491:). This principle was motivated by national defense considerations; plants were required to be hidden in the mountains and were not allowed to be geographically clustered to minimize the damage of air strikes. These priorities reflected Communist Party leaders' revolutionary experiences as guerillas. Because construction of Third Front projects was based on these non-economic considerations, projects were extremely costly. Dispersing new or re-located industry in rugged terrain required major new infrastructure for utilities, communication, and transportation. Facilities such as factories were sometimes built in subterranean complexes which greatly increased costs. The twenty subterranean powerplants built during the Third Front, for example, required structural reinforcement for the caverns into which they were built and tunnels to allow exhaust to escape.
440:
bridges, ports and some dams were close to these major cities. Destruction of these infrastructures could lead to disastrous consequences. This evaluation prompted Mao to advocate for the creation of a heavy industrial zone as a safe haven for retreat in the event of foreign invasion during State
Planning Meetings in May 1964. Subsequently referred to as the Big Third Front, this inland heavy industrial base was to be built up with the help of enterprises re-located from the coast. At a June 1964 Politburo meeting, Mao also advocated that each province should also establish its own military industrial complex as an additional measure (subsequently named the Small Third Front).
27:
460:
777:
supporting the Third Front as their "primary task," instead downgrading the Third Front assistance to an "important task." The
Planning Commission also stated concerns about the amount of Third Front funding leading to neglect of heavy industry elsewhere, as well as insufficient investment in agriculture. After a Party Work Conference in May 1973 resolved to re-direct state investment efforts from the Third Front to the northeast and the coastal regions, the Third Front was no longer the country's most critical economic objective. Agriculture and light industry became more important priorities. As
46:
71:
115:
507:
of Third Front work assignments. Urban recruits who already worked at state-owned enterprises in more developed coastal areas were more likely to be apprehensive because they already received the benefits of working at such enterprises. If such urban recruits declined a Third Front assignment, they would lose their Party membership and right to work at state-owned enterprises. Third Front workers did, however, receive a "subsidy to keep secrets" (
337:, opened campuses in Third Front cities. The overall cost of Third Front projects during the 1965 to 1980 period was 20.52 billion RMB (the equivalent of the equivalent of US$ 2.5 billion). Ultimately, construction of the Third Front cost accounting for more than a third of China's spending over the 15 year period in which the Third Front construction occurred. The Third Front was the most expensive industrialization campaign of the Mao-era.
830:, for example, was a major steel producing Third Front city which has now experienced major population outflows. Its local government now offers subsidies to those who move there and have second or third children. Other "rust belt" cities turned their defunct plants into tourism destinations. Hefei has successfully transitioned to high-tech industries, including those dealing with semiconductors, as well as alternative energy.
320:
center. China's population centers were concentrated in eastern coastal areas where they would be vulnerable to attack by air or water. In constructing the Third Front, China built a self-sufficient base industrial base area as a strategic reserve in the event of war with the Soviet Union or the United States. The campaign was centrally planned. It was carried out primarily in secret, and was only mentioned in the
3075:
2429:
2042:
1809:
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domestic turmoil during the
Cultural Revolution as a reason for similar military intervention. The central Party's efforts to accelerate Third Front work in June 1969 also became entwined with the PLA's enforcement of political discipline and suppression of the factions that had emerged during the Cultural Revolution. Those who did not return to work would be viewed as engaging in "splittist activities" (
904:
3085:
385:, China's leadership slowed the pace of industrialization. It invested more on in China's coastal regions and focused on the production of consumer goods. Construction of the Third Front reversed these trends, developing industry and using mass mobilization for the construction of such industrial projects, an approached that had been suspended after the failures of the Great Leap Forward.
531:, and Deng Xiaoping as the actual leaders of the Third Front Movement. By comparison to the rest of the country, Third Front work was less disrupted by the Cultural Revolution, consistent with the broader pattern that central officials acted to protect national security-related work units throughout the country. Panzhihua, for example, was less impacted by the Cultural Revolution.
60:
97:
802:
during the Third Front construction and many enterprises, including many private ones, are legacies of the movement. Because each plant built during the Third Front construction was relatively isolated, close knit communities with a high degree of social capital formed, which also helped facilitate the eventual privatization of Third Front plants.
