Thiele/Small parameters - Knowledge (XXG)

6108:

studies have been published documenting substantial changes in the T/S parameters over the first few hours of use, some parameters changing by as much as 15% or more over these initial periods. The proprietor of the firm GR Research has publicly reported several such investigations of several manufacturers' drivers. Other studies suggest little change, or reversible changes after only the first few minutes. This variability is largely related to the particular characteristics of specific materials, and reputable manufacturers attempt to take them into account. While there are a great many anecdotal reports of the audible effects of such changes in published speaker reviews, the relationship of such early changes to subjective sound quality reports is not completely clear. Some changes early in driver life are complementary (such as a reduction in

4983:

thermal and mechanical. The thermal capacity is related to coil temperature and the point where adhesives and coil insulation melt or change shape. The mechanical limit comes into play at low frequencies, where excursions are largest, and involves mechanical failure of some component. A speaker that can handle 200 watts thermally at 200 Hz, may sometimes be damaged by only a few watts at some very low frequency, like 10 Hz. Power handling specifications are usually generated destructively, by long-term industry standard noise signals (IEC 268, for example) that filter out low frequencies and test only the thermal capability of the driver. Actual mechanical power handling depends greatly on the enclosure in which the driver is installed.

44:. These parameters are published in specification sheets by driver manufacturers so that designers have a guide in selecting off-the-shelf drivers for loudspeaker designs. Using these parameters, a loudspeaker designer may simulate the position, velocity and acceleration of the diaphragm, the input impedance and the sound output of a system comprising a loudspeaker and enclosure. Many of the parameters are strictly defined only at the resonant frequency, but the approach is generally applicable in the frequency range where the diaphragm motion is largely pistonic, i.e., when the entire cone moves in and out as a unit without cone breakup. 5924:) can appear to drop by >30% as the level changes from 0.5 V to 4 V. Of course, the driver's actual sensitivity has not changed at all, but the calculated sensitivity is correct only under some specific conditions. From this example, it is seen that the measurements to be preferred while designing an enclosure or system are those likely to represent typical operating conditions. Unfortunately, this level must be arbitrary, since the operating conditions are continually changing when reproducing music. Level-dependent nonlinearities typically cause lower than predicted output, or small variations in frequency response. 4792:, and so does not include its consequences. Inductance varies with excursion because the voice coil moves relative to the pole piece, acting like a sliding inductor core, increasing inductance on the inward stroke and decreasing it on the outward stroke in typical overhung voice coil arrangements. This inductance modulation is an important source of nonlinearity (distortion) in loudspeakers. Including a copper cap on the pole piece, or a copper shorting ring on it, can reduce the increase in impedance seen at higher frequencies in typical drivers, and also reduce the nonlinearity due to inductance modulation. 5931:. Design techniques which reduce nonlinearities may also reduce power compression, and possibly distortions not caused by power compression. There have been several commercial designs that have included cooling arrangements for driver magnetic structures, which are intended to mitigate voice coil temperature rise, and the attendant rise in resistance that is the cause of the power compression. Elegant magnet and coil designs have been used to linearize 1692:– Thermal power handling capacity of the driver, in watts. This value is difficult to characterize and is often overestimated, by manufacturers and others. As the voice coil heats, it changes dimension to some extent, and changes electrical resistance to a considerable extent. The latter changes the electrical relationships between the voice coil and passive crossover components, changing the slope and crossover points designed into the speaker system. 1661:– Maximum physical excursion of the driver before physical damage. With a sufficiently large electrical input, the excursion will cause damage to the voice coil or another moving part of the driver. In addition, arrangements for voice coil cooling (e.g., venting of the pole piece, or openings in the voice coil former above the coil itself, both allowing heat dissipation with air flow) will themselves change behaviors with large cone excursions. 2909: 6569:

used in manual measurements, simple calculations exist which allow the true impedance magnitude and phase to be determined. This is the method used by many computer loudspeaker measurement systems. When this method is used manually, the result of taking the three measurements is that their ratios are more important than their actual value, removing the effect of poor meter frequency response.

6169:) and result in minimal net changes (small fractions of a dB) in frequency response. If the performance of speaker system is critical, as with high order (complex) or heavily equalized systems, it is sensible to measure T/S parameters after a period of run-in (some hours, typically, using program material), and to model the effects of normal parameter changes on driver performance. 6227:) in series with the driver and a signal generator is used to vary the excitation frequency. The voltage across the loudspeaker terminals is measured and considered proportional to the impedance. It is assumed that variations in loudspeaker impedance will have little effect on the current through the loudspeaker. This is an approximation, and the method results in 3485:. They must be designed with an electrical break in the cylinder (so no conducting loop). Some speaker manufacturers have placed shorted turns at the top and bottom of the voice coil to prevent it leaving the gap, but the sharp noise created by this device when the driver is overdriven is alarming and was perceived as a problem by owners. High 4695:(or DCR) should be at least 80% of the rated driver impedance, so an 8-ohm rated driver should have a DC resistance of at least 6.4 ohms, and a 4-ohm unit should measure 3.2 ohms minimum. This standard is voluntary, and many 8-ohm drivers have resistances of ≈5.5 ohms, and proportionally lower for lower rated impedances. 2954:(Hz). The frequency at which the combination of the energy stored in the moving mass and suspension compliance is maximum, and results in maximum cone velocity. A more compliant suspension or a larger moving mass will cause a lower resonance frequency, and vice versa. Usually it is less efficient to produce output at frequencies below 185:, restating and extending Thiele's work. These articles were also originally published in Australia, where he had attended graduate school, and where his thesis supervisor was J. E. Benson. The work of Benson and Small overlapped considerably, but differed in that Benson performed his work using computer programs and Small used 909: 2475: 1153: 4982:

Specified in watts. Frequently two power ratings are given, an "RMS" rating and a "music" (or "peak", or "system") rating, usually peak is given as ≈2 times the RMS rating. Loudspeakers have complex behavior, and a single number is really unsatisfactory. There are two aspects of power handling:

4907:

paper, as an indicator of a loudspeaker motor's linear range. Although easily determined, it neglects magnetic and mechanical non-linearities and asymmetry, which are substantial for some drivers. Subsequently, a combined mechanical/acoustical measure was suggested, in which a driver is progressively

6099:

is highly prone to disintegration after 10 to 15 years. The changes in behavior from aging may often be positive, though since the environment that they are used in is a major factor the effects are not easily predicted. Gilbert Briggs, founder of Wharfedale Loudspeakers in the UK, undertook several

5305:

Some caution is required when using and interpreting T/S parameters. Individual units may not match manufacturer specifications. Parameters values are almost never individually taken, but are at best averages across a production run, due to inevitable manufacturing variations. Driver characteristics

6568:

A third method is a response to the deficiencies of the first two methods. It uses a smaller (e.g., 10 ohm) series resistor and measurements are made of the voltage across the driver, the signal generator, and/or series resistor for frequencies around resonance. Although tedious, and not often

4827:

Measured in square metres (m). The effective projected area of the cone or diaphragm. It is difficult to measure and depends largely on the shape and properties of the surround. Generally accepted as the cone body diameter plus one third to one half the width of the annulus (surround). Drivers with

150:

described a series of sealed and vented box "alignments" (i.e., enclosure designs based on electrical filter theory with well-characterized behavior, including frequency response, power handling, cone excursion, etc.) in a publication in an Australian journal. This paper remained relatively unknown

6107:

There are also mechanical changes which occur in the moving components during use. In this case, however, most of the changes seem to occur early in the life of the driver, and are almost certainly due to relaxation in flexing mechanical parts of the driver (e.g., surround, spider, etc.). Several

5373:

It is also important to understand that most T/S parameters are linearized small signal values. An analysis based on them is an idealized view of driver behavior, since the actual values of these parameters vary in all drivers according to drive level, voice coil temperature, over the life of the

6564:

A common source of error using these first two methods is the use of inexpensive AC metres. Most inexpensive metres are designed to measure residential power frequencies (50–60 Hz) and are increasingly inaccurate at other frequencies (e.g., below 40 Hz or above a few hundred hertz). In

6078:

The mechanical components in typical speaker drivers may change over time. Paper, a popular material in cone fabrication, absorbs moisture easily and unless treated may lose some structural rigidity over time. This may be reduced by coating with water-impregnable material such as various plastic

205:

These are the physical parameters of a loudspeaker driver, as measured at small signal levels, used in the equivalent electrical circuit models. Some of these values are neither easy nor convenient to measure in a finished loudspeaker driver, so when designing speakers using existing drive units

6177:

There are numerous methods to measure Thiele-Small parameters, but the simplest use the input impedance of the driver, measured near resonance. The impedance may be measured in free air (with the driver unhoused and either clamped to a fixture or hanging from a wire, or sometimes resting on the

47:

Rather than purchase off-the-shelf components, loudspeaker design engineers often define desired performance and work backwards to a set of parameters and manufacture a driver with said characteristics or order it from a driver manufacturer. This process of generating parameters from a target

2653: 145:

used novel simplifying assumptions in an analysis in a 1959 paper which led to a practical solution for the response of a given loudspeaker in sealed and vented boxes, and also established their applicability by empirical measurement. In 1961, leaning heavily on Novak's work,

476:

of the driver, near the resonance frequency, at small input levels for which the mechanical behavior of the driver is effectively linear (i.e., proportional to its input). These values are more easily measured than the fundamental ones above. The small signal parameters are:

6736:, Institute of Radio and Electronics Engineers. Reprinted in German as "Lautsprecher in ventilierten Gehäusen (Die Berechtnungsunterlagen für Baßreflexgehäuse)," Hifiboxen Selbstgemacht, Elrad extra 8, Verlag Heinz Heise GmbH & Co. KG, Hannover, 1989, pp. 91–112. 6178:

magnet on a surface) and/or in test baffles, sealed or vented boxes or with varying amounts of mass added to the diaphragm. Noise in the measurement environment can have an effect on the measurement, so one should measure parameters in a quiet acoustic environment.

722: 4030:(L) or cubic metres, it is an inverse measure of the 'stiffness' of the suspension with the driver mounted in free air. It represents the volume of air that has the same stiffness as the driver's suspension when acted on by a piston of the same area ( 5216:, small cone diameter drivers are likely to be inefficient, since much of the voice-coil winding will be outside the magnetic gap at any one time and will therefore contribute little or nothing to cone motion. Likewise, large cone diameter, small 6079:

resins. Cracks compromise structural rigidity and if large enough are generally non-repairable. Temperature has a strong, generally reversible effect; typical suspension materials become stiffer at lower temperatures. The suspension experiences

6565:

addition, distorted or non–sine wave signals can cause measurement inaccuracies. Inexpensive voltmeters are also not very accurate or precise at measuring current and can introduce appreciable series resistance, which causes measurement errors.

2773:= 0.159155 W/m. The auditory threshold is taken to be 10 W/m (which corresponds to a pressure level of 20×10 Pa). Therefore a speaker with 100% efficiency would produce an SPL equal to 10log(0.159155/10), which is 112.02 dB. 1350: 2323: 157:

in 1971. It is important to note that Thiele's work neglected enclosure losses and, although the application of filter theory is still important, his alignment tables now have little real-world utility due to neglecting enclosure losses.

