-TS}
1099:{\displaystyle A(T,V)=U-TS}
1044:{\displaystyle H(S,p)=U+pV}
8048:
7896:Institute of Refrigeration
7777:Architectural technologist
7249:Electrostatic precipitator
6401:Classical electromagnetism
5969:Alberty Robert A. (2006).
5960:Alberty Robert A. (2003).
5720:Frankel, Theodore (2004).
5552:A Survey of Thermodynamics
5527:doi:10.1002/ciuz.200900520
5376:Smith, Crosbie W. (1977).
4966:Haynie, Donald T. (2001).
4643:Timeline of thermodynamics
4606:Thermodynamic process path
4566:Statistical thermodynamics
4526:Equilibrium thermodynamics
4501:Atmospheric thermodynamics
3473:
3058:atmospheric thermodynamics
2414:
2389:Equilibrium thermodynamics
2384:Equilibrium thermodynamics
2353:at the microscopic level.
2311:Branches of thermodynamics
1803:geometrical thermodynamics
1787:Statistical thermodynamics
851:{\displaystyle \partial T}
804:{\displaystyle \partial V}
719:{\displaystyle \partial p}
672:{\displaystyle \partial V}
584:{\displaystyle \partial T}
537:{\displaystyle \partial S}
7949:Volatile organic compound
7808:Environmental engineering
7772:Architectural engineering
7574:Ultra-low particulate air
7159:Automatic balancing valve
7087:Variable refrigerant flow
6939:Heat recovery ventilation
6882:Deep water source cooling
5671:Carathéodory, C. (1909).
5611:10.1080/00268979300102971
5571:Callen, H.B. (1960/1985).
5329:Biological Thermodynamics
5325:Donald T. Haynie (2008).
5239:Guggenheim, E.A. (1933).
5118:Cardwell, D.S.L. (1971),
4999:Schools of thermodynamics
4968:Biological Thermodynamics
4785:. London: John van Voorst
4698:Clausius, Rudolf (1850).
4511:Black hole thermodynamics
4506:Biological thermodynamics
3429:thermodynamic instruments
3297:thermodynamic equilibrium
2710:perpetual motion machines
2405:thermodynamic equilibrium
2184:, in which he showed how
2006:history of thermodynamics
1948:thermodynamic equilibrium
1770:, which applied to heat.
1325:An Inquiry Concerning the
7996:Template:Home automation
7818:Kitchen exhaust cleaning
7514:Solar-assisted heat pump
7114:Air conditioner inverter
6893:Displacement ventilation
6784:Vapour pressure of water
6769:Thermal destratification
6507:Condensed matter physics
6173:. W.H. Freeman Company.
5933:Thermodynamics: Textbook
5890:Guggenheim E.A. (1933).
5886:Vol. 1, pp. 55–349.
5539:Chemische Köstlichkeiten
5062:A to Z of Thermodynamics
4827:Van Ness, H.C. (1983) .
4521:Classical thermodynamics
4439:Axiomatic thermodynamics
3551:Thermodynamic potentials
2680:the system as heat, and
2645:{\displaystyle \Delta U}
2530:{\displaystyle \Delta U}
2320:Classical thermodynamics
1862:thermodynamic potentials
1745:. Scots-Irish physicist
1666:, and their relation to
1338:Heterogeneous Substances
755:{\displaystyle \alpha =}
623:{\displaystyle \beta =-}
7991:World Refrigeration Day
7838:Refrigerant reclamation
7767:Architectural acoustics
7711:Programmable thermostat
7643:Clean air delivery rate
7539:Thermal expansion valve
7454:Pressurisation ductwork
7364:Ground source heat pump
6805:Absorption refrigerator
6226:Encyclopædia Britannica
6035:M. Scott Shell (2015).
5177:Gibbs, Willard (1993).
5060:Perrot, Pierre (1998).
5004:7 December 2017 at the
4674:the system) is that of
4648:Thermodynamic equations
4516:Chemical thermodynamics
4488:thermodynamic processes
4472:adiabatic accessibility
4460:Constantin Carathéodory
4445:mathematical discipline
4433:Legendre transformation
4087:{\displaystyle \Omega }
4011:{\displaystyle U+pV-TS}
3427:There are two types of
3406:: occurs at a constant
3369:: occurs at a constant
3012:are often described as
2362:Chemical thermodynamics
2357:Chemical thermodynamics
2281:In 1849, the adjective
2186:thermodynamic processes
1998:chemical thermodynamics
1795:Constantin Carathéodory
1779:Chemical thermodynamics
1775:mechanical heat engines
7981:Glossary of HVAC terms
7943:Sick building syndrome
7823:Mechanical engineering
7534:Smoke exhaust ductwork
6965:Mixed-mode ventilation
6591:Nobel Prize in Physics
6453:Relativistic mechanics
6261:by Richard Fitzpatrick
6220:"Thermodynamics"
6146:. Horwood Publishing.
6078:Bejan, Adrian (2016).
5431:Klotz, Irving (2008).
5209:Duhem, P.M.M. (1886).
4868:. Taylor and Francis.
4864:Dugdale, J.S. (1998).
4810:Philosophical Magazine
4795:editions:PwR_Sbkwa8IC.
4561:Quantum thermodynamics
4453:laws of thermodynamics
4422:
4402:
4378:
4354:
4330:
4306:
4282:
4257:
4211:
4175:
4148:
4115:
4088:
4058:
4012:
3973:
3945:
3899:
3869:
3841:
3795:
3765:
3737:
3691:
3595:
3541:(material parameters).
3046:quantum thermodynamics
2989:
2899:conservation of energy
2849:
2786:
2766:
2746:
2726:
2694:
2670:
2646:
2619:
2579:
2557:
2531:
2500:
2497:high-speed photography
2433:
2417:Laws of thermodynamics
2411:Laws of thermodynamics
2378:laws of thermodynamics
2334:by the development of
2327:laws of thermodynamics
2266:
2247:
2054:inversely proportional
2001:
1933:biomedical engineering
1925:mechanical engineering
1815:laws of thermodynamics
1720:mechanical engineering
1684:laws of thermodynamics
1155:
1100:
1045:
990:
989:{\displaystyle U(S,V)}
852:
828:
805:
781:
756:
720:
696:
673:
649:
624:
585:
561:
538:
514:
489:
468:Specific heat capacity
72:Quantum thermodynamics
8001:Template:Solar energy
7679:Intelligent buildings
7638:Carbon dioxide sensor
7025:Room air distribution
6845:Central solar heating
6596:Philosophy of physics
6082:(4 ed.). Wiley.
5964:. Wiley-Interscience.
5931:Bazarov I.P. (2010).
5678:Mathematische Annalen
5122:, London: Heinemann,
4779:Clausius, R. (1867).