400:, in his report of the State Council on March 28, also reported that “ should put agriculture in the primary place of the nation's economy. The economic planning should follow the priorities such that agriculture comes first, light industries comes next, heavy industries have the lowest priority”. In early 1963, a central planning team (led by
738:
rhetoric of "choos the proper targets to attack" and "concentrat forces to wage wars of annihilation" on a focused number of projects. Workers themselves often linked their tasks to broader conflicts, for example describing the drilling of tunnels as an act in opposition to "American wolves," thereby advancing "the people of
785:
moved out of the mountains and caves to nearby small and medium sized cities where the geography and transportation were less difficult. Plants with workshops spread across many places gathered in one place. Third Front plants, especially military plants, were encouraged to produce for the civilian market (
304:) included the Northwest and Southwest provinces like Qinghai, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Yunnan. In comparison, the "First Front" was composed of the major cities from Manchuria down to the Pearl River Delta and the "Second Front" referred to the smaller cities located further inland from the First Front.
709:
To recruit and develop the labor force responsible for building Third Front projects, the CCP sought to develop a labor force committed to the Third Front campaign as a way to build socialist modernity. The Party emphasized austere living and working, although not as an end in-and-of-itself, but as a
545:), and "dig tunnels deep, store grain everywhere, never hegemony." Incomplete statistics show that between 1964 and 1970, 380 large projects, 145 thousand workers and 38 thousand units of equipment, were moved from the coastal areas to the Third Front region. Most of these firms came from cities like
506:
Third Front workers had varying reactions to being selected to work on the Third Front. Rural recruits were inclined to view it as an advancement from work in the countryside to better compensated industrial work. These material benefits helped ease the family separations that could occur as a result
494:
As
Planning Commission Director, Li Fuchun set design rules stating that Third Front projects should not attempt to be "big and complete" or incorporate major administrative, social service, or other buildings not involved in production. Instead, project leaders were directed to make do with what was
451:
on August 2, 1964, however, quickly changed the discussion about the Third Five-Year Plan. Mao became concerned that the United States could strike China's nuclear weapons facilities in
Lanzhou and Baotou and advocated even more strongly for development of the Third Front. Other key leadership's fear
833:
Despite the existence of "rust belt" cities, the Third Front
Movement effectively narrowed regional disparities. In 1963, 7 western provinces: Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, Shaanxi, Ningxia, and Qinghai, accounted for 10.5% of China's industrial output. This ratio went up to 13.26% by 1978. By 1980, the
813:
and lack of a strong navy meant that it could not shape the strategic considerations of the United States or Soviet Union regarding the use of nuclear weapons or protect its coast. As a result, constructing the Third Front was designed to improve China's relative strength in land warfare and bolster
668:
further consolidated central control of the Third Front construction. It converted the Third Front
Preparatory Small Group into the Southwest Third Front Commission and required it to work with central ministries in fulfilling needs for labor, equipment, and building materials. The State Council put
472:
The hallmark of the Third Front
Movement was a strategic shift to China's interior. On August 12, 1964, Zhou Enlai approved enormous industrial development in southwest China: Panzhihua Iron and Steel (in Sichuan), Liupanshui coal mines (in Guizhou), and the building of railroads to connect Sichuan,
817:
A large part of the Third Front
Movement was confidential. The mountainous terrain and geographical isolation of the region have added to this concealment. Due to the emphasis that China has placed on concealment of its special weapons capabilities, it is doubtful whether any other country, perhaps
801:
Through its distribution of infrastructure, industry, and human capital around the country, the Third Front created favorable conditions for subsequent market development and private enterprise. Once remote regions that were part of the Third Front continue to benefit from the influx of specialists
737:
Because
Chinese policymakers believed that the risks of invasion from foreign powers were imminent, Third Front workers were instructed to "engage in a race against time with American imperialism and Soviet revisionism." Policymakers adopted military-style thinking, framing project selection in the
792:
As plants built during the Third Front construction were privatized over the period 1980 to 2000, many became owned by former managers and technicians. As one example, Shaanxi Auto Gear General Works was privatized and became Shaanxi Fast Auto Drive Company; as of 2022 it is the largest automotive
713:
In mobilizing and recruiting workers for Third Front Projects, the Party instructed recruiters to "take Mao's strategic thought as the guiding principle, teach employees to consider the big picture, resolutely obey the needs of the country, take pride in supporting Third Front construction ... and
423:
Mao objected to the preliminary proposal because ”he Third Five-Year Plan need to set basic industries in the Southwest.” He said that agricultural and defense industries are like fists, basic industries are like the hip. “The fists cannot be powerful unless the hip is well seated.” According to
214:
The Third Front campaign industrialized part of China's rugged interior and agricultural region. Between 1964 and 1980, China invested 205 billion yuan in the Third Front Region, accounting for 39.01% of total national investment in basic industries and infrastructure. Millions of factory workers,
853:
Additional road and railroad infrastructure drastically reduced travel time to and within Third Front regions. Travel also became more predictable, as the development of transportation infrastructure meant that timetables and schedules for passenger traffic via bus and rail service adhered to set
603:
Electronics manufacturing expanded during the Third Front and by 1980, inland China accounted for more than half of the country's electronics production capacity and work force. Major production facilities were built in Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Guizhou, with the most widely known electronics factory
572:
at Zhenbao Island. Chinese policy-makers interpreted the Zhenbao Island incident as part of broader pattern of aggression. Perceiving the border clash in connection with the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, Chinese policy-makers became concerned that the Soviet Union might view the Chinese
534:
Besides newly built large projects, many Third Front plants were spinoffs or entirely moved from existing plants in other parts of the country. In a document issued in early 1965, plants in the First and Second Fronts were required to contribute their best equipment and workers to the Third Front
874:
acknowledging its economic difficulties and the harsh living conditions for those involved in Third Front construction. Given the formerly secretive nature of the Third Front, Chinese researchers have benefitted from their unique access to archives, oral histories and interviews of participants,
784:
In 1984, the State Council issued a report concluding that 48% of Third Front enterprises still had marketable products and favorable business prospects. In the Seventh Five-Year Plan between 1986 and 1990, Third Front plants not making a profit were allowed to shut down. Some Third Front plants
580:
The perceived necessity of rushing construction in preparation for foreign invasion, along with constraints on resources, resulted in defects in many Third Front projects. Among the Third Front railroad projects built between 1969 and 1971, all but the Chengdu-Kunming railway suffered from major
439:
which evaluated the distribution of Chinese industry, noted that they were primarily concentrated in 14 major coastal cities which were vulnerable to nuclear attack or air raids, and recommended that the General Staff research measures to guard against a sudden attack. Major transportation hubs,
155:
campaign to develop industrial and military facilities in the country's interior. The campaign was motivated by concerns that China's industrial and military infrastructure would be vulnerable in the event of invasion by the Soviet Union or air raids by the United States. The largest development
881:
Since approximately 2007, the number of Third Front documentaries, commentaries, and scholarly organizations in China have increased, as have publications by Third Front workers and their family members. Beginning in 2009, Shanghai University Professor Xu Youwei has led teams of interviewers in
515:
gazetteers, approximately 75% of the studied work units paid salaries above the national norm for the industrial sector. Aside from material consequences, some urban and rural workers saw Third Front work favorably because it was to express their commitment to building Chinese socialism through
319:
Prior to the Third Front construction, the fourteen largest cities in China's potentially vulnerable regions included approximately 60% of the country's manufacturing, 50% of its chemical industries, and 52% of its national defense industries. In particular, the northeast was China's industrial
873:
Starting in the 1980s, Chinese scholarship on the Third Front began being published. Third Front studies have been published with greater regularity since 2000. Generally, Chinese studies evaluate the Third Front positively, highlighting its role in the development of western China, while also
821:
Regional energy outputs increased in Third Front areas, which also benefitted related sectors like machine building, railroads, and metallurgy. Cities that benefitted from Third Front construction continue to have generally high degrees of development compared to the rest of their regions. For
589:
The primary achievement of railroad construction during the Third Front construction was the building of ten new interprovincial lines. Building the Chengdu-Kunming and the Guiyang-Kunming lines linked all southwest provincial capitals using rail for the first time. The Xiangfan-Chongqing and