3555:

A unitless measurement, describing the electrical damping of the loudspeaker. As the coil of wire moves through the magnetic field, it generates a current which opposes the motion of the coil. This so-called "Back-EMF" (proportional to

1621:– Maximum linear peak (or sometimes peak-to-peak) excursion (in mm) of the cone. Note that, because of mechanical issues, the motion of a driver cone becomes non-linear with large excursions, especially those in excess of this parameter. 6560:

A second method is the constant voltage measurement, where the driver is excited by a constant voltage, and the current passing through the coil is measured. The excitation voltage divided by the measured current equals the impedance.

598: 1002: 5295:

The sound pressure, in dB, produced by a speaker in response to a specified stimulus. Usually this is specified at an input of 1 watt or 2.83 volts (2.83 volts = 1 watt into an 8-ohm load) at a distance of one

2052: 1478: 4604:(Ω), this is the DC resistance (DCR) of the voice coil, best measured with the cone blocked, or prevented from moving or vibrating because otherwise the pickup of ambient sounds can cause the measurement to be unreliable. 2712:

A speaker with an efficiency of 100% (1.0) would output a watt for every watt of input. Considering the driver as a point source in an infinite baffle, at one metre this would be distributed over a hemisphere with area

1583:, thermal, and mechanical effects due to high signal levels (e.g., high electric current and voltage, extended mechanical motion, and so on) all change driver behavior, often increasing distortion of several kinds: 3288:

A unitless measurement, characterizing the mechanical damping of the driver, that is, the losses in the suspension (surround and spider). It varies roughly between 0.5 and 10, with a typical value around 3. High

2521: 4898:

Specified in millimetres (mm). In the simplest form, subtract the height of the voice-coil winding from the height of the magnetic gap, take the absolute value and divide by 2. This technique was suggested by

6555: 5284:

Reference efficiency, specified in percent (%). Comparing drivers by their calculated reference efficiency is often more useful than using 'sensitivity' since manufacturer sensitivity figures are too often

6185:-friendly) method before the advent of computer-controlled measurement techniques is the classic free air constant current method, described by Thiele in 1961. This method uses a large resistance (e.g., 1579:

These parameters are useful for predicting the approximate output of a driver at high input levels, though they are harder, sometimes extremely hard or impossible, to accurately measure. In addition,

4469:

Measured in metre per newton (m/N). Describes the compliance (i.e., the inverse of stiffness) of the suspension. The more compliant a suspension system is, the lower its stiffness, so the higher the

2247: 5496:

and the value will typically double by 270 °C (exactly 266 °C for Cu and 254 °C for Al), at which point many voice coils are approaching (or have already reached) thermal failure.

6414: 4165:(g) or kilograms (kg), this is the mass of the cone, coil, voice-coil former and other moving parts of a driver, including the acoustic load imposed by the air in contact with the driver cone. 3643:

depends on amplifier output impedance. The formula above assumes zero output impedance. When an amplifier with nonzero output impedance is used, its output impedance should be added to

904:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {es}}={\frac {2\pi \cdot f_{\rm {s}}\cdot M_{\rm {ms}}\cdot R_{\rm {e}}}{(Bl)^{2}}}={\frac {R_{\rm {e}}}{(Bl)^{2}}}{\sqrt {\frac {M_{\rm {ms}}}{C_{\rm {ms}}}}}} 3805: 181:

published a series of very influential articles on direct radiator loudspeaker system analysis, including closed-box, vented-box, and passive-radiator loudspeaker systems, in the

2183: 6578: 2700: 473: 6221: 3850: 1659: 6449: 6315: 6280: 5462: 5249: 5214: 5150: 5115: 5080: 4941: 4894: 2285: 1857: 1814: 1619: 6167: 6068: 6013: 5895: 5834: 5779: 5747: 5715: 5683: 5651: 5590: 5558: 5404: 5368: 5336: 4563: 4531: 4499: 4465: 4425: 4393: 4361: 4327: 4291: 4259: 4227: 4195: 4157: 4121: 4089: 4022: 3986: 3702: 3641: 3609: 3551: 3515: 3483: 3447: 3415: 3383: 3351: 3319: 3284: 3248: 3187: 3133: 2511: 1950: 1918: 1564: 1385: 1188: 944: 633: 374: 340: 306: 274: 6135: 5981: 5863: 5619: 5526: 5492: 5179: 5045: 5014: 4978: 4855: 4823: 4790: 4761: 4726: 4693: 4660: 4631: 4596: 4057: 3670: 3216: 3097: 3068: 3039: 3010: 2981: 2946: 1886: 1779: 1750: 1721: 1690: 1237: 993: 713: 684: 507: 436: 405: 276:– Mass of the driver diaphragm and voice-coil assembly, including acoustic load, in kilograms. The mass of the driver diaphragm and voice-coil assembly alone is known as 240: 2113: 5922: 5280: 3954: 3928: 3902: 3876: 3761: 2870: 2805: 2771: 2470:{\displaystyle \eta _{0}=\left({\frac {\rho \cdot B^{2}\cdot l^{2}\cdot S_{\rm {d}}^{2}}{2\cdot \pi \cdot c\cdot M_{\rm {ms}}^{2}\cdot R_{\rm {e}}}}\right)\times 100\%} 2314: 2145: 1246: 2897: 2843: 2734: 1500: 1148:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}={\frac {2\pi \cdot f_{\rm {s}}\cdot M_{\rm {ms}}}{R_{\rm {ms}}}}={\frac {1}{R_{\rm {ms}}}}{\sqrt {\frac {M_{\rm {ms}}}{C_{\rm {ms}}}}}} 2081: 516: 6036: 5952: 5802: 5427: 3729: 3577: 461: 6335: 6245: 3155: 1524: 1208: 964: 654: 7186: 7231: 1959: 1394: 4734:

of the voice coil. The voice coil is a lossy inductor, in part due to losses in the pole piece, so the apparent inductance changes with frequency. Large

3579:× velocity) decreases the total current through the coil near the resonance frequency, reducing cone movement and increasing impedance. In most drivers, 2513:

can be replaced by the value 5.445×10 m·s/kg for dry air at 25 °C. For 25 °C air with 50% relative humidity the expression evaluates to 5.365×10 m·s/kg.

6317:

will always be somewhat low. This measurement can be corrected by measuring the total voltage across the calibration resistor and the driver (call this

2702:

can be replaced by the value 9.523×10 s/m for dry air at 25 °C. For 25 °C air with 50% relative humidity the expression evaluates to 9.438×10 s/m.

197:(June 1981), which recast much of the work that had been published up till then into forms suited to the programmable calculators of the time. 130: 7158: 2648:{\displaystyle \eta _{0}=\left({\frac {4\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot f_{\rm {s}}^{3}\cdot V_{\rm {as}}}{c^{3}\cdot Q_{\rm {es}}}}\right)\times 100\%} 7075: 75:; the TSP calculations indicate to the speaker design professionals how large a speaker cabinet will need to be and how large and long the 6976:

Margolis, Garry; Small, R. H. (1981). "Personal Calculator Programs for Approximate Vented-Box and Closed-Box Loudspeaker System Design".

4947:

is measured in the output. This method better represents actual driver performance, but is more difficult and time-consuming to determine.

53: 6454: 110:(US Patent No. 1869178) his "Sound Translating Device" (essentially a vented box) which was evidence of the interest in many types of 4763:

values limit the high-frequency output of the driver and cause response changes near cutoff. Simple modeling software often neglects

7004: 6792: 6651: 177:

designs, all using the same basic model, which included the effects of enclosure, leakage and port losses. Beginning in June 1972,

161:

Many others continued to develop various aspects of loudspeaker enclosure design in the 1960s and early 1970s. From 1968 to 1972,

463:– The product of magnetic flux density in the voice-coil gap and the length of wire in the magnetic field, in tesla-metres (T·m). 6091:

which affect foam and natural rubber components badly, though butyl, nitrile, SBR rubber, and rubber-plastic alloys (such as

4363:

is a measurement of the losses, or damping, in a driver's suspension and moving system. It is the main factor in determining

3070:

in the range of 60–500 Hz and tweeters between 500 Hz and 4 kHz. A typical factory tolerance for the value of

2192: 2707:

From the efficiency, we may calculate sensitivity, which is the sound pressure level a speaker produces for a given input:

4197:

is the cone/coil mass without the acoustic load, and the two should not be confused. Some simulation software calculates

6340: 4663: 6100:

studies of aging effects in speaker drivers in the 1950s and 1960s, publishing some of the data in his books, notably

4662:

can be tightly controlled by the manufacturer, while rated impedance values are often approximate at best. American

7251: 3137:

A unitless measurement, characterizing the combined electric and mechanical damping of the driver. In electronics,

174: 7053:"Loudspeaker Voice-Coil Inductance Losses: Circuit Models, Parameter Estimation, and Effect on Frequency Response" 5621:

of 95 Hz at 0.5 V signal level, might drop to 64 Hz when fed a 5 V input. A driver with a measured

4944: 4904: 189:. Small also analyzed the systems including enclosure losses. Richard H. Small and Garry Margolis, the latter of 153: 64:, who pioneered this line of analysis for loudspeakers. A common use of Thiele/Small parameters is in designing 6603:

Rice, Chester W.; Kellogg, Edward W. (1925). "Notes on the Development of a New Type of Hornless Loudspeaker".

5082:. A particular value may be achieved in any of several ways. For instance, by having a small cone with a large 3766: 6583: 138: 118: 2083:– The efficiency bandwidth product, a rough indicator measure. A common rule of thumb indicates that for 7256: 5465: 3250:

values between 0.2 and 0.5, but there are valid (if unusual) reasons to have a value outside this range.

166: 111: 2150: 7123:"Compliance Scaling and Other Techniques (Fitting just about any driver to just about any alignment)" 5251:

drivers are likely to be more efficient as they will not need, and so may not have, long voice coils.

3808: 3189:

is proportional to the energy stored, divided by the energy dissipated, and is defined at resonance (

2660: 61: 7226: 6694:

Novak, James F. (1959). "Performance of Enclosures for Low-Resonance High-Compliance Loudspeakers".

6188: 3814: 1626: 7216: 6419: 6285: 6250: 5432: 5219: 5184: 5120: 5085: 5050: 4911: 4864: 3930:

product, the larger the force that is generated by a given current flowing through the voice coil.

2255: 1827: 1784: 1589: 6140: 6041: 5986: 5868: 5807: 5752: 5720: 5688: 5656: 5624: 5563: 5531: 5377: 5341: 5309: 4536: 4504: 4472: 4438: 4398: 4366: 4334: 4300: 4264: 4232: 4200: 4168: 4130: 4094: 4062: 3995: 3959: 3675: 3614: 3582: 3524: 3488: 3456: 3420: 3388: 3356: 3324: 3292: 3257: 3221: 3160: 3106: 2482: 1923: 1891: 1537: 1358: 1161: 917: 606: 347: 342:– Compliance of the driver's suspension, in metres per newton (the reciprocal of its 'stiffness'). 313: 279: 247: 100: 6667:

Novak, J. F. (1959). "Performance of Enclosures for Low-Resonance High-Compliance Loudspeakers".