4423:
4403:
4379:
4355:
4331:
4307:
4283:
4258:
4212:
4176:
4149:
4147:{\displaystyle U-TS-}
4116:
4089:
4069:Landau potential, or
4059:
4013:
3974:
3946:
3900:
3870:
3842:
3796:
3766:
3748:Helmholtz free energy
3738:
3692:
3596:
3531:(thermal parameters);
3396:: occurs at constant
3387:: occurs at constant
3340:thermodynamic process
3216:Mechanically isolated
3044:) as hypothesized in
2987:
2850:
2787:
2767:
2747:
2727:
2695:
2671:
2647:
2620:
2580:
2558:
2532:
2490:
2461:thermodynamic systems
2424:
2347:Statistical mechanics
2342:Statistical mechanics
2336:statistical mechanics
2133:University of Glasgow
2022:Magdeburg hemispheres
1980:statistical mechanics
1965:
1921:aerospace engineering
1917:corrosion engineering
1870:spontaneous processes
1696:statistical mechanics
1336:On the Equilibrium of
1156:
1101:
1054:Helmholtz free energy
1046:
991:
853:
829:
806:
782:
757:
721:
697:
674:
650:
625:
586:
562:
539:
515:
490:
8032:Chemical engineering
7803:Duct leakage testing
7793:Deep energy retrofit
7737:Thermographic camera
7674:Infrared thermometer
7149:Air source heat pump
7098:Water heat recycling
6664:Air changes per hour
6555:Mathematical physics
6211:at Wikimedia Commons
5947:5th ed. (in Russian)
5847:10.6028/jres.113.016
5360:24 July 2017 at the
4466:, which made use of
4412:
4392:
4377:{\displaystyle \mu }
4368:
4344:
4320:
4296:
4272:
4222:
4184:
4157:
4126:
4098:
4078:
4023:
3984:
3963:
3910:
3898:{\displaystyle U+pV}
3880:
3859:
3806:
3794:{\displaystyle U-TS}
3776:
3755:
3702:
3606:
3585:
3504:thermodynamic system
3484:, the ability to do
3433:thermodynamic system
3413:Steady state process
3311:States and processes
3305:reversible processes
2994:thermodynamic system
2932:intensive properties
2806:
2776:
2756:
2736:
2716:
2684:
2660:
2633:
2594:
2569:
2547:
2540:thermodynamic system
2518:
2491:Opening a bottle of
2457:equivalence relation
2214:thermodynamic system
2176:Josiah Willard Gibbs
1990:' 1876 and his book
1913:chemical engineering
1716:chemical engineering
1349:Motive Power of Fire
1115:
1060:
1005:
965:
917:Bridgman's equations
894:Fundamental relation
839:
818:
792:
771:
743:
707:
686:
660:
639:
608:
572:
551:
525:
504:
476:
7669:HVAC control system
7659:Home energy monitor
7633:Building automation
7419:Inverter compressor
7081:Variable air volume
6990:Passive ventilation
6960:Kitchen ventilation
6860:Constant air volume
6830:Autonomous building
6530:Atmospheric physics
6369:Classical mechanics
6297:branches of physics
6020:. Garland Science.
5899:Denbigh K. (1981).
5880:Gibbs J.W. (1928).
5765:1970JMP....11.2955R
5550:Bailyn, M. (1994).
5523:Chemie unserer Zeit
5466:2020tcsp.book.....P
4915:10.1021/ed027p584.3
4907:1950JChEd..27..584S
4612:Lists and timelines
4470:and the concept of
3500:Conjugate variables
3476:Conjugate variables
3470:Conjugate variables
3367:Isenthalpic process
3329:extensive variables
3325:intensive variables
3317:thermodynamic state
3080:
2906:thermodynamic state
2278:, meaning "power".
2145:James Clerk Maxwell
2016:and demonstrated a
1897:transport phenomena
1688:physical quantities
1327:Source ... Friction
1259:Loschmidt's paradox
451:Material properties
329:Conjugate variables
7932:Indoor air quality
7876:ASTM International
7813:Hydronic balancing
7590:Wood-burning stove
7469:Radiator reflector
7254:Evaporative cooler
7065:Underfloor heating
7050:Thermal insulation
6586:History of physics
5953:Physical Chemistry
5691:10.1007/BF01450409
5394:10.1007/BF00328156
5243:, Methuen, London.
4531:Industrial ecology
4418:
4398:
4386:chemical potential
4374:
4350:
4326:
4302:
4278:
4253:
4207:
4171:
4169:
4144:
4111:
4084:
4054:
4008:
3969:
3941:
3895:
3865:
3837:
3791:
3761:
3733:
3687:
3656:
3591:
3572:Natural variables
3535:Chemical potential
3404:Isothermal process
3376:Isentropic process
3344:process quantities
3179:Thermally isolated
3078:
3040:(i.e. a system of
2990:
2845:
2782:
2762:
2742:
2722:
2690:
2666:
2642:
2615:
2575:
2553:
2527:
2501:
2434:
2427:Carnot heat engine
2370:chemical reactions
2288:In 1854, the noun
2190:chemical reactions
2100:external condenser
2002:
1893:chemical reactions
1854:equations of state
1783:chemical reactions
1708:physical chemistry
1591:Order and disorder
1347:Reflections on the
1254:Heat death paradox
1151:
1096:
1041:
986:
848:
824:
801:
777:
752:
716:
692:
669:
645:
620:
581:
557:
534:
510:
488:{\displaystyle c=}
485:
458:Property databases
434:Reduced properties
418:Chemical potential
382:Functions of state
305:Thermal efficiency
41:Carnot heat engine
8009:
8008:
7925:Health and safety
7504:Scroll compressor
7459:Process duct work
7214:Convection heater
7209:Condensing boiler
7139:Air-mixing plenum
7035:Solar combisystem
6871:Cross ventilation
6674:Building envelope
6614:
6613:
6601:Physics education
6550:Materials science
6517:Interdisciplinary
6475:Quantum mechanics
6207:Media related to
6180:978-0-7167-1088-2
6153:978-1-8985-6315-0
6112:978-0-07-238332-4
6089:978-1-119-05209-8
6065:978-1-4398-0019-5
6027:978-0-8153-4430-8
5980:978-0-471-75798-6
5942:978-5-8114-1003-3
5812:978-0-674-75325-9
5773:10.1063/1.1665080
5759:(10): 2955–2965.
5650:10.1063/5.0207592
5599:Molecular Physics
5442:978-0-471-78015-1
5213:, Hermann, Paris.