776:
in 1972, investment to the Third Front region gradually declined. Rapprochement between the United States and China decreased the fear of invasion which motivated the Third Front construction. In August 1972, the Planning Commission recommended that the First and Second Fronts no longer view
696:
The most significant Small Third Front Project was Shanghai's. At its largest, the Shanghai Small Front had 54,000 workers, 17,000 families, and 81 work units. The "rear base" in Anhui was the centerpiece of the project and served as "a multi-function manufacturing base for anti-aircraft and
885:
Like Chinese histories of the period, Western histories of 1960s China also tend to focus on the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution without significant discussion of the Third Front. Compared to Chinese scholarship, Western research on the Third Front is relatively rare. Notable
805:
The process of establishing the Third Front brought urban educational standards and pedagogy to China's hinterlands. Third Front areas also received an influx of higher quality food and consumer goods such as clothing, as well as increased access to cultural goods such as films and musical
263:). Many Third Front projects were located in remote areas that were hard to access and far away from supplies and potential markets. The Third Front Movement was carried out in a hurry. Many Third Front projects were simultaneously being designed, constructed, and put in production, (
258:
However, the designs of many Third Front projects were uneconomic due to their location or deficient due to their hurried construction. For national defense reasons, location choices for the Third Front projects followed the guiding principle “Close to mountains, dispersed, hidden”
447:, and Li Fuchun, did not fully support the notion of the Third Front. Instead, they continued to emphasize the coastal development and consumer focus pursuant to the Third Five Year Plan. In their view, small-scale commerce should be emphasized to raise the standard of living. The
311:) referred to rugged or remote areas in more major provinces like Shanxi, Anhui, and Hebei. As with the Big Third Front, Chinese policymakers intended Small Third Front to form a part of a network of military and industrial power that could withstand invasion or nuclear attack.
878:, and classified materials. Outside of histories specifically focused on the Third Front, the general trend is that the Third Front is not thoroughly addressed, with Chinese histories of 1960s placing greater emphasis on the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution.
697:
anti-tank weaponry. By 1966, it was producing arms including rocket-propelled grenades and anti-aircraft weapons. Steel mills, chemical plants, instrumentation factories, electronic factories, and extensive road infrastructure were also built in the Shanghai Small Front.
350:) many skilled engineers, scientists, and intellectuals were transferred to Third Front facilities. In this slogan, the "best horses" refers to the best available equipment and resources. Third Front construction methods fused both low-tech and high-tech techniques.
660:
On December 1, 1964, the Economic Commission issued regulations for projects which were being relocated to the Third Front, mandating that all relocated projects had to be approved by the central Party and that none could be approved by local governments themselves.
156:
campaign of Mao-era China, it involved massive investment in national defense, technology, basic industries (including manufacturing, mining, metal, and electricity), transportation and other infrastructure investments and was carried out primarily in secret.
999:, follows three generations of characters related to a Third Front plant in Chengdu. The plant was moved from the Northeast and produces engines for airplanes. In the 2000s, its factory complex in downtown Chengdu was re-developed into a real estate project.
684:
suggested that no new projects should be constructed in major cities in the First Front, that new projects should be built concealed in the mountains, and that industrial enterprises, research institutes, and universities should be moved to the Third Front.
733:
and use revolutionary spirit to overcome all difficulties." The Party did not attempt to hide the challenges of working on the Third Front, however, and told local officials to "speak clearly about the difficulties, not boast, and not make empty promises."
700:
The Shanghai Small Third Front was busy into the early 1970s; like the rest of the Third Front, its work slowed as China and the United States developed their diplomatic relationship. The Shanghai Small Front office ultimately shut down in 1991.
219:, intellectuals, military personnel, and tens of millions of construction workers, flocked to the Third Front region. More than 1,100 large and medium-sized projects were established during the Third Front period. With large projects such as
159:"Third Front" is a geo-military concept: it is relative to the "First Front" area that is close to the potential war fronts. The Third Front region covered 13 provinces and autonomous regions with its core area in the Northwest (including
1568:
502:
Potential Third Front workers had