6620: 6111: 6080: 5957: 5839: 5595: 5502: 5468: 5155: 5021: 4990: 4954: 4831: 4799: 4766: 4737: 4702: 4669: 4636: 4607: 4572: 4033: 3646: 3192: 3073: 3044: 3015: 2986: 2957: 2922: 1862: 1755: 1726: 1697: 1666: 1213: 969: 689: 660: 483: 412: 381: 216: 162: 142: 2086: 1345:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ts}}={\frac {Q_{\rm {ms}}\cdot Q_{\rm {es}}}{Q_{\rm {ms}}+Q_{\rm {es}}}}} 5900: 5258: 3933: 3907: 3881: 3855: 3740: 2848: 2783: 2739: 2292: 2118: 7010: 7000: 6788: 6647: 6096: 5928: 1580: 92: 72: 49: 5781:

decrease <13% as the drive level rises from 0.5 V to 4 V, due to the changes in

6676: 6612: 4059:) as the cone. Larger values mean lower stiffness, and generally require larger enclosures. 3012:

can cause large excursions, mechanically endangering the driver. Woofers typically have an

593:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}={\frac {1}{2\pi \cdot {\sqrt {C_{\rm {ms}}\cdot M_{\rm {ms}}}}}}} 178: 57: 34: 3878:

is also known as the 'force factor' because the force on the coil imposed by the magnet is

2875: 2821: 2716: 1485: 5181:

values will give an indication of the maximum output of a driver at low frequencies. High

186: 96: 88: 2060: 6018: 5934: 5784: 5409: 3711: 3559: 443: 6320: 6230: 3517:

drivers are often built with nonconductive formers made from paper or various plastics.

3140: 1527: 1509: 1503: 1193: 949: 639: 407:– Voice coil inductance, in henries (H) (typically measured at 1 kHz for woofers). 122: 17: 2908: 2047:{\displaystyle Z_{\rm {max}}=R_{e}\left(1+{\frac {Q_{\rm {ms}}}{Q_{\rm {es}}}}\right)} 7245: 6881:

Small, R. H. (1973). "Vented-Box Loudspeaker Systems–Part 2: Large-Signal Analysis".

6862:

Small, R. H. (1973). "Vented-Box Loudspeaker Systems–Part 1: Small-Signal Analysis".

6083:, and also undergoes changes from chemical and environmental effects associated with 4900: 376:– The mechanical resistance of the driver's suspension (i.e., 'lossiness'), in N·s/m. 6624: 4091:

varies with the square of the diameter. A typical factory measurement tolerance for

1473:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}=\rho \cdot c^{2}\cdot S_{\rm {d}}^{2}\cdot C_{\rm {ms}}} 206:(which is almost always the case), the more easily measured parameters listed under 5018:

Specified in litres (L). The volume displaced by the cone, equal to the cone area (

3811:), but the standard geometry of a circular coil in an annular voice-coil gap gives 3734: 3450: 147: 7221: 7100:"Moving-Coil Loudspeaker Topology as an Indicator of Linear Excursion Capability" 7052: 7099: 7029: 6640: 6616: 4331:

Units are not usually given for this parameter, but it is in mechanical 'ohms'.

170: 126: 76: 41: 6957:

Small, R. H. (1974). "Passive-Radiator Loudspeaker Systems–Part 2: Synthesis".

4427:

is influenced by suspension topology, materials, and by the voice-coil former (

6938:

Small, R. H. (1974). "Passive-Radiator Loudspeaker Systems–Part 1: Analysis".

6092: 4731: 2516:

A version that is more easily calculated with typical published parameters is:

99:

and electronics, increased interest in direct radiator loudspeakers. In 1930,

7122: 7014: 6680: 6088: 104: 65: 37: 165:

published three articles in an Australian journal that thoroughly analyzed

6919:

Small, R. H. (1973). "Vented-Box Loudspeaker Systems–Part 4: Appendices".

6795:(collection of three papers originally published in Australia, 1968–1971). 2316:– The reference or "power available" efficiency of the driver, in percent. 6900:

Small, R. H. (1973). "Vented-Box Loudspeaker Systems–Part 3: Synthesis".

6843:

Small, R. H. (1973). "Closed-Box Loudspeaker Systems–Part 2: Synthesis".

1531: 636: 6824:

Small, R. H. (1972). "Closed-Box Loudspeaker Systems–Part 1: Analysis".

1387:– Volume of air having the same acoustic compliance as driver suspension 48:

response is known as synthesis. Thiele/Small parameters are named after

6732:, Audio Engineering Society, New York, 1978, pp. 181–204. Reprinted in 6728:(5 & 6), pp. 382–392 & 471–483. Reprinted in R. E. Cooke (ed.) 7236: 5927:

Level shifts caused by resistive heating of the voice coil are termed

2287:– The nominal impedance of the loudspeaker, typically 4, 8 or 16 ohms. 7187:"Mechanical Fatigue and Load-Induced Aging of Loudspeaker Suspension" 7159:"Mechanical Fatigue and Load-Induced Aging of Loudspeaker Suspension" 5717:

is typically stable within a few percent, regardless of drive level.

5429:

is generally maximum at rest, and drops as the voice coil approaches

4428: 107: 6805:

Small, R. H. (1972). "Direct Radiator Loudspeaker System Analysis".

5560:

may vary considerably with input level, due to nonlinear changes in

5306:

will generally lie within a (sometimes specified) tolerance range.

242:– Equivalent piston area of the driver diaphragm, in square metres. 7076:"Voice Coil Impedance as a Function of Frequency and Displacement" 6084: 4027: 3417:

drivers displaying a higher impedance peak. One predictor for low

2951: 2907: 1567: 69: 6550:{\displaystyle Z_{\rm {max(uncorrected)}}\times R_{\rm {test}}/I} 4162: 5338:

is the least controllable parameter, but typical variations in

6765:

Thiele, A. N. (1971). "Loudspeakers in Vented Boxes: Part 2".

6746:

Thiele, A. N. (1971). "Loudspeakers in Vented Boxes: Part 1".

6605:

Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers

6224: 6182: 4601: 190: 2115:, a driver is perhaps best used in a vented enclosure, while 7232:

Acoustic Analogous Circuits - the method behind the formulas

117:

Progress on loudspeaker enclosure design and analysis using

6712:

Thiele, A. Neville (1961). "Loudspeakers in Vented Boxes,"

3904:

multiplied by the current through the coil. The higher the

33:(commonly abbreviated T/S parameters, or TSP) are a set of 6714:

Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, Australia

5983:. Large, linear spiders can increase the linear range of 5865:

can drop considerably, with a trivial change in measured

3041:

in the range of 13–60 Hz. Midranges usually have an

2810:

The SPL at 1 metre for an input of 2.83 volts is then: dB

40:

that define the specified low frequency performance of a

6730:

Loudspeakers, An Anthology, Vol. 1 – Vol. 25 (1953–1977)

4633:

should not be confused with the rated driver impedance,

6337:) at resonance and calculating the actual test current 4943:

determined by measuring excursion at a level where 10%

2242:{\displaystyle EBP={\frac {f_{\rm {s}}}{Q_{\rm {es}}}}} 5592:. A typical 110-mm diameter full-range driver with an 6457: 6422: 6343: 6323: 6288: 6253: 6233: 6191: 6143: 6114: 6044: 6021: 5989: 5960: 5937: 5903: 5871: 5842: 5810: 5787: 5755: 5723: 5691: 5659: 5627: 5598: 5566: 5534: 5505: 5471: 5435: 5412: 5380: 5344: 5312: 5261: 5222: 5187: 5158: 5123: 5088: 5053: 5024: 4993: 4957: 4914: 4867: 4857:

than conventional types with the same frame diameter.

4834: 4802: 4769: 4740: 4705: 4672: 4639: 4610: 4575: 4539: 4507: 4475: 4441: 4401: 4369: 4337: 4303: 4267: 4235: 4203: 4171: 4133: 4097: 4065: 4036: 3998: 3962: 3936: 3910: 3884: 3858: 3817: 3769: 3743: 3714: 3678: 3649: 3617: 3585: 3562: 3527: 3491: 3459: 3423: 3391: 3359: 3327: 3295: 3260: 3224: 3195: 3163: 3143: 3109: 3076: 3047: 3018: 2989: 2960: 2925: 2878: 2851: 2824: 2786: 2776:

The SPL at 1 metre for an input of 1 watt is then: dB

2742: 2719: 2663: 2524: 2485: 2326: 2295: 2258: 2195: 2153: 2121: 2089: 2063: 1962: 1926: 1894: 1865: 1830: 1787: 1758: 1729: 1700: 1669: 1629: 1592: 1540: 1512: 1488: 1397: 1361: 1249: 1216: 1196: 1164: 1005: 972: 952: 920: 725: 692: 663: 642: 609: 519: 486: 446: 415: 384: 350: 316: 282: 250: 219: 7030:"An Empirical Model for Loudspeaker Motor Impedance" 6579:

Electrical characteristics of a dynamic loudspeaker

4293:

can be very closely controlled by the manufacturer.