5188:978-0-918024-77-0
5129:978-0-435-54150-7
5104:978-0-07-310768-4
5071:978-0-19-856552-9
4977:978-0-521-79549-4
4924:978-0-07-310445-4
4875:978-0-7484-0569-5
4736:978-0-598-96004-7
4709:978-0-486-59065-3
4577:Polymer chemistry
4421:{\displaystyle i}
4401:{\displaystyle N}
4353:{\displaystyle V}
4329:{\displaystyle p}
4305:{\displaystyle S}
4281:{\displaystyle T}
4266:
4265:
4160:
4108:
3972:{\displaystyle G}
3956:Gibbs free energy
3868:{\displaystyle H}
3764:{\displaystyle F}
3647:
3594:{\displaystyle U}
3394:Isochoric process
3358:Adiabatic process
3333:equation of state
3288:
3287:
2910:function of state
2785:{\displaystyle U}
2765:{\displaystyle Q}
2745:{\displaystyle U}
2725:{\displaystyle W}
2693:{\displaystyle W}
2669:{\displaystyle Q}
2578:{\displaystyle W}
2556:{\displaystyle Q}
2010:Otto von Guericke
1974:'s 1865 textbook
1968:thermodynamicists
1943:, to name a few.
1937:materials science
1889:phase transitions
1645:
1644:
1586:Self-organization
1411:
1410:
1109:Gibbs free energy
907:Maxwell relations
865:
864:
861:
860:
827:{\displaystyle V}
780:{\displaystyle 1}
735:Thermal expansion
729:
728:
695:{\displaystyle V}
648:{\displaystyle 1}
594:
593:
560:{\displaystyle N}
513:{\displaystyle T}
441:
440:
357:Process functions
343:Property diagrams
322:System properties
312:
311:
277:Endoreversibility
169:Equation of state
8039:
7971:Building science
7726:Smart thermostat
7721:Room temperature
7304:Fireplace insert
7010:Radon mitigation
6908:Electric heating
6903:District heating
6898:District cooling
6815:Air conditioning
6641:
6634:
6627:
6618:
6540:Chemical physics
6480:Particle physics
6406:Classical optics
6289:
6282:
6275:
6266:
6230:
6222:
6206:
6192:
6165:
6138:
6132:
6124:
6104:
6093:
6069:
6050:
6031:
6012:
6006:
6002:
6000:
5992:
5965:
5956:
5946:
5927:
5921:
5913:
5904:
5895:
5885:
5876:
5866:
5824:
5804:
5785:
5784:
5742:
5736:
5735:
5717:
5711:
5710:
5668:
5662:
5661:
5629:
5623:
5622:
5605:(5): 1183–1193.
5590:
5584:
5569:
5563:
5548:
5542:
5535:
5529:
5515:
5509:
5508:
5506:
5504:
5489:
5483:
5476:
5470:
5469:
5453:
5447:
5446:
5428:
5422:
5421:
5373:
5364:
5348:
5339:
5338:
5332:
5322:
5316:
5315:
5311:science of force
5294:
5288:
5287:
5285:
5283:
5268:
5257:
5250:
5244:
5237:
5231:
5230:
5220:
5214:
5207:
5201:
5200:
5181:. Ox Bow Press.
5174:
5168:
5167:
5161:
5153:
5139:
5133:
5132:
5115:
5109:
5108:
5090:
5084:
5083:
5057:
5048:
5045:
5039:
5038:
5028:
5019:Partington, J.R.
5015:
5009:
4996:
4990:
4989:
4963:
4957:
4956:
4950:
4946:
4944:
4936:
4894:
4888:
4887:
4861:
4855:
4854:
4834:
4824:
4818:
4817:
4805:
4799:
4797:
4792:
4790:
4776:
4767:
4766:
4760:
4752:
4750:
4748:
4720:
4714:
4713:
4695:
4679:
4664:
4600:
4595:
4594:
4468:Pfaffian systems
4427:
4425:
4424:
4419:
4407:
4405:
4404:
4399:
4383:
4381:
4380:
4375:
4359:
4357:
4356:
4351:
4335:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4311:
4309:
4308:
4303:
4287:
4285:
4284:
4279:
4262:
4260:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4248:
4216:
4214:
4213:
4208:
4206:
4205:
4196:
4195:
4180:
4178:
4177:
4172:
4168:
4153:
4151:
4150:
4145:
4120:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4110:
4109:
4106:
4093:
4091:
4090:
4085:
4063:
4061:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4049:
4017:
4015:
4014:
4009:
3978:
3976:
3975:
3970:
3950:
3948:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3936:
3904:
3902:
3901:
3896:
3874:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3846:
3844:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3832:
3800:
3798:
3797:
3792:
3770:
3768:
3767:
3762:
3742:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3728:
3696:
3694:
3693:
3688:
3686:
3682:
3681:
3680:
3671:
3666:
3665:
3655:
3640:
3625:
3600:
3598:
3597:
3592:
3560:
3385:Isobaric process
3321:state quantities
3284:
3281:
3280:
3274:
3271:
3270:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3237:
3234:
3233:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3190:
3187:
3186:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3163:
3160:
3159:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3136:
3133:
3132:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3081:
3050:tropical cyclone
2891:
2880:
2869:
2854:
2852:
2851:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2831:
2830:
2818:
2817:
2791:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2771:
2769:
2768:
2763:
2751:
2749:
2748:
2743:
2731:
2729:
2728:
2723:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2691:
2675:
2673:
2672:
2667:
2651:
2649:
2648:
2643:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2584:
2582:
2581:
2576:
2562:
2560:
2559:
2554:
2536:
2534:
2533:
2528:
2329:. The qualifier
2230:E. A. Guggenheim
2222:Gilbert N. Lewis
2161:J. Willard Gibbs
2149:Ludwig Boltzmann
1984:Ludwig Boltzmann
1758:and gave to the
1694:constituents by
1654:that deals with
1637:
1630:
1623:
1607:
1606:
1314:Key publications
1295:
1294:("living force")
1244:Brownian ratchet
1239:Entropy and life
1234:Entropy and time
1185:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1152:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1097:
1050:
1048:
1047:
1042:
995:
993:
992:
987:
889:Clausius theorem
884:Carnot's theorem
857:
855:
854:
849:
833:
831:
830:
825:
810:
808:
807:
802:
786:
784:
783:
778:
765:
764:
761:
759:
758:
753:
725:
723:
722:
717:
701:
699:
698:
693:
678:
676:
675:
670:
654:
652:
651:
646:
633:
632:
629:
627:
626:
621:
590:
588:
587:
582:
566:
564:
563:
558:
543:
541:
540:
535:
519:
517:
516:
511:
498:
497:
494:
492:
491:
486:
464:
463:
337:
156:
37:
23:
8047:
8046:
8042:
8041:
8040:
8038:
8037:
8036:
8012:
8011:
8010:
8005:
7966:ASHRAE Handbook
7954:
7938:Passive smoking
7920:
7853:
7847:
7759:
7757:
7751:
7605:
7599:
7580:Whole-house fan
7494:Run-around coil
7489:Reversing valve
7434:Mechanical room
7424:Kerosene heater
7414:Infrared heater
7344:Gasoline heater
7284:Fan filter unit
7199:Condensate pump
7184:Centrifugal fan
7102:
7005:Radiant heating
7000:Radiant cooling
6975:Passive cooling
6970:Microgeneration
6840:Central heating
6788:
6764:Thermal comfort
6656:
6650:
6645:
6615:
6610:
6574:
6560:Medical physics
6511:
6470:Nuclear physics
6439:
6433:Non-equilibrium
6355:
6327:
6299:
6293:
6216:
6199:
6181:
6171:Thermal Physics
6168:
6154:
6141:
6125:
6113:
6105:. McGraw Hill.