151:outside Australia until it was re-published in the 7144:Loudspeakers: The Why and How of Good Reproduction 6639: 6549: 6443: 6409:{\displaystyle I=V/(R_{\rm {test}}+Z_{\rm {max}})} 6408: 6329: 6309: 6274: 6239: 6215: 6161: 6129: 6102:Loudspeakers: The Why and How of Good Reproduction 6062: 6030: 6007: 5975: 5946: 5916: 5889: 5857: 5828: 5796: 5773: 5741: 5709: 5677: 5645: 5613: 5584: 5552: 5520: 5486: 5456: 5421: 5398: 5362: 5330: 5274: 5243: 5208: 5173: 5144: 5109: 5074: 5039: 5008: 4972: 4935: 4888: 4849: 4817: 4784: 4755: 4720: 4687: 4654: 4625: 4590: 4557: 4525: 4493: 4459: 4419: 4387: 4355: 4321: 4285: 4253: 4221: 4189: 4151: 4115: 4083: 4051: 4016: 3980: 3948: 3922: 3896: 3870: 3844: 3799: 3755: 3723: 3696: 3664: 3635: 3611:is the dominant factor in the voice coil damping. 3603: 3571: 3545: 3509: 3477: 3441: 3409: 3377: 3345: 3313: 3278: 3242: 3210: 3181: 3157:is the inverse of the damping ratio. The value of 3149: 3127: 3091: 3062: 3033: 3004: 2975: 2940: 2891: 2864: 2837: 2799: 2765: 2728: 2694: 2647: 2505: 2469: 2308: 2279: 2241: 2177: 2139: 2107: 2075: 2046: 1944: 1912: 1880: 1851: 1808: 1773: 1744: 1715: 1684: 1653: 1613: 1558: 1518: 1494: 1472: 1379: 1344: 1231: 1202: 1182: 1147: 987: 958: 938: 903: 707: 678: 648: 627: 592: 501: 455: 430: 399: 368: 334: 300: 268: 234: 7194:Paper Number 8474, 131st AES Convention, New York 5370:do not have large effects on the final response. 1534:, the result will be in cubic metres. To convert 5406:decreases the farther the coil moves from rest. 4828:wide roll surrounds can have significantly less 472:These values can be determined by measuring the 7146:(Fourth ed.). Audio Amateur, Incorporated. 7074:Dodd, M.; Klippel, W.; Oclee-Brown, J. (2006). 5685:increase to 13 L when tested at 4 V. 4908:driven to high levels at low frequencies, with 7121:White, Robert C.; Elliott, Rod (5 June 2005). 3449:is a metallic voice-coil former. These act as 3385:is on the impedance of the driver, with high 2912:Cross-section of a dynamic cone loudspeaker. 8: 7166:Presentation, 131st AES Convention, New York 3353:indicates higher losses. The main effect of 995:considering driver nonelectrical losses only 6787:, Indianapolis, Howard Sams & Company, 6785:Theory and Design of Loudspeaker Enclosures 6247:measurement errors for drivers with a high 6087:such as exposure to ultraviolet light, and 3321:indicates lower mechanical losses, and low 2950:Resonance frequency of driver, measured in 2185:, either enclosure may be used effectively. 438:– DC resistance of the voice coil, in ohms. 6070:must be balanced to avoid dynamic offset. 1723:– Peak displacement volume, calculated by 6539: 6523: 6522: 6463: 6462: 6456: 6428: 6427: 6421: 6390: 6389: 6366: 6365: 6353: 6342: 6322: 6294: 6293: 6287: 6259: 6258: 6252: 6232: 6197: 6196: 6190: 6149: 6148: 6142: 6120: 6119: 6113: 6095:) are more stable. The polyester type of 6050: 6049: 6043: 6020: 5995: 5994: 5988: 5966: 5965: 5959: 5936: 5908: 5902: 5877: 5876: 5870: 5848: 5847: 5841: 5816: 5815: 5809: 5786: 5761: 5760: 5754: 5729: 5728: 5722: 5697: 5696: 5690: 5665: 5664: 5658: 5633: 5632: 5626: 5604: 5603: 5597: 5572: 5571: 5565: 5540: 5539: 5533: 5511: 5510: 5504: 5477: 5476: 5470: 5441: 5440: 5434: 5411: 5386: 5385: 5379: 5350: 5349: 5343: 5318: 5317: 5311: 5266: 5260: 5228: 5227: 5221: 5193: 5192: 5186: 5164: 5163: 5157: 5129: 5128: 5122: 5094: 5093: 5087: 5059: 5058: 5052: 5030: 5029: 5023: 4999: 4998: 4992: 4963: 4962: 4956: 4920: 4919: 4913: 4873: 4872: 4866: 4840: 4839: 4833: 4808: 4807: 4801: 4775: 4774: 4768: 4746: 4745: 4739: 4711: 4710: 4704: 4678: 4677: 4671: 4645: 4644: 4638: 4616: 4615: 4609: 4581: 4580: 4574: 4545: 4544: 4538: 4513: 4512: 4506: 4481: 4480: 4474: 4447: 4446: 4440: 4407: 4406: 4400: 4375: 4374: 4368: 4343: 4342: 4336: 4309: 4308: 4302: 4273: 4272: 4266: 4241: 4240: 4234: 4209: 4208: 4202: 4177: 4176: 4170: 4139: 4138: 4132: 4103: 4102: 4096: 4071: 4070: 4064: 4042: 4041: 4035: 4004: 4003: 3997: 3968: 3967: 3961: 3935: 3909: 3883: 3857: 3816: 3768: 3742: 3713: 3684: 3683: 3677: 3655: 3654: 3648: 3623: 3622: 3616: 3591: 3590: 3584: 3561: 3533: 3532: 3526: 3497: 3496: 3490: 3465: 3464: 3458: 3429: 3428: 3422: 3397: 3396: 3390: 3365: 3364: 3358: 3333: 3332: 3326: 3301: 3300: 3294: 3266: 3265: 3259: 3230: 3229: 3223: 3201: 3200: 3194: 3169: 3168: 3162: 3142: 3115: 3114: 3108: 3082: 3081: 3075: 3053: 3052: 3046: 3024: 3023: 3017: 2995: 2994: 2988: 2966: 2965: 2959: 2931: 2930: 2924: 2883: 2877: 2856: 2850: 2829: 2823: 2791: 2785: 2746: 2741: 2718: 2686: 2677: 2671: 2662: 2619: 2618: 2605: 2589: 2588: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2555: 2542: 2529: 2523: 2489: 2484: 2444: 2443: 2430: 2421: 2420: 2390: 2384: 2383: 2370: 2357: 2344: 2331: 2325: 2300: 2294: 2264: 2263: 2257: 2227: 2226: 2215: 2214: 2208: 2194: 2152: 2120: 2088: 2062: 2027: 2026: 2012: 2011: 2005: 1988: 1968: 1967: 1961: 1932: 1931: 1925: 1900: 1899: 1893: 1871: 1870: 1864: 1836: 1835: 1829: 1793: 1792: 1786: 1764: 1763: 1757: 1735: 1734: 1728: 1706: 1705: 1699: 1675: 1674: 1668: 1635: 1634: 1628: 1598: 1597: 1591: 1546: 1545: 1539: 1511: 1487: 1460: 1459: 1446: 1440: 1439: 1426: 1403: 1402: 1396: 1367: 1366: 1360: 1329: 1328: 1311: 1310: 1294: 1293: 1276: 1275: 1268: 1255: 1254: 1248: 1222: 1221: 1215: 1195: 1170: 1169: 1163: 1132: 1131: 1117: 1116: 1109: 1097: 1096: 1087: 1072: 1071: 1056: 1055: 1041: 1040: 1024: 1011: 1010: 1004: 978: 977: 971: 951: 926: 925: 919: 888: 887: 873: 872: 865: 856: 835: 834: 828: 816: 794: 793: 776: 775: 761: 760: 744: 731: 730: 724: 698: 697: 691: 669: 668: 662: 641: 615: 614: 608: 575: 574: 557: 556: 550: 535: 525: 524: 518: 492: 491: 485: 445: 421: 420: 414: 390: 389: 383: 356: 355: 349: 322: 321: 315: 288: 287: 281: 256: 255: 249: 225: 224: 218: 7104:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 7057:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 7034:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6995:Beranek, Leo L.; Mellow, Tim J. (2012). 6978:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6959:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6940:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6921:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6902:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6883:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6864:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6845:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6826:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6807:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6767:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6748:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6722:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6696:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 2983:, and input signals significantly below 195:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 183:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 154:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 6595: 5954:and reduce the value and modulation of 5301:Measurement notes—large signal behavior 4565:and thus has the same tolerance ranges. 137:, a book summarizing and extending the 5653:of 7 L at 0.5 V, may show a 3453:brakes and increase damping, reducing 1530:(346.1 m/s at 25 °C). Using 7237:The Thiele-Small Loudspeaker Database 4730:Measured in henries (H), this is the 3800:{\displaystyle B\times lsin(\theta )} 1506:(1.184 kg/m at 25 °C), and 1239:resulting from all driver resistances 131:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 7: 7222:Fast Bass, Slow Bass - Myth vs. Fact 7217:Measuring speaker element parameters 5897:, the calculated sensitivity value ( 6074:Lifetime changes in driver behavior 3737:-metres (T·m). Technically this is 27:Set of electromechanical parameters 6734:Vented Loudspeakers – An Anthology 6533: 6530: 6527: 6524: 6506: 6503: 6500: 6497: 6494: 6491: 6488: 6485: 6482: 6479: 6476: 6470: 6467: 6464: 6435: 6432: 6429: 6416:. You may then obtain a corrected 6397: 6394: 6391: 6376: 6373: 6370: 6367: 6301: 6298: 6295: 6266: 6263: 6260: 6207: 6204: 6201: 6198: 6153: 6150: 6121: 6054: 6051: 5999: 5996: 5967: 5881: 5878: 5849: 5820: 5817: 5765: 5762: 5733: 5730: 5701: 5698: 5669: 5666: 5637: 5634: 5605: 5576: 5573: 5544: 5541: 5512: 5478: 5448: 5445: 5442: 5390: 5387: 5354: 5351: 5322: 5319: 5235: 5232: 5229: 5200: 5197: 5194: 5165: 5136: 5133: 5130: 5101: 5098: 5095: 5066: 5063: 5060: 5031: 5000: 4964: 4927: 4924: 4921: 4880: 4877: 4874: 4841: 4809: 4776: 4747: 4712: 4679: 4646: 4617: 4582: 4549: 4546: 4517: 4514: 4485: 4482: 4451: 4448: 4411: 4408: 4379: 4376: 4347: 4344: 4313: 4310: 4277: 4274: 4245: 4242: 4213: 4210: 4181: 4178: 4143: 4140: 4107: 4104: 4075: 4072: 4043: 4008: 4005: 3972: 3969: 3688: 3685: 3656: 3627: 3624: 3595: 3592: 3537: 3534: 3501: 3498: 3469: 3466: 3433: 3430: 3401: 3398: 3369: 3366: 3337: 3334: 3305: 3302: 3270: 3267: 3234: 3231: 3202: 3173: 3170: 3119: 3116: 3083: 3054: 3025: 2996: 2967: 2932: 2642: 2623: 2620: 2593: 2590: 2570: 2464: 2445: 2425: 2422: 2385: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2231: 2228: 2216: 2147:indicates a sealed enclosure. For 2031: 2028: 2016: 2013: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1936: 1933: 1904: 1901: 1872: 1843: 1840: 1837: 1800: 1797: 1794: 1765: 1736: 1707: 1676: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1550: 1547: 1464: 1461: 1441: 1407: 1404: 1371: 1368: 1333: 1330: 1315: 1312: 1298: 1295: 1280: 1277: 1259: 1256: 1223: 1174: 1171: 1136: 1133: 1121: 1118: 1101: 1098: 1076: 1073: 1060: 1057: 1042: 1015: 1012: 979: 930: 927: 892: 889: 877: 874: 836: 795: 780: 777: 762: 735: 732: 699: 686:considering electrical resistance 670: 619: 616: 579: 576: 561: 558: 526: 493: 422: 391: 360: 357: 326: 323: 292: 289: 260: 257: 226: 54:Australian Broadcasting Commission 25: 6015:, but the large signal values of 1859:– The impedance of the driver at 7051:Leach, Jr., W. Marshall (2002). 4666:standard RS-299A specifies that 2178:{\displaystyle 50<EBP<100} 79:port (if it is used) should be. 7227:Understanding Power Compression 6720:(8), pp. 487–508. Reprinted in 5117:, or a large cone with a small 2695:{\displaystyle 4\pi ^{2}/c^{3}} 509:– Resonance frequency of driver 6509: 6473: 6403: 6358: 6216:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {test}}} 3845:{\displaystyle sin(\theta )=1} 3833: 3827: 3794: 3788: 2760: 2751: 1654:{\displaystyle X_{\rm {mech}}} 853: 843: 813: 803: 193:, published an article in the 121:by academic acousticians like 1: 6444:{\displaystyle Z_{\rm {max}}} 6310:{\displaystyle Z_{\rm {max}}} 6275:{\displaystyle Z_{\rm {max}}} 5457:{\displaystyle X_{\rm {max}}} 5244:{\displaystyle X_{\rm {max}}} 5209:{\displaystyle X_{\rm {max}}} 5145:{\displaystyle X_{\rm {max}}} 5110:{\displaystyle X_{\rm {max}}} 5075:{\displaystyle X_{\rm {max}}} 4936:{\displaystyle X_{\rm {max}}} 4889:{\displaystyle X_{\rm {max}}} 2780: = 112.02 + 10·log( 2280:{\displaystyle Z_{\rm {nom}}} 1852:{\displaystyle Z_{\rm {max}}} 1809:{\displaystyle X_{\rm {max}}} 1614:{\displaystyle X_{\rm {max}}} 7185:Klippel, W. (October 2011). 7157:Klippel, W. (October 2011). 6162:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 6063:{\displaystyle C_{\rm {ms}}} 6008:{\displaystyle C_{\rm {ms}}} 5890:{\displaystyle M_{\rm {ms}}} 5829:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 5774:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ts}}} 5742:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {es}}} 5710:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 5678:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 5646:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 5585:{\displaystyle C_{\rm {ms}}} 5553:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 5399:{\displaystyle C_{\rm {ms}}} 5363:{\displaystyle C_{\rm {ms}}} 5331:{\displaystyle C_{\rm {ms}}} 4558:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 4526:{\displaystyle C_{\rm {ms}}} 4494:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 4460:{\displaystyle C_{\rm {ms}}} 4420:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {ms}}} 4388:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 4356:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {ms}}} 4322:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {ms}}} 4286:{\displaystyle M_{\rm {md}}} 4254:{\displaystyle M_{\rm {md}}} 4222:{\displaystyle M_{\rm {ms}}} 4190:{\displaystyle M_{\rm {md}}} 4152:{\displaystyle M_{\rm {ms}}} 4116:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 4084:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 4017:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 3981:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {es}}} 3956:has a very strong effect on 3697:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {es}}} 3636:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {es}}} 3604:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {es}}} 3546:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {es}}} 3510:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 3478:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 3442:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 3410:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 3378:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 3346:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 3314:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 3279:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 3243:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ts}}} 3182:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ts}}} 3128:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ts}}} 2736: m for an intensity of 2506:{\displaystyle \rho /2\pi c} 1945:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 1913:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {es}}} 1559:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 1380:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {as}}} 1183:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ts}}} 939:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {ms}}} 628:{\displaystyle Q_{\rm {es}}} 369:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {ms}}} 335:{\displaystyle C_{\rm {ms}}} 301:{\displaystyle M_{\rm {md}}} 269:{\displaystyle M_{\rm {ms}}} 6617:10.1109/T-AIEE.1925.5061127 6130:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 5976:{\displaystyle L_{\rm {e}}} 5858:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 5836:can rise significantly and 5614:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 5521:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 5494:increases as the coil heats 5487:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {e}}} 5174:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {d}}} 5040:{\displaystyle S_{\rm {d}}} 5009:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {d}}} 4973:{\displaystyle P_{\rm {e}}} 4850:{\displaystyle S_{\rm {d}}} 4818:{\displaystyle S_{\rm {d}}} 4785:{\displaystyle L_{\rm {e}}} 4756:{\displaystyle L_{\rm {e}}} 4721:{\displaystyle L_{\rm {e}}} 4688:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {e}}} 4655:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {e}}} 4626:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {e}}} 4591:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {e}}} 4052:{\displaystyle S_{\rm {d}}} 3672:for calculations involving 3665:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {e}}} 3211:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 3092:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 3063:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 3034:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 3005:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 2976:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 2941:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 1881:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 1774:{\displaystyle S_{\rm {d}}} 1745:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {d}}} 1716:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {d}}} 1685:{\displaystyle P_{\rm {e}}} 1232:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 988:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 708:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {e}}} 679:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 502:{\displaystyle f_{\rm {s}}} 431:{\displaystyle R_{\rm {e}}} 400:{\displaystyle L_{\rm {e}}} 235:{\displaystyle S_{\rm {d}}} 119:acoustic analogous circuits 7273: 7028:Wright, Julian R. (1990). 2108:{\displaystyle EBP>100} 125:continued until 1954 when 6669:IRE Transactions on Audio 6137:accompanied by a rise in 5917:{\displaystyle \eta _{0}} 5275:{\displaystyle \eta _{0}} 4903:'s Mark Gander in a 1981 3949:{\displaystyle B\times l} 3923:{\displaystyle B\times l} 3897:{\displaystyle B\times l} 3871:{\displaystyle B\times l} 3756:{\displaystyle B\times l} 2865:{\displaystyle \eta _{0}} 2845:) = 112.02 + 10·log( 2800:{\displaystyle \eta _{0}} 2766:{\displaystyle 1/(2\pi )} 2309:{\displaystyle \eta _{0}} 2140:{\displaystyle EBP<50} 7142:Briggs, Gilbert (2018). 6681:10.1109/TAU.1959.1166180 6638:Beranek, Leo L. (1954). 6282:– the measured value of 2904:Qualitative descriptions 95:, fueled by advances in 6889:(July/August): 438–444. 1575:Large signal parameters 468:Small signal parameters 208:Small Signal Parameters 31:Thiele/Small parameters 18:Thiele Small parameters 6783:Benson, J. E. (1996), 6584:Acoustical engineering 6551: 6445: 6410: 6331: 6311: 6276: 6241: 6217: 6173:Measurement techniques 6163: 6131: 6064: 6032: 6009: 5977: 5948: 5918: 5891: 5859: 5830: 5798: 5775: 5743: 5711: 5679: 5647: 5615: 5586: 5554: 5522: 5488: 5458: 5423: 5400: 5364: 5332: 5276: 5245: 5210: 5175: 5146: 5111: 5076: 5041: 5010: 4974: 4937: 4890: 4851: 4819: 4786: 4757: 4722: 4689: 4656: 4627: 4592: 4559: 4527: 4495: 4461: 4421: 4389: 4357: 4323: 4287: 4255: 4223: 4191: 4153: 4117: 4085: 4053: 4018: 3982: 3950: 3924: 3898: 3872: 3846: 3801: 3757: 3725: 3698: 3666: 3637: 3605: 3573: 3547: 3511: 3479: 3443: 3411: 3379: 3347: 3315: 3280: 3244: 3212: 3183: 3151: 3129: 3093: 3064: 3035: 3006: 2977: 2942: 2916: 2893: 2866: 2839: 2801: 2767: 2730: 2696: 2649: 2507: 2471: 2310: 2281: 2243: 2179: 2141: 2109: 2077: 2048: 1946: 1914: 1888:, used when measuring 1882: 1853: 1810: 1775: 1746: 1717: 1686: 1655: 1615: 1560: 1520: 1496: 1474: 1381: 1346: 1233: 1204: 1184: 1149: 989: 960: 940: 905: 709: 680: 650: 629: 594: 503: 457: 432: 401: 370: 336: 302: 270: 236: 201:Fundamental parameters 7098:Gander, Mark (1981). 