6096:
6090:
6077:
6066:
6053:
6047:
6034:
6028:
6015:
6003:
5993:
5981:
5968:
5959:
5950:
5943:
5930:
5914:
5907:
5898:
5889:
5879:
5828:
5813:
5796:
5793:
5791:Further reading
5788:
5744:
5743:
5739:
5732:
5719:
5718:
5714:
5670:
5669:
5665:
5631:
5630:
5626:
5592:
5591:
5587:
5570:
5566:
5549:
5545:
5536:
5532:
5516:
5512:
5502:
5500:
5491:
5490:
5486:
5477:
5473:
5455:
5454:
5450:
5443:
5430:
5429:
5425:
5375:
5374:
5367:
5362:Wayback Machine
5349:
5342:
5324:
5323:
5319:
5296:
5295:
5291:
5281:
5279:
5270:
5269:
5260:
5251:
5247:
5238:
5234:
5222:
5221:
5217:
5208:
5204:
5189:
5176:
5175:
5171:
5154:
5141:
5140:
5136:
5130:
5117:
5116:
5112:
5105:
5097:. McGraw-Hill.
5092:
5091:
5087:
5072:
5059:
5058:
5051:
5046:
5042:
5017:
5016:
5012:
5006:Wayback Machine
4997:
4993:
4978:
4965:
4964:
4960:
4947:
4937:
4925:
4896:
4895:
4891:
4876:
4863:
4862:
4858:
4843:
4826:
4825:
4821:
4807:
4806:
4802:
4788:
4786:
4778:
4777:
4770:
4753:
4746:
4744:
4737:
4722:
4721:
4717:
4710:
4697:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4683:
4682:
4676:Rudolf Clausius
4665:
4661:
4656:
4614:
4596:
4589:
4586:
4581:
4572:Thermoeconomics
4496:
4441:
4410:
4409:
4390:
4389:
4366:
4365:
4342:
4341:
4318:
4317:
4294:
4293:
4270:
4269:
4240:
4220:
4219:
4197:
4187:
4182:
4181:
4155:
4154:
4124:
4123:
4101:
4096:
4095:
4076:
4075:
4071:grand potential
4070:
4041:
4021:
4020:
3982:
3981:
3961:
3960:
3928:
3908:
3907:
3878:
3877:
3857:
3856:
3824:
3804:
3803:
3774:
3773:
3753:
3752:
3720:
3700:
3699:
3672:
3657:
3616:
3612:
3604:
3603:
3583:
3582:
3578:Internal energy
3548:
3539:particle number
3478:
3472:
3425:
3423:Instrumentation
3417:internal energy
3313:
3282:
3278:
3272:
3268:
3262:
3258:
3245:
3241:
3235:
3231:
3225:
3221:
3208:
3204:
3198:
3194:
3188:
3184:
3171:
3167:
3161:
3157:
3151:
3147:
3134:
3130:
3124:
3120:
3114:
3110:
3084:Type of system
2982:
2952:
2940:irreversibility
2918:
2890:
2884:
2879:
2873:
2868:
2862:
2835:
2822:
2809:
2804:
2803:
2774:
2773:
2754:
2753:
2734:
2733:
2714:
2713:
2682:
2681:
2658:
2657:
2631:
2630:
2592:
2591:
2567:
2566:
2545:
2544:
2516:
2515:
2511:internal energy
2485:
2465:Brownian motion
2443:
2419:
2413:
2398:
2386:
2359:
2344:
2322:
2313:
2290:thermo-dynamics
2238:
2157:Rudolf Clausius
2141:William Thomson
2137:Rudolf Clausius
2129:William Rankine
2077:Thomas Newcomen
1996:which launched
1972:Rudolf Clausius
1960:
1858:internal energy
1811:
1752:Rudolf Clausius
1743:Napoleonic Wars
1650:is a branch of
1641:
1596:
1595:
1571:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1421:
1413:
1412:
1391:
1377:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1337:
1330:
1326:
1293:
1286:
1268:
1249:Maxwell's demon
1211:
1182:
1181:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1058:
1057:
1056:
1003:
1002:
1001:
963:
962:
961:
959:Internal energy
954:
939:
929:
928:
903:
878:
868:
867:
866:
837:
836:
816:
815:
790:
789:
769:
768:
741:
740:
705:
704:
684:
683:
658:
657:
637:
636:
606:
605:
600:Compressibility
570:
569:
549:
548:
523:
522:
502:
501:
474:
473:
453:
443:
442:
423:Particle number
376:
335:
324:
314:
313:
272:Irreversibility
184:State of matter
151:Isolated system
136:
126:
125:
124:
99:
89:
88:
84:Non-equilibrium
76:
51:
43:
19:
12:
11:
5:
8045:
8043:
8035:
8034:
8029:
8027:Thermodynamics
8024:
8014:
8013:
8007:
8006:
8004:
8003:
7998:
7993:
7988:
7983:
7978:
7973:
7968:
7962:
7960:
7956:
7955:
7953:
7952:
7946:
7940:
7935:
7928:
7926:
7922:
7921:
7919:
7918:
7913:
7908:
7903:
7898:
7893:
7888:
7883:
7878:
7873:
7868:
7863:
7857:
7855:
7849:
7848:
7846:
7845:
7840:
7835:
7830:
7825:
7820:
7815:
7810:
7805:
7800:
7795:
7790:
7784:
7779:
7774:
7769:
7763:
7761:
7753:
7752:
7750:
7749:
7744:
7739:
7734:
7728:
7723:
7718:
7716:Psychrometrics
7713:
7708:
7703:
7698:
7692:
7686:
7681:
7676:
7671:
7666:
7661:
7656:
7651:
7646:
7640:
7635:
7630:
7625:
7620:
7615:
7613:Air flow meter
7609:
7607:
7601:
7600:
7598:
7597:
7592:
7587:
7582:
7577:
7571:
7566:
7561:
7556:
7551:
7546:
7541:
7536:
7531:
7526:
7521:
7516:
7511:
7506:
7501:
7496:
7491:
7486:
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7466:
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7441:
7436:
7431:
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7416:
7411:
7406:
7401:
7396:
7391:
7389:Heating system
7386:
7381:
7376:
7371:
7369:Heat exchanger
7366:
7361:
7356:
7351:
7346:
7341:
7336:
7334:Gas compressor
7331:
7326:
7321:
7316:
7311:
7306:
7301:
7296:
7291:
7286:
7281:
7276:
7271:
7269:Expansion tank
7266:
7261:
7256:
7251:
7246:
7241:
7236:
7231:
7226:
7221:
7216:
7211:
7206:
7201:
7196:
7191:
7189:Ceramic heater
7186:
7181:
7176:
7171:
7166:
7161:
7156:
7151:
7146:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7110:
7108:
7104:
7103:
7101:
7100:
7095:
7090:
7084:
7078:
7072:
7067:
7062:
7057:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7030:Solar air heat
7027:
7022:
7020:Renewable heat
7017:
7012:
7007:
7002:
6997:
6992:
6987:
6982:
6977:
6972:
6967:
6962:
6957:
6952:
6947:
6942:
6936:
6931:
6929:Forced-air gas
6926:
6921:
6916:
6910:
6905:
6900:
6895:
6890:
6884:
6879:
6873:
6868:
6863:
6857:
6852:
6847:
6842:
6837:
6832:
6827:
6822:
6817:
6812:
6807:
6802:
6796:
6794:
6790:
6789:
6787:
6786:
6781:
6779:Thermodynamics
6776:
6771:
6766:
6761:
6756:
6751:
6749:Psychrometrics
6746:
6741:
6736:
6731:
6726:
6721:
6716:
6711:
6706:
6704:Gas compressor
6701:
6699:Fluid dynamics
6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6666:
6660:
6658:
6652:
6651:
6646:
6644:
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6465:
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6435:
6430:
6423:Thermodynamics
6420:
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6403:
6398:
6393:
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6391:
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6376:
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6284:
6277:
6269:
6263:
6262:
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6241:
6236:
6231:
6213:
6212:
6209:Thermodynamics
6198:
6197:External links
6195:
6194:
6193:
6179:
6166:
6152:
6139:
6111:
6094:
6088:
6071:
6070:
6064:
6051:
6046:978-1107656789
6045:
6032:
6026:
6013:
6005:|journal=
5979:
5966:
5957:
5948:
5941:
5928:
5905:
5896:
5887:
5877:
5841:(4): 209–220.