6908:(September): 549–554. 6552: 6446: 6411: 6332: 6312: 6277: 6242: 6218: 6164: 6132: 6065: 6033: 6010: 5978: 5949: 5919: 5892: 5860: 5831: 5799: 5776: 5744: 5712: 5680: 5648: 5616: 5587: 5555: 5523: 5489: 5459: 5424: 5401: 5365: 5333: 5277: 5246: 5211: 5176: 5147: 5112: 5077: 5042: 5011: 4975: 4938: 4891: 4852: 4820: 4787: 4758: 4723: 4690: 4657: 4628: 4593: 4560: 4528: 4496: 4462: 4422: 4390: 4358: 4324: 4288: 4256: 4224: 4192: 4154: 4118: 4086: 4054: 4019: 3983: 3951: 3925: 3899: 3873: 3847: 3802: 3758: 3726: 3699: 3667: 3638: 3606: 3574: 3548: 3512: 3480: 3444: 3412: 3380: 3348: 3316: 3281: 3245: 3218:). Most drivers have 3213: 3184: 3152: 3130: 3094: 3065: 3036: 3007: 2978: 2943: 2911: 2894: 2892:{\displaystyle R_{e}} 2867: 2840: 2838:{\displaystyle R_{e}} 2802: 2768: 2731: 2729:{\displaystyle 2\pi } 2697: 2650: 2508: 2472: 2311: 2282: 2244: 2180: 2142: 2110: 2078: 2049: 1947: 1915: 1883: 1854: 1811: 1776: 1747: 1718: 1687: 1656: 1616: 1561: 1521: 1497: 1495:{\displaystyle \rho } 1475: 1382: 1347: 1234: 1205: 1185: 1150: 990: 961: 941: 906: 710: 681: 651: 630: 595: 504: 458: 433: 402: 371: 337: 303: 271: 237: 6965:(November): 683–689. 6832:(December): 798–808. 6455: 6420: 6341: 6321: 6286: 6251: 6231: 6189: 6141: 6112: 6042: 6019: 5987: 5958: 5935: 5901: 5869: 5840: 5808: 5785: 5753: 5721: 5689: 5657: 5625: 5596: 5564: 5532: 5503: 5469: 5433: 5410: 5378: 5342: 5310: 5259: 5220: 5185: 5156: 5121: 5086: 5051: 5022: 4991: 4955: 4912: 4865: 4832: 4800: 4767: 4738: 4703: 4670: 4637: 4608: 4573: 4537: 4505: 4473: 4439: 4399: 4367: 4335: 4301: 4265: 4233: 4201: 4169: 4131: 4095: 4063: 4034: 3996: 3960: 3934: 3908: 3882: 3856: 3815: 3809:vector cross product 3767: 3741: 3712: 3676: 3647: 3615: 3583: 3560: 3525: 3489: 3457: 3421: 3389: 3357: 3325: 3293: 3258: 3222: 3193: 3161: 3141: 3107: 3074: 3045: 3016: 2987: 2958: 2923: 2876: 2849: 2822: 2784: 2740: 2717: 2661: 2522: 2483: 2324: 2293: 2256: 2193: 2151: 2119: 2087: 2061: 1960: 1924: 1892: 1863: 1828: 1785: 1756: 1727: 1698: 1667: 1627: 1590: 1538: 1510: 1486: 1395: 1359: 1247: 1214: 1194: 1162: 1003: 970: 950: 918: 723: 690: 661: 640: 607: 517: 484: 444: 413: 382: 348: 314: 280: 248: 217: 210:are more practical: 114:design at the time. 62:University of Sydney 6946:(October): 592–601. 6927:(October): 635–639. 6646:. NY: McGraw-Hill. 6223:= 500 to 1000 4533:is proportional to 2914:Image not to scale. 2580: 2435: 2395: 2076:{\displaystyle EBP} 1570:, multiply by 1000. 1451: 6999:. Academic Press. 6851:(February): 11–18. 6547: 6441: 6406: 6327: 6307: 6272: 6237: 6213: 6159: 6127: 6060: 6031:{\displaystyle Bl} 6028: 6005: 5973: 5947:{\displaystyle Bl} 5944: 5914: 5887: 5855: 5826: 5797:{\displaystyle Bl} 5794: 5771: 5739: 5707: 5675: 5643: 5611: 5582: 5550: 5518: 5484: 5454: 5422:{\displaystyle Bl} 5419: 5396: 5360: 5328: 5272: 5241: 5206: 5171: 5142: 5107: 5072: 5037: 5006: 4970: 4933: 4886: 4847: 4815: 4782: 4753: 4718: 4685: 4652: 4623: 4588: 4555: 4523: 4491: 4457: 4417: 4385: 4353: 4319: 4283: 4251: 4219: 4187: 4149: 4113: 4081: 4049: 4014: 3978: 3946: 3920: 3894: 3868: 3842: 3797: 3753: 3724:{\displaystyle Bl} 3721: 3694: 3662: 3633: 3601: 3572:{\displaystyle Bl} 3569: 3543: 3507: 3475: 3439: 3407: 3375: 3343: 3311: 3276: 3240: 3208: 3179: 3147: 3125: 3089: 3060: 3031: 3002: 2973: 2938: 2917: 2889: 2862: 2835: 2797: 2763: 2726: 2692: 2645: 2564: 2503: 2467: 2416: 2379: 2306: 2277: 2239: 2175: 2137: 2105: 2073: 2044: 1942: 1910: 1878: 1849: 1806: 1771: 1742: 1713: 1682: 1651: 1611: 1556: 1516: 1492: 1470: 1435: 1377: 1342: 1229: 1200: 1180: 1145: 985: 956: 936: 901: 705: 676: 646: 625: 590: 499: 456:{\displaystyle Bl} 453: 428: 397: 366: 332: 298: 266: 232: 87:The 1925 paper of 73:speaker enclosures 42:loudspeaker driver 7252:Audio engineering 6330:{\displaystyle V} 6240:{\displaystyle Q} 6181:The most common ( 6097:polyurethane foam 5929:power compression 3150:{\displaystyle Q} 2818: + 10·log(8/ 2630: 2452: 2237: 2037: 1581:power compression 1519:{\displaystyle c} 1340: 1203:{\displaystyle Q} 1143: 1142: 1107: 1082: 959:{\displaystyle Q} 899: 898: 863: 823: 649:{\displaystyle Q} 588: 585: 187:analog simulators 93:Edward W. Kellogg 50:A. Neville Thiele 35:electromechanical 16:(Redirected from 7264: 7204: 7203: 7201: 7200: 7191: 7182: 7176: 7175: 7173: 7172: 7163: 7154: 7148: 7147: 7139: 7133: 7132: 7130: 7129: 7118: 7112: 7111: 7095: 7089: 7088: 7086: 7085: 7080: 7071: 7065: 7064: 7048: 7042: 7041: 7025: 7019: 7018: 6992: 6986: 6985: 6984:(June): 421–441. 6973: 6967: 6966: 6954: 6948: 6947: 6935: 6929: 6928: 6916: 6910: 6909: 6897: 6891: 6890: 6878: 6872: 6871: 6870:(June): 363–372. 6859: 6853: 6852: 6840: 6834: 6833: 6821: 6815: 6814: 6813:(June): 383–395. 6802: 6796: 6781: 6775: 6774: 6773:(June): 471–483. 6762: 6756: 6755: 6743: 6737: 6710: 6704: 6703: 6691: 6685: 6684: 6664: 6658: 6657: 6645: 6635: 6629: 6628: 6600: 6556: 6554: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6537: 6536: 6514: 6513: 6512: 6450: 6448: 6447: 6442: 6440: 6439: 6438: 6415: 6413: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6401: 6400: 6381: 6380: 6379: 6357: 6336: 6334: 6333: 6328: 6316: 6314: 6313: 6308: 6306: 6305: 6304: 6281: 6279: 6278: 6273: 6271: 6270: 6269: 6246: 6244: 6243: 6238: 6222: 6220: 6219: 6214: 6212: 6211: 6210: 6168: 6166: 6165: 6160: 6158: 6157: 6156: 6136: 6134: 6133: 6128: 6126: 6125: 6124: 6069: 6067: 6066: 6061: 6059: 6058: 6057: 6037: 6035: 6034: 6029: 6014: 6012: 6011: 6006: 6004: 6003: 6002: 5982: 5980: 5979: 5974: 5972: 5971: 5970: 5953: 5951: 5950: 5945: 5923: 5921: 5920: 5915: 5913: 5912: 5896: 5894: 5893: 5888: 5886: 5885: 5884: 5864: 5862: 5861: 5856: 5854: 5853: 5852: 5835: 5833: 5832: 5827: 5825: 5824: 5823: 5803: 5801: 5800: 5795: 5780: 5778: 5777: 5772: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5748: 5746: 5745: 5740: 5738: 5737: 5736: 5716: 5714: 5713: 5708: 5706: 5705: 5704: 5684: 5682: 5681: 5676: 5674: 5673: 5672: 5652: 5650: 5649: 5644: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5620: 5618: 5617: 5612: 5610: 5609: 5608: 5591: 5589: 5588: 5583: 5581: 5580: 5579: 5559: 5557: 5556: 5551: 5549: 5548: 5547: 5527: 5525: 5524: 5519: 5517: 5516: 5515: 5493: 5491: 5490: 5485: 5483: 5482: 5481: 5463: 5461: 5460: 5455: 5453: 5452: 5451: 5428: 5426: 5425: 5420: 5405: 5403: 5402: 5397: 5395: 5394: 5393: 5369: 5367: 5366: 5361: 5359: 5358: 5357: 5337: 5335: 5334: 5329: 5327: 5326: 5325: 5281: 5279: 5278: 5273: 5271: 5270: 5250: 5248: 5247: 5242: 5240: 5239: 5238: 5215: 5213: 5212: 5207: 5205: 5204: 5203: 5180: 5178: 5177: 5172: 5170: 5169: 5168: 5151: 5149: 5148: 5143: 5141: 5140: 5139: 5116: 5114: 5113: 5108: 5106: 5105: 5104: 5081: 5079: 5078: 5073: 5071: 5070: 5069: 5047:) multiplied by 5046: 5044: 5043: 5038: 5036: 5035: 5034: 5015: 5013: 5012: 5007: 5005: 5004: 5003: 4979: 4977: 4976: 4971: 4969: 4968: 4967: 4942: 4940: 4939: 4934: 4932: 4931: 4930: 4895: 4893: 4892: 4887: 4885: 4884: 4883: 4856: 4854: 4853: 4848: 4846: 4845: 4844: 4824: 4822: 4821: 4816: 4814: 4813: 4812: 4791: 4789: 4788: 4783: 4781: 4780: 4779: 4762: 4760: 4759: 4754: 4752: 4751: 4750: 4727: 4725: 4724: 4719: 4717: 4716: 4715: 4694: 4692: 4691: 4686: 4684: 4683: 4682: 4661: 4659: 4658: 4653: 4651: 4650: 4649: 4632: 4630: 4629: 4624: 4622: 4621: 4620: 4597: 4595: 4594: 4589: 4587: 4586: 4585: 4564: 4562: 4561: 4556: 4554: 4553: 4552: 4532: 4530: 4529: 4524: 4522: 4521: 4520: 4500: 4498: 4497: 4492: 4490: 4489: 4488: 4466: 4464: 4463: 4458: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4426: 4424: 4423: 4418: 4416: 4415: 4414: 4394: 4392: 4391: 4386: 4384: 4383: 4382: 4362: 4360: 4359: 4354: 4352: 4351: 4350: 4328: 4326: 4325: 4320: 4318: 4317: 4316: 4292: 4290: 4289: 4284: 4282: 4281: 4280: 4260: 4258: 4257: 4252: 4250: 4249: 4248: 4228: 4226: 4225: 4220: 4218: 4217: 4216: 4196: 4194: 4193: 4188: 4186: 4185: 4184: 4158: 4156: 4155: 4150: 4148: 4147: 4146: 4122: 4120: 4119: 4114: 4112: 4111: 4110: 4090: 4088: 4087: 4082: 4080: 4079: 4078: 4058: 4056: 4055: 4050: 4048: 4047: 4046: 4023: 4021: 4020: 4015: 4013: 4012: 4011: 3987: 3985: 3984: 3979: 3977: 3976: 3975: 3955: 3953: 3952: 3947: 3929: 3927: 3926: 3921: 3903: 3901: 3900: 3895: 3877: 3875: 3874: 3869: 3851: 3849: 3848: 3843: 3806: 3804: 3803: 3798: 3762: 3760: 3759: 3754: 3730: 3728: 3727: 3722: 3703: 3701: 3700: 3695: 3693: 3692: 3691: 3671: 3669: 3668: 3663: 3661: 3660: 3659: 3642: 3640: 3639: 3634: 3632: 3631: 3630: 3610: 3608: 3607: 3602: 3600: 3599: 3598: 3578: 3576: 3575: 3570: 3552: 3550: 3549: 3544: 3542: 3541: 3540: 3516: 3514: 3513: 3508: 3506: 3505: 3504: 3484: 3482: 3481: 3476: 3474: 3473: 3472: 3448: 3446: 3445: 3440: 3438: 3437: 3436: 3416: 3414: 3413: 3408: 3406: 3405: 3404: 3384: 3382: 3381: 3376: 3374: 3373: 3372: 3352: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3342: 3341: 3340: 3320: 3318: 3317: 3312: 3310: 3309: 3308: 3285: 3283: 