5826:
5811:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5786:
5737:
5730:
5712:
5685:(3): 355–386.
5663:
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5585:
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5484:
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5448:
5441:
5423:
5388:(3): 231–288.
5365:
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5232:
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5202:
5187:
5169:
5152:–248, 343–524.
5134:
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4949:|journal=
4923:
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4819:
4812:. 4th Series.
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4598:Physics portal
4585:
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4556:Psychrometrics
4553:
4548:
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4503:
4497:
4495:
4494:Applied fields
4492:
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3474:Main article:
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2602:
2599:
2574:
2552:
2526:
2523:
2493:sparkling wine
2484:
2481:
2459:on the set of
2442:
2439:
2415:Main article:
2412:
2409:
2397:
2394:
2385:
2382:
2358:
2355:
2351:quantum theory
2343:
2340:
2321:
2318:
2312:
2309:
2299:was coined by
2297:thermodynamics
2283:thermo-dynamic
2241:Thermodynamics
2237:
2234:
2062:steam digester
1959:
1956:
1831:The second law
1810:
1807:
1768:virial theorem
1760:theory of heat
1648:Thermodynamics
1643:
1642:
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1368:Thermodynamics
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1322:
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1297:
1285:
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1282:Caloric theory
1278:
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262:Free expansion
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199:Control volume
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189:Phase (matter)
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39:The classical
38:
30:
29:
27:Thermodynamics
17:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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7854:organizations
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7799:
7798:Duct cleaning
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7672:
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7649:Control valve
7647:
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7570:
7569:Turning vanes
7567:
7565:
7562:
7560:
7557:
7555:
7552:
7550:
7547:
7545:
7544:Thermal wheel
7542:
7540:
7537:
7535:
7532:
7530:
7527:
7525:
7522:
7520:
7517:
7515:
7512:
7510:
7509:Solar chimney
7507:
7505:
7502:
7500:
7497:
7495:
7492:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7482:
7480:
7477:
7475:
7472:
7470:
7467:
7465:
7462:
7460:
7457:
7455:
7452:
7450:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7440:
7437:
7435:
7432:
7430:
7427:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7402:
7400:
7397:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7360:
7357:
7355:
7352:
7350:
7347:
7345:
7342:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7332:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7322:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7312:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7280:
7279:Fan coil unit
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7255:
7252:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7242:
7240:
7237:
7235:
7232:
7230:
7227:
7225:
7224:Cooling tower
7222:
7220:
7217:
7215:
7212:
7210:
7207:
7205:
7202:
7200:
7197:
7195:
7192:
7190:
7187:
7185:
7182:
7180:
7177:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7160:
7157:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7145:
7142:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7125:
7122:
7120:
7117:
7115:
7112:
7111:
7109:
7105:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7088:
7085:
7082:
7079:
7076:
7073:
7071:
7070:Vapor barrier
7068:
7066:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7045:Solar heating
7043:
7041:
7040:Solar cooling
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7026:
7023:
7021:
7018:
7016:
7015:Refrigeration
7013:
7011:
7008:
7006:
7003:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6991:
6988:
6986:
6985:Passive house
6983:
6981:
6978:
6976:
6973:
6971:
6968:
6966:
6963:
6961:
6958:
6956:
6953:
6951:
6948:
6946:
6943:
6940:
6937:
6935:
6932:
6930:
6927:
6925:
6922:
6920:
6917:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6906:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6896:
6894:
6891:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6877:
6874:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6864:
6861:
6858:
6856:
6855:Chilled water
6853:
6851:
6848:
6846:
6843:
6841:
6838:
6836:
6833:
6831:
6828:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6801:
6798:
6797:
6795:
6791:
6785:
6782:
6780:
6777:
6775:
6772:
6770:
6767:
6765:
6762:
6760:
6757:
6755:
6754:Sensible heat
6752:
6750:
6747:
6745:
6742:
6740:
6737:
6735:
6734:Noise control
6732:
6730:
6727:
6725:
6722:
6720:
6717:
6715:
6714:Heat transfer
6712:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6661:
6659:
6653:
6649:
6642:
6637:
6635:
6630:
6628:
6623:
6622:
6619:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6597:
6594:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6583:
6581:
6577:
6571:
6568:
6566:
6565:Ocean physics
6563:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6522:
6520:
6518:
6514:
6508:
6505:
6501:
6500:Modern optics
6498:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6487:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6455:
6454:
6451:
6450:
6448:
6446:
6442:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6425:
6424:
6421:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6408:
6407:
6404:
6402:
6399:
6397:
6394:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6371:
6370:
6367:
6366:
6364:
6362:
6358:
6350:
6349:Computational
6347:
6346:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6336:
6334:
6330:
6322:
6319:
6318:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6308:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6290:
6285:
6283:
6278:
6276:
6271:
6270:
6267:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6247:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6232:
6228:
6227:
6221:
6215:
6214:
6210:
6205:
6201:
6200:
6196:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6176:
6172:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6149:
6145:
6140:
6136:
6130:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6108:
6103:
6102:
6095:
6091:
6085:
6081:
6076:
6075:
6074:
6067:
6061:
6058:. CRC Press.