3282: 3277: 3275: 3274: 3273: 3249: 3247: 3246: 3241: 3239: 3238: 3237: 3217: 3215: 3214: 3209: 3207: 3206: 3205: 3188: 3186: 3185: 3180: 3178: 3177: 3176: 3156: 3154: 3153: 3148: 3134: 3132: 3131: 3126: 3124: 3123: 3122: 3098: 3096: 3095: 3090: 3088: 3087: 3086: 3069: 3067: 3066: 3061: 3059: 3058: 3057: 3040: 3038: 3037: 3032: 3030: 3029: 3028: 3011: 3009: 3008: 3003: 3001: 3000: 2999: 2982: 2980: 2979: 2974: 2972: 2971: 2970: 2947: 2945: 2944: 2939: 2937: 2936: 2935: 2898: 2896: 2895: 2890: 2888: 2887: 2871: 2869: 2868: 2863: 2861: 2860: 2844: 2842: 2841: 2836: 2834: 2833: 2806: 2804: 2803: 2798: 2796: 2795: 2772: 2770: 2769: 2764: 2750: 2735: 2733: 2732: 2727: 2701: 2699: 2698: 2693: 2691: 2690: 2681: 2676: 2675: 2654: 2652: 2651: 2646: 2635: 2631: 2629: 2628: 2627: 2626: 2610: 2609: 2599: 2598: 2597: 2596: 2579: 2574: 2573: 2560: 2559: 2543: 2534: 2533: 2512: 2510: 2509: 2504: 2493: 2476: 2474: 2473: 2468: 2457: 2453: 2451: 2450: 2449: 2448: 2434: 2429: 2428: 2396: 2394: 2389: 2388: 2375: 2374: 2362: 2361: 2345: 2336: 2335: 2315: 2313: 2312: 2307: 2305: 2304: 2286: 2284: 2283: 2278: 2276: 2275: 2274: 2248: 2246: 2245: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2235: 2234: 2221: 2220: 2219: 2209: 2184: 2182: 2181: 2176: 2146: 2144: 2143: 2138: 2114: 2112: 2111: 2106: 2082: 2080: 2079: 2074: 2053: 2051: 2050: 2045: 2043: 2039: 2038: 2036: 2035: 2034: 2021: 2020: 2019: 2006: 1993: 1992: 1980: 1979: 1978: 1951: 1949: 1948: 1943: 1941: 1940: 1939: 1919: 1917: 1916: 1911: 1909: 1908: 1907: 1887: 1885: 1884: 1879: 1877: 1876: 1875: 1858: 1856: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1847: 1846: 1820:Other parameters 1815: 1813: 1812: 1807: 1805: 1804: 1803: 1780: 1778: 1777: 1772: 1770: 1769: 1768: 1751: 1749: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1740: 1739: 1722: 1720: 1719: 1714: 1712: 1711: 1710: 1691: 1689: 1688: 1683: 1681: 1680: 1679: 1660: 1658: 1657: 1652: 1650: 1649: 1648: 1620: 1618: 1617: 1612: 1610: 1609: 1608: 1565: 1563: 1562: 1557: 1555: 1554: 1553: 1525: 1523: 1522: 1517: 1501: 1499: 1498: 1493: 1479: 1477: 1476: 1471: 1469: 1468: 1467: 1450: 1445: 1444: 1431: 1430: 1412: 1411: 1410: 1386: 1384: 1383: 1378: 1376: 1375: 1374: 1351: 1349: 1348: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1338: 1337: 1336: 1320: 1319: 1318: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1285: 1284: 1283: 1269: 1264: 1263: 1262: 1238: 1236: 1235: 1230: 1228: 1227: 1226: 1209: 1207: 1206: 1201: 1189: 1187: 1186: 1181: 1179: 1178: 1177: 1154: 1152: 1151: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1140: 1139: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1111: 1110: 1108: 1106: 1105: 1104: 1088: 1083: 1081: 1080: 1079: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1047: 1046: 1045: 1025: 1020: 1019: 1018: 994: 992: 991: 986: 984: 983: 982: 965: 963: 962: 957: 945: 943: 942: 937: 935: 934: 933: 910: 908: 907: 902: 900: 897: 896: 895: 882: 881: 880: 867: 866: 864: 862: 861: 860: 841: 840: 839: 829: 824: 822: 821: 820: 801: 800: 799: 798: 785: 784: 783: 767: 766: 765: 745: 740: 739: 738: 714: 712: 711: 706: 704: 703: 702: 685: 683: 682: 677: 675: 674: 673: 655: 653: 652: 647: 634: 632: 631: 626: 624: 623: 622: 599: 597: 596: 591: 589: 587: 586: 584: 583: 582: 566: 565: 564: 551: 536: 531: 530: 529: 508: 506: 505: 500: 498: 497: 496: 462: 460: 459: 454: 437: 435: 434: 429: 427: 426: 425: 406: 404: 403: 398: 396: 395: 394: 375: 373: 372: 367: 365: 364: 363: 341: 339: 338: 333: 331: 330: 329: 307: 305: 304: 299: 297: 296: 295: 275: 273: 272: 267: 265: 264: 263: 241: 239: 238: 233: 231: 230: 229: 179:Richard H. Small 175:passive radiator 139:electroacoustics 58:Richard H. Small 21: 7272: 7271: 7267: 7266: 7265: 7263: 7262: 7261: 7242: 7241: 7213: 7208: 7207: 7198: 7196: 7189: 7184: 7183: 7179: 7170: 7168: 7161: 7156: 7155: 7151: 7141: 7140: 7136: 7127: 7125: 7120: 7119: 7115: 7097: 7096: 7092: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7073: 7072: 7068: 7050: 7049: 7045: 7027: 7026: 7022: 7007: 6994: 6993: 6989: 6975: 6974: 6970: 6956: 6955: 6951: 6937: 6936: 6932: 6918: 6917: 6913: 6899: 6898: 6894: 6880: 6879: 6875: 6861: 6860: 6856: 6842: 6841: 6837: 6823: 6822: 6818: 6804: 6803: 6799: 6782: 6778: 6764: 6763: 6759: 6754:(May): 382–392. 6745: 6744: 6740: 6711: 6707: 6693: 6692: 6688: 6666: 6665: 6661: 6654: 6637: 6636: 6632: 6602: 6601: 6597: 6592: 6575: 6518: 6458: 6453: 6452: 6423: 6418: 6417: 6385: 6361: 6339: 6338: 6319: 6318: 6289: 6284: 6283: 6254: 6249: 6248: 6229: 6228: 6192: 6187: 6186: 6175: 6144: 6139: 6138: 6115: 6110: 6109: 6076: 6045: 6040: 6039: 6017: 6016: 5990: 5985: 5984: 5961: 5956: 5955: 5933: 5932: 5904: 5899: 5898: 5872: 5867: 5866: 5843: 5838: 5837: 5811: 5806: 5805: 5783: 5782: 5756: 5751: 5750: 5724: 5719: 5718: 5692: 5687: 5686: 5660: 5655: 5654: 5628: 5623: 5622: 5599: 5594: 5593: 5567: 5562: 5561: 5535: 5530: 5529: 5506: 5501: 5500: 5499:As an example, 5472: 5467: 5466: 5436: 5431: 5430: 5408: 5407: 5381: 5376: 5375: 5345: 5340: 5339: 5313: 5308: 5307: 5303: 5262: 5257: 5256: 5223: 5218: 5217: 5188: 5183: 5182: 5159: 5154: 5153: 5124: 5119: 5118: 5089: 5084: 5083: 5054: 5049: 5048: 5025: 5020: 5019: 4994: 4989: 4988: 4958: 4953: 4952: 4915: 4910: 4909: 4868: 4863: 4862: 4835: 4830: 4829: 4803: 4798: 4797: 4770: 4765: 4764: 4741: 4736: 4735: 4706: 4701: 4700: 4673: 4668: 4667: 4640: 4635: 4634: 4611: 4606: 4605: 4576: 4571: 4570: 4540: 4535: 4534: 4508: 4503: 4502: 4476: 4471: 4470: 4442: 4437: 4436: 4402: 4397: 4396: 4370: 4365: 4364: 4338: 4333: 4332: 4304: 4299: 4298: 4268: 4263: 4262: 4236: 4231: 4230: 4204: 4199: 4198: 4172: 4167: 4166: 4134: 4129: 4128: 4098: 4093: 4092: 4066: 4061: 4060: 4037: 4032: 4031: 3999: 3994: 3993: 3963: 3958: 3957: 3932: 3931: 3906: 3905: 3880: 3879: 3854: 3853: 3813: 3812: 3765: 3764: 3739: 3738: 3710: 3709: 3679: 3674: 3673: 3650: 3645: 3644: 3618: 3613: 3612: 3586: 3581: 3580: 3558: 3557: 3528: 3523: 3522: 3492: 3487: 3486: 3460: 3455: 3454: 3424: 3419: 3418: 3392: 3387: 3386: 3360: 3355: 3354: 3328: 3323: 3322: 3296: 3291: 3290: 3261: 3256: 3255: 3225: 3220: 3219: 3196: 3191: 3190: 3164: 3159: 3158: 3139: 3138: 3110: 3105: 3104: 3077: 3072: 3071: 3048: 3043: 3042: 3019: 3014: 3013: 2990: 2985: 2984: 2961: 2956: 2955: 2926: 2921: 2920: 2906: 2879: 2874: 2873: 2852: 2847: 2846: 2825: 2820: 2819: 2817: 2813: 2787: 2782: 2781: 2779: 2738: 2737: 2715: 2714: 2682: 2667: 2659: 2658: 2657:The expression 2614: 2601: 2600: 2584: 2551: 2544: 2538: 2525: 2520: 2519: 2481: 2480: 2479:The expression 2439: 2397: 2366: 2353: 2346: 2340: 2327: 2322: 2321: 2296: 2291: 2290: 2259: 2254: 2253: 2222: 2210: 2191: 2190: 2149: 2148: 2117: 2116: 2085: 2084: 2059: 2058: 2022: 2007: 1998: 1994: 1984: 1963: 1958: 1957: 1927: 1922: 1921: 1895: 1890: 1889: 1866: 1861: 1860: 1831: 1826: 1825: 1822: 1788: 1783: 1782: 1759: 1754: 1753: 1730: 1725: 1724: 1701: 1696: 1695: 1670: 1665: 1664: 1630: 1625: 1624: 1593: 1588: 1587: 1577: 1541: 1536: 1535: 1508: 1507: 1484: 1483: 1455: 1422: 1398: 1393: 1392: 1362: 1357: 1356: 1324: 1306: 1305: 1289: 1271: 1270: 1250: 1245: 1244: 1217: 1212: 1211: 1192: 1191: 1190:– Total driver 1165: 1160: 1159: 1127: 1112: 1092: 1067: 1051: 1036: 1026: 1006: 1001: 1000: 973: 968: 967: 948: 947: 921: 916: 915: 883: 868: 852: 842: 830: 812: 802: 789: 771: 756: 746: 726: 721: 720: 693: 688: 687: 664: 659: 658: 638: 637: 610: 605: 604: 570: 552: 540: 520: 515: 514: 487: 482: 481: 474:input impedance 470: 442: 441: 416: 411: 410: 385: 380: 379: 351: 346: 345: 317: 312: 311: 283: 278: 277: 251: 246: 245: 220: 215: 214: 203: 89:Chester W. Rice 85: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7270: 7268: 7260: 7259: 7254: 7244: 7243: 7240: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7212: 7211:External links 7209: 7206: 7205: 7177: 7149: 7134: 7113: 7090: 7066: 7043: 7040:(10): 749–754. 