6057:
6052:
6048:
6042:
6038:
6033:
6029:
6023:
6019:
6014:
6010:
5998:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5976:
5972:
5967:
5963:
5958:
5954:
5949:
5944:
5938:
5934:
5929:
5925:
5919:
5911:
5906:
5902:
5897:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5874:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5836:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5818:
5814:
5808:
5803:
5802:
5795:
5794:
5790:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5753:
5748:
5741:
5738:
5733:
5731:9780521539272
5727:
5723:
5716:
5713:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5681:(in German).
5680:
5679:
5674:
5667:
5664:
5659:
5655:
5651:
5647:
5643:
5639:
5635:
5628:
5625:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5589:
5586:
5582:
5581:9780471862567
5578:
5574:
5568:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5547:
5544:
5540:
5534:
5531:
5528:
5524:
5520:
5514:
5511:
5498:
5494:
5488:
5485:
5481:
5475:
5472:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5452:
5449:
5444:
5438:
5434:
5427:
5424:
5419:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5372:
5370:
5366:
5363:
5359:
5356:
5353:
5347:
5345:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5330:
5321:
5318:
5314:
5312:
5306:
5302:
5301:
5293:
5290:
5277:
5274:. EoHT.info.
5273:
5267:
5265:
5263:
5259:
5255:
5249:
5246:
5242:
5236:
5233:
5228:
5227:
5219:
5216:
5212:
5206:
5203:
5198:
5194:
5190:
5184:
5180:
5173:
5170:
5165:
5159:
5151:
5147:
5146:
5138:
5135:
5131:
5125:
5121:
5114:
5111:
5106:
5100:
5096:
5089:
5086:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5067:
5063:
5056:
5054:
5050:
5044:
5041:
5036:
5032:
5027:
5026:
5020:
5014:
5011:
5007:
5003:
5000:
4995:
4992:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4973:
4969:
4962:
4959:
4954:
4942:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4893:
4890:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4871:
4867:
4860:
4857:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4842:9780486632773
4838:
4833:
4832:
4823:
4820:
4815:
4811:
4804:
4801:
4796:
4784:
4783:
4775:
4773:
4769:
4764:
4758:
4742:
4738:
4732:
4728:
4727:
4719:
4716:
4711:
4705:
4701:
4694:
4691:
4685:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4663:
4660:
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4649:
4646:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4604:
4603:
4599:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4536:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4498:
4493:
4491:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4462:'s 1909 work
4461:
4456:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4438:
4436:
4434:
4429:
4415:
4395:
4387:
4371:
4363:
4347:
4339:
4323:
4315:
4299:
4291:
4275:
4245:
4241:
4234:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4218:
4202:
4198:
4192:
4188:
4165:
4161:
4141:
4138:
4135:
4132:
4129:
4122:
4074:
4072:
4067:
4066:
4046:
4042:
4035:
4032:
4029:
4026:
4019:
4005:
4002:
3999:
3996:
3993:
3990:
3987:
3980:
3966:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3933:
3929:
3922:
3919:
3916:
3913:
3906:
3892:
3889:
3886:
3883:
3876:
3862:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3849:
3829:
3825:
3818:
3815:
3812:
3809:
3802:
3788:
3785:
3782:
3779:
3772:
3758:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3725:
3721:
3714:
3711:
3708:
3705:
3698:
3683:
3677:
3673:
3662:
3658:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3641:
3632:
3629:
3626:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3602:
3588:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3571:
3568:
3565:
3562:
3561:
3558:
3555:
3552:
3545:
3540:
3536:
3533:
3530:
3526:
3523:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3477:
3469:
3467:
3463:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3450:
3449:ideal gas law
3446:
3442:
3441:James Maxwell
3438:
3434:
3430:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3405:
3402:
3399:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3359:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3336:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3310:
3308:
3306:
3300:
3298:
3294:
3276:
3266:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3239:
3229:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3213:
3202:
3192:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3176:
3165:
3155:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3128:
3118:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3102:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3076:
3073:
3069:
3067:
3063:
3062:event horizon
3059:
3055:
3054:Kerry Emanuel
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3006:
3001:
3000:
2995:
2986:
2980:System models
2979:
2977:
2975:
2970:
2967:
2966:absolute zero
2962:
2961:
2957:
2949:
2947:
2943:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2915:
2913:
2911:
2907:
2902:
2900:
2895:
2894:
2887:
2883:
2876:
2872:
2865:
2861:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2814:
2810:
2802:
2801:
2800:
2799:
2793:
2779:
2759:
2739:
2719:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2687:
2679:
2663:
2655:
2654:closed system
2639:
2612:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2590:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2572:
2565:
2550:
2543:
2541:
2524:
2514:
2512:
2506:
2498:
2494:
2489:
2482:
2480:
2478:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2440:
2438:
2432:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2383:
2381:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2356:
2354:
2352:
2348:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2332:
2328:
2319:
2317:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2293:
2291:
2286:
2284:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2261:
2257:
2256:
2251:
2250:
2244:
2242:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2226:Merle Randall
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2170:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2118:Carnot engine
2115:
2114:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2084:heat capacity
2080:
2078:
2074:
2073:Thomas Savery
2070:
2065:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
1999:
1995:
1994:
1989:
1988:Willard Gibbs
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1964:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1844:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1819:The first law
1816:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1735:steam engines
1732:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1706:, especially
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1638:
1633:
1631:
1626:
1624:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1615:
1610:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1581:Self-assembly
1579:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1567:
1566:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1552:van der Waals
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1477:von Helmholtz
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1424:
1417:
1416:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1396:
1395:
1394:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1380:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1363:
1362:
1357:
1351:
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1177:
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1063:
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1038:
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1020:
1017:
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997:
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968:
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951:
948:
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933:
932:
925:
924:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
904:
900:
899:Ideal gas law
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
881:
877:
872:
871:
845:
835:
821:
814:
813:
798:
788:
774:
767:
766:
763:
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746:
739:
736:
733:
732:
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703:
689:
682:
681:
666:
656:
642:
635:
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631:
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482:
479:
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469:
466:
465:
459:
456:
455:
452:
447:
446:
435:
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430:
429:Vapor quality
427:
425:
424:
419:
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296:
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292:
291:
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287:
283:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
267:Reversibility
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
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149:
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142:
141:Closed system
139:
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129:
121:
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116:
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106:
103:
102:
98:
93:
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55:
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36:
32:
31:
28:
24:
21:
16:
7976:Fireproofing
7760:and services
7756:Professions,
7654:Gas detector
7554:Trickle vent
7529:Smoke damper
7524:Smoke canopy
7519:Space heater
7449:Plenum space
7384:Heating film
7264:Exhaust hood
7234:Dehumidifier
7174:Blast damper
7169:Barrier pipe
7144:Air purifier
7055:Thermosiphon
6934:Free cooling
6850:Chilled beam
6778:
6774:Thermal mass
6759:Stack effect
6744:Particulates
6724:Infiltration
6655:Fundamental
6525:Astrophysics
6422:
6339:Experimental
6224:
6170:
6143:
6100:
6079:
6072:
6055:
6036:
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5970:
5961:
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5721:
5715:
5682:
5676:
5666:
5641:
5637:
5627:
5602:
5598:
5588:
5583:, pp. 11–13.