7020: 7005: 6987: 6968: 6949: 6930: 6911: 6892: 6873: 6854: 6835: 6816: 6797: 6776: 6757: 6738: 6705: 6686: 6659: 6652: 6630: 6594: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6587: 6586: 6581: 6574: 6571: 6546: 6542: 6535: 6532: 6529: 6526: 6521: 6517: 6511: 6508: 6505: 6502: 6499: 6496: 6493: 6490: 6487: 6484: 6481: 6478: 6475: 6472: 6469: 6466: 6461: 6437: 6434: 6431: 6426: 6405: 6399: 6396: 6393: 6388: 6384: 6378: 6375: 6372: 6369: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6349: 6346: 6326: 6303: 6300: 6297: 6292: 6268: 6265: 6262: 6257: 6236: 6209: 6206: 6203: 6200: 6195: 6174: 6171: 6155: 6152: 6147: 6123: 6118: 6075: 6072: 6056: 6053: 6048: 6027: 6024: 6001: 5998: 5993: 5969: 5964: 5943: 5940: 5911: 5907: 5883: 5880: 5875: 5851: 5846: 5822: 5819: 5814: 5793: 5790: 5767: 5764: 5759: 5735: 5732: 5727: 5703: 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4124: 4109: 4106: 4101: 4077: 4074: 4069: 4045: 4040: 4024: 4010: 4007: 4002: 3990: 3989: 3974: 3971: 3966: 3945: 3942: 3939: 3919: 3916: 3913: 3893: 3890: 3887: 3867: 3864: 3861: 3841: 3838: 3835: 3832: 3829: 3826: 3823: 3820: 3796: 3793: 3790: 3787: 3784: 3781: 3778: 3775: 3772: 3752: 3749: 3746: 3731: 3720: 3717: 3706: 3705: 3690: 3687: 3682: 3658: 3653: 3629: 3626: 3621: 3597: 3594: 3589: 3568: 3565: 3553: 3539: 3536: 3531: 3519: 3518: 3503: 3500: 3495: 3471: 3468: 3463: 3435: 3432: 3427: 3403: 3400: 3395: 3371: 3368: 3363: 3339: 3336: 3331: 3307: 3304: 3299: 3286: 3272: 3269: 3264: 3252: 3251: 3236: 3233: 3228: 3204: 3199: 3175: 3172: 3167: 3146: 3135: 3121: 3118: 3113: 3101: 3100: 3085: 3080: 3056: 3051: 3027: 3022: 2998: 2993: 2969: 2964: 2948: 2934: 2929: 2905: 2902: 2901: 2900: 2886: 2882: 2859: 2855: 2832: 2828: 2815: 2811: 2808: 2794: 2790: 2777: 2774: 2762: 2759: 2756: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2725: 2722: 2709: 2708: 2704: 2703: 2689: 2685: 2680: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2655: 2644: 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1601: 1596: 1576: 1573: 1572: 1571: 1552: 1549: 1544: 1528:speed of sound 1515: 1504:density of air 1491: 1480: 1466: 1463: 1458: 1454: 1449: 1443: 1438: 1434: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1418: 1415: 1409: 1406: 1401: 1389: 1388: 1373: 1370: 1365: 1353: 1352: 1335: 1332: 1327: 1323: 1317: 1314: 1309: 1300: 1297: 1292: 1288: 1282: 1279: 1274: 1267: 1261: 1258: 1253: 1241: 1240: 1225: 1220: 1199: 1176: 1173: 1168: 1156: 1155: 1138: 1135: 1130: 1123: 1120: 1115: 1103: 1100: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1078: 1075: 1070: 1062: 1059: 1054: 1050: 1044: 1039: 1035: 1032: 1029: 1023: 1017: 1014: 1009: 997: 996: 981: 976: 955: 932: 929: 924: 912: 911: 894: 891: 886: 879: 876: 871: 859: 855: 851: 848: 845: 838: 833: 827: 819: 815: 811: 808: 805: 797: 792: 788: 782: 779: 774: 770: 764: 759: 755: 752: 749: 743: 737: 734: 729: 717: 716: 701: 696: 672: 667: 645: 621: 618: 613: 601: 600: 581: 578: 573: 569: 563: 560: 555: 549: 546: 543: 539: 534: 528: 523: 511: 510: 495: 490: 469: 466: 465: 464: 452: 449: 439: 424: 419: 408: 393: 388: 377: 362: 359: 354: 343: 328: 325: 320: 309: 294: 291: 286: 262: 259: 254: 243: 228: 223: 202: 199: 127:Leo L. Beranek 123:Harry F. Olson 84: 81: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7269: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7249: 7247: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7214: 7210: 7195: 7188: 7181: 7178: 7167: 7160: 7153: 7150: 7145: 7138: 7135: 7124: 7117: 7114: 7110:(1/2): 10–26. 7109: 7105: 7101: 7094: 7091: 7077: 7070: 7067: 7063:(6): 442–450. 7062: 7058: 7054: 7047: 7044: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7024: 7021: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7006:9780123914217 7002: 6998: 6991: 6988: 6983: 6979: 6972: 6969: 6964: 6960: 6953: 6950: 6945: 6941: 6934: 6931: 6926: 6922: 6915: 6912: 6907: 6903: 6896: 6893: 6888: 6884: 6877: 6874: 6869: 6865: 6858: 6855: 6850: 6846: 6839: 6836: 6831: 6827: 6820: 6817: 6812: 6808: 6801: 6798: 6794: 6793:0-7906-1093-0 6790: 6786: 6780: 6777: 6772: 6768: 6761: 6758: 6753: 6749: 6742: 6739: 6735: 6731: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6709: 6706: 6701: 6697: 6690: 6687: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6670: 6663: 6660: 6655: 6653:0-88318-494-X 6649: 6644: 6643: 6634: 6631: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6599: 6596: 6589: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6576: 6572: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6544: 6540: 6519: 6515: 6459: 6424: 6386: 6382: 6362: 6354: 6350: 6347: 6344: 6324: 6290: 6255: 6234: 6226: 6193: 6184: 6179: 6172: 6170: 6145: 6116: 6105: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6073: 6071: 6046: 6025: 6022: 5991: 5962: 5941: 5938: 5930: 5925: 5909: 5905: 5873: 5844: 5812: 5791: 5788: 5757: 5725: 5693: 5661: 5629: 5600: 5568: 5536: 5507: 5497: 5495: 5473: 5437: 5416: 5413: 5382: 5374:driver, etc. 5371: 5346: 5314: 5300: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5288: 5283: 5267: 5263: 5255: 5254: 5224: 5189: 5160: 5125: 5090: 5055: 5026: 5017: 4995: 4987: 4986: 4981: 4959: 4951: 4950: 4946: 4916: 4906: 4902: 4897: 4869: 4861: 4860: 4836: 4826: 4804: 4796: 4795: 4771: 4742: 4733: 4729: 4707: 4699: 4698: 4674: 4665: 4641: 4612: 4603: 4599: 4577: 4569: 4568: 4541: 4509: 4477: 4468: 4443: 4435: 4434: 4430: 4403: 4371: 4339: 4330: 4305: 4297: 4296: 4269: 4237: 4205: 4173: 4164: 4160: 4135: 4127: 4126: 4099: 4067: 4038: 4029: 4025: 4000: 3992: 3991: 3964: 3943: 3940: 3937: 3917: 3914: 3911: 3891: 3888: 3885: 3865: 3862: 3859: 3839: 3836: 3830: 3824: 3821: 3818: 3810: 3791: 3785: 3782: 3779: 3776: 3773: 3770: 3750: 3747: 3744: 3736: 3732: 3718: 3715: 3708: 3707: 3680: 3651: 3619: 3587: 3566: 3563: 3554: 3529: 3521: 3520: 3493: 3461: 3452: 3425: 3393: 3361: 3329: 3297: 3287: 3262: 3254: 3253: 3226: 3197: 3165: 3144: 3136: 3111: 3103: 3102: 3078: 3049: 3020: 2991: 2962: 2953: 2949: 2927: 2919: 2918: 2915: 2910: 2903: 2884: 2880: 2872:) + 10·log(8/ 2857: 2853: 2830: 2826: 2809: 2792: 2788: 2775: 2757: 2754: 2747: 2743: 2723: 2720: 2711: 2710: 2706: 2705: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2656: 2639: 2636: 2632: 2615: 2611: 2606: 2602: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2565: 2561: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2545: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2526: 2518: 2515: 2500: 2497: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2478: 2461: 2458: 2454: 2440: 2436: 2431: 2417: 2413: 2410: 2407: 2404: 2401: 2398: 2391: 2380: 2376: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2347: 2341: 2337: 2332: 2328: 2320: 2319: 2301: 2297: 2289: 2260: 2252: 2251: 2223: 2211: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2189: 2188: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2102: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2057: 2056: 2040: 2023: 2008: 2002: 1999: 1995: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1964: 1956: 1955: 1928: 1896: 1867: 1832: 1824: 1823: 1819: 1789: 1760: 1731: 1702: 1694: 1671: 1663: 1631: 1623: 1594: 1586: 1585: 1584: 1582: 1574: 1569: 1542: 1533: 1529: 1513: 1505: 1489: 1481: 1456: 1452: 1447: 1436: 1432: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1416: 1413: 1399: 1391: 1390: 1363: 1355: 1354: 1325: 1321: 1307: 1290: 1286: 1272: 1265: 1251: 1243: 1242: 1218: 1197: 1166: 1158: 1157: 1128: 1113: 1093: 1089: 1084: 1068: 1052: 1048: 1037: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1021: 1007: 999: 998: 974: 953: 922: 914: 913: 884: 869: 857: 849: 846: 831: 825: 817: 809: 806: 790: 786: 772: 768: 757: 753: 750: 747: 741: 727: 719: 718: 694: 665: 656: 643: 611: 603: 602: 571: 567: 553: 547: 544: 541: 537: 532: 521: 513: 512: 488: 480: 479: 478: 475: 467: 450: 447: 440: 417: 409: 386: 378: 352: 344: 318: 310: 284: 252: 244: 221: 213: 212: 211: 209: 200: 198: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 159: 156: 155: 149: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 115: 113: 109: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 82: 80: 78: 74: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 45: 43: 39: 36: 32: 19: 7257:Loudspeakers 7197:. Retrieved 7193: 7180: 7169:. Retrieved 7165: 7152: 7143: 7137: 7126:. Retrieved 7116: 7107: 7103: 7093: 7082:. Retrieved 7069: 7060: 7056: 7046: 7037: 7033: 7023: 6996: 6990: 6981: 6977: 6971: 6962: 6958: 6952: 6943: 6939: 6933: 6924: 6920: 6914: 6905: 6901: 6895: 6886: 6882: 6876: 6867: 6863: 6857: 6848: 6844: 6838: 6829: 6825: 6819: 6810: 6806: 6800: 6784: 6779: 6770: 6766: 6760: 6751: 6747: 6741: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6708: 6699: 6695: 6689: 6672: 6668: 6662: 6641: 6633: 6608: 6604: 6598: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6180: 6176: 6106: 6101: 6077: 5926: 5498: 5372: 5304: 5290: 5152:. Comparing 4600:Measured in 4261:is entered. 4161:Measured in 4026:Measured in 3733:Measured in 3451:eddy-current 2913: 1578: 471: 207: 204: 194: 182: 163:J. E. Benson 160: 152: 148:A. N. Thiele 141:of the era. 134: 116: 101:A. J. Thuras 86: 46: 30: 29: 6702:(1): 29–37. 6675:(1): 5–13. 6611:: 461–475. 5291:Sensitivity 5285:optimistic. 4431:) material. 4123:is ±20–30%. 143:J. F. Novak 77:bass reflex 7246:Categories 7199:2022-04-19 7171:2022-04-19 7128:2020-10-23 7084:2022-04-19 6590:References 6093:Santoprene 5804:. Because 4732:inductance 2814: = dB 133:published 38:parameters 7015:811400350 6997:Acoustics 6642:Acoustics 6516:× 6089:oxidation 5906:η 5264:η 4501:will be. 3941:× 3915:× 3889:× 3863:× 3831:θ 3792:θ 3774:× 3748:× 2854:η 2789:η 2758:π 2724:π 2669:π 2643:% 2637:× 2612:⋅ 2582:⋅ 2562:⋅ 2553:π 2549:⋅ 2527:η 2498:π 2487:ρ 2465:% 2459:× 2437:⋅ 2414:⋅ 2408:⋅ 2405:π 2402:⋅ 2377:⋅ 2364:⋅ 2351:⋅ 2348:ρ 2329:η 2298:η 1490:ρ 1453:⋅ 1433:⋅ 1420:⋅ 1417:ρ 1287:⋅ 1049:⋅ 1034:⋅ 1031:π 946:– Driver 787:⋅ 769:⋅ 754:⋅ 751:π 635:– Driver 568:⋅ 548:⋅ 545:π 135:Acoustics 112:enclosure 105:Bell Labs 66:PA system 6724:, 1971, 6625:51634628 6573:See also 3099:is ±15%. 2816:(1 watt) 2812:(2.83 V) 2778:(1 watt) 1532:SI units 108:patented 6081:fatigue 1526:is the 1502:is the 129:of the 83:History 60:of the 52:of the 7013: 7003: 6791: 6650: 6623: 5296:metre. 4429:bobbin 4028:litres 1568:litres 1482:where 171:vented 167:sealed 56:, and 7190:(PDF) 7162:(PDF) 7079:(PDF) 6621:S2CID 6085:aging 4229:when 4163:grams 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