5572:
5567:
5551:
5546:
5538:
5537:Klaus Roth:
5533:
5522:
5518:
5517:Klaus Roth:
5513:
5501:. Retrieved
5496:
5487:
5479:
5474:
5457:
5451:
5432:
5426:
5385:
5381:
5355:Scanned Copy
5351:
5328:
5320:
5310:
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5299:
5292:
5280:. Retrieved
5253:
5248:
5240:
5235:
5225:
5218:
5210:
5205:
5178:
5172:
5144:
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5113:
5094:
5088:
5061:
5043:
5024:
5013:
5008:– EoHT.info.
4994:
4967:
4961:
4898:
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4865:
4859:
4830:
4822:
4813:
4809:
4803:
4794:
4787:. Retrieved
4781:
4745:. Retrieved
4725:
4718:
4699:
4693:
4671:
4667:
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4442:
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3549:
3521:parameters);
3498:
3479:
3464:
3451:
3426:
3352:
3337:
3314:
3301:
3289:
3074:
3070:
3034:steam engine
3030:
3013:
3009:
3004:
2999:surroundings
2998:
2991:
2971:
2963:
2959:
2953:
2944:
2929:
2925:
2919:
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2892:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2870:
2863:
2859:
2858:
2796:
2794:
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2701:
2677:
2628:
2585:
2563:
2537:
2508:
2502:
2476:
2473:
2454:
2450:
2444:
2435:
2431:Carnot cycle
2399:
2387:
2360:
2345:
2335:
2330:
2323:
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2304:
2296:
2294:
2289:
2287:
2282:
2280:
2275:
2262:
2253:
2245:
2240:
2239:
2218:Pierre Duhem
2188:, including
2179:
2173:
2165:
2126:
2122:Carnot cycle
2111:
2104:steam engine
2092:Joseph Black
2081:
2066:
2034:Robert Hooke
2030:Robert Boyle
2003:
1991:
1975:
1945:
1929:cell biology
1874:
1849:surroundings
1847:
1841:
1839:
1812:
1809:Introduction
1802:
1772:
1756:Carnot cycle
1728:
1712:biochemistry
1647:
1646:
1442:Carathéodory
1373:Heat engines
1345:
1334:
1323:
1305:Motive power
1290:
950:Free entropy
921:
421:
420: /
410:
409: /
401:introduction
394:
393: /
332:
295:Heat engines
82: /
56:
26:
20:
15:
7986:Warm Spaces
7628:Blower door
7606:and control
7604:Measurement
7585:Windcatcher
7559:Trombe wall
7499:Sail switch
7479:Refrigerant
7474:Recuperator
7349:Grease duct
7309:Freeze stat
7294:Fire damper
7164:Back boiler
7134:Air ionizer
7129:Air handler
7093:Ventilation
6945:Hybrid heat
6810:Air barrier
6729:Latent heat
6428:Statistical
6344:Theoretical
6321:Engineering
4484:temperature
4290:temperature
3525:Temperature
3460:calorimeter
3445:thermometer
3408:temperature
2704:the system
2469:temperature
2301:James Joule
2255:thermometer
2206:temperature
2108:Sadi Carnot
2088:latent heat
2058:Denis Papin
2050:Boyle's Law
2048:. In time,
2042:temperature
2014:vacuum pump
1901:black holes
1899:, and even
1881:engineering
1866:equilibrium
1791:statistical
1747:Lord Kelvin
1739:Sadi Carnot
1724:meteorology
1704:engineering
1692:microscopic
1664:temperature
1264:Synergetics
945:Free energy
391:Temperature
252:Quasistatic
247:Isenthalpic
204:Instruments
194:Equilibrium
146:Open system
80:Equilibrium
62:Statistical
8016:Categories
7742:Thermostat
7664:Humidistat
7595:Zone valve
7564:TurboSwing
7439:Oil heater
7409:Humidifier
7339:Gas heater
7289:Fan heater
7259:Evaporator
7244:Economizer
7219:Compressor
7124:Air filter
7107:Components
6924:Forced-air
6820:Antifreeze
6793:Technology
6739:Outgassing
6679:Convection
6545:Geophysics
6535:Biophysics
6379:Analytical
6332:Approaches
5560:0883187973
5282:29 October
4816:: 122–127.
4747:2 November
4686:References
3546:Potentials
3519:mechanical
3437:zeroth law
3066:black hole
3052:, such as
2916:Second law
2798:wall, then
2477:zeroth law
2441:Zeroth law
2153:Max Planck
2096:James Watt
2020:using his
1883:, such as
1731:efficiency
1576:Nucleation
1420:Scientists
1224:Philosophy
937:Potentials
300:Heat pumps
257:Polytropic
242:Isentropic
232:Isothermal
7852:Industry
7701:OpenTherm
7379:Heat pump
7374:Heat pipe
7324:Fume hood
7299:Fireplace
7204:Condenser
7154:Attic fan
6950:Hydronics
6495:Molecular
6396:Acoustics
6389:Continuum
6384:Celestial
6374:Newtonian
6361:Classical
6304:Divisions
6129:cite book
6007:ignored (
5997:cite book
5918:cite book
5855:1044-677X
5781:0022-2488
5707:118230148
5699:0025-5831
5658:0021-9606
5619:0026-8976
5402:0003-9519
5158:cite book
5080:123283342
5029:. Dover.
4951:ignored (
4941:cite book
4757:cite book
4372:μ
4242:μ
4189:μ
4162:∑
4142:−
4133:−
4103:Φ
4082:Ω
4000:−
3783:−
3659:μ
3649:∑
3630:−
3610:∫
3494:mechanics
3490:First Law
3488:. By the
3456:barometer
3348:conjugate
3088:Mass flow
3060:, or the
2950:Third law
2637:Δ
2610:−
2598:Δ
2522:Δ
2483:First law
2331:classical
2236:Etymology
2171:in 1865.
2026:Aristotle
1941:economics
1909:chemistry
1799:axiomatic
1733:of early
1680:radiation
1557:Waterston
1507:von Mayer
1462:de Donder
1452:Clapeyron
1432:Boltzmann
1427:Bernoulli
1388:Education
1359:Timelines
1143:−
1088:−
876:Equations
843:∂
796:∂
747:α
711:∂
664:∂
618:−
612:β
576:∂
529:∂
237:Adiabatic
227:Isochoric
213:Processes
174:Ideal gas
57:Classical
7959:See also
7684:LonWorks
7618:Aquastat
7484:Register
7464:Radiator
7119:Air door
6919:Firestop
6719:Humidity
6694:Enthalpy
6684:Dilution
6669:Bake-out
6657:concepts
6189:32932988
6162:36025958
6121:45791449
5989:16878778
5873:27096122
5821:32826343
5562:, p. 79.
5503:17 April
5418:36609995
5410:41133471
5358:Archived
5276:Archived
5197:27974820
5035:19353301
5021:(1989).
5002:Archived
4986:43993556
4933:56491111
4884:36457809
4741:Archived
4584:See also
4338:pressure
3852:Enthalpy
3569:Formula
3511:Pressure
3389:pressure
3371:enthalpy
3253:Isolated
3024:, or of
3020:, or as
3010:boundary
3005:boundary
2958:states:
2924:states:
2507:states:
2449:states:
2268:dynamics
2210:pressure
2060:built a
2038:pressure
1907:and for
1846:and its
1609:Category
1547:Thompson
1457:Clausius
1437:Bridgman
1291:Vis viva
1273:Theories
1207:Gas laws
999:Enthalpy
407:Pressure
222:Isobaric
179:Real gas
67:Chemical
50:Branches
7758:trades,
7329:Furnace
7194:Chiller
6866:Coolant
6579:Related
6463:General
6458:Special
6316:Applied
5864:4651616
5761:Bibcode
5462:Bibcode
4903:Bibcode
4851:8846081
4789:19 June
4480:entropy
4314:entropy
4288:is the
3566:Symbol
3529:entropy
3380:entropy
3038:nuclide
2974:Rankine
2936:entropy
2538:, of a
2276:dynamis
2273:δύναμις
2249:thermo-
2212:of the
2198:entropy
2169:entropy
1958:History
1905:physics
1885:engines
1877:science
1835:entropy
1700:science
1672:entropy
1652:physics
1532:Smeaton
1527:Rankine
1517:Onsager
1502:Maxwell
1497:Massieu
1202:Entropy
1197:General
1188:History
1178:Culture
1175:History
399: (
396:Entropy
333:italics
134:Systems
8022:Energy
7911:SMACNA
7871:ASHRAE
7691:(MERV)
7645:(CADR)
7623:BACnet
7576:(ULPA)
7429:Louver
7354:Grille
7229:Damper
7179:Boiler
7077:(VCRS)
6878:(DOAS)
6490:Atomic
6445:Modern
6295:Major
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4482:, and
4449:axioms
4362:volume
4268:where
3515:volume
3482:energy
3452:pV=nRT
3398:volume
3350:pair.
3142:Closed
3042:quarks
3026:matter
2629:where
2366:energy
2263:therme
2228:, and
2202:volume
2194:energy
2139:, and
2120:, the
2069:piston
2046:volume
2044:, and
2018:vacuum
1939:, and
1843:system
1676:matter
1668:energy
1662:, and
1522:Planck
1512:Nernst
1487:Kelvin
1447:Carnot
737:
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412:Volume
327:Note:
286:Cycles
115:Second
105:Zeroth
7951:(VOC)
7945:(SBS)
7934:(IAQ)
7891:CIBSE
7886:BSRIA
7789:(BIM)
7733:(STP)
7697:(NTP)
7319:Freon
7089:(VRF)
7083:(VAV)
6941:(HRV)
6915:(ERV)
6889:(DCV)
6862:(CAV)
5703:S2CID
5414:S2CID
5406:JSTOR
4654:Notes
4533:(re:
3563:Name
3517:(the
3293:state
3064:of a
3014:walls
2860:where
2374:state
2368:with
2260:θέρμη
1825:, as
1570:Other
1537:Stahl
1492:Lewis
1482:Joule
1472:Gibbs
1467:Duhem
160:State
120:Third
110:First
7906:LEED
7866:AMCA
7861:AHRI
7394:HEPA
7314:Flue
7239:Duct
6416:Wave
6311:Pure
6185:OCLC
6175:ISBN
6158:OCLC
6148:ISBN
6135:link
6117:OCLC
6107:ISBN
6084:ISBN
6060:ISBN
6041:ISBN
6022:ISBN
6009:help
5985:PMID
5975:ISBN
5937:ISBN
5924:link
5869:PMID
5851:ISSN
5817:OCLC
5807:ISBN
5777:ISSN
5726:ISBN
5695:ISSN
5654:ISSN
5615:ISSN
5577:ISBN
5556:ISBN
5505:2023
5437:ISBN
5398:ISSN
5284:2023
5193:OCLC
5183:ISBN
5164:link
5124:ISBN
5099:ISBN
5076:OCLC
5066:ISBN
5031:OCLC
4982:OCLC
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4953:help
4929:OCLC
4919:ISBN
4880:OCLC
4870:ISBN
4847:OCLC
4837:ISBN
4791:2012
4763:link
4749:2020
4731:ISBN
4704:ISBN
4476:heat
4384:the
4360:the
4336:the
4312:the
3486:work
3362:heat
3105:Open
3098:Heat
3093:Work
3022:heat
3018:work
2954:The
2503:The
2445:The
2208:and
2159:and
2086:and
2004:The
1966:The
1879:and
1868:and
1860:and
1827:work
1823:heat
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372:Heat
367:Work
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5859:PMC
5843:doi
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3930:N
3926:{
3923:,
3920:p
3917:,
3914:S
3893:V
3890:p
3887:+
3884:U
3863:H
3835:}
3830:i
3826:N
3822:{
3819:,
3816:V
3813:,
3810:T
3789:S
3786:T
3780:U
3759:F
3731:}
3726:i
3722:N
3718:{
3715:,
3712:V
3709:,
3706:S
3684:)
3678:i
3674:N
3669:d
3663:i
3653:i
3645:+
3642:V
3638:d
3633:p
3627:S
3623:d
3618:T
3614:(
3589:U
3537:-
3527:-
3513:-
3283:N
3273:N
3263:N
3246:Y
3236:N
3226:N
3209:N
3199:Y
3189:N
3172:Y
3162:Y
3152:N
3135:Y
3125:Y
3115:Y
2889:2
2886:U
2878:1
2875:U
2867:0
2864:U
2855:,
2841:2
2837:U
2833:+
2828:1
2824:U
2820:=
2815:0
2811:U
2780:U
2760:Q
2740:U
2720:W
2688:W
2664:Q
2640:U
2625:.
2613:W
2607:Q
2604:=
2601:U
2573:W
2551:Q
2525:U
2513:,
2495:(
2000:.
1636:e
1629:t
1622:v
1149:S
1146:T
1140:H
1137:=
1134:)
1131:p
1128:,
1125:T
1122:(
1119:G
1094:S
1091:T
1085:U
1082:=
1079:)
1076:V
1073:,
1070:T
1067:(
1064:A
1039:V
1036:p
1033:+
1030:U
1027:=
1024:)
1021:p
1018:,
1015:S
1012:(
1009:H
984:)
981:V
978:,
975:S
972:(
969:U
846:T
822:V
799:V
775:1
750:=
714:p
690:V
667:V
643:1
615:=
579:T
555:N
532:S
508:T
483:=
480:c
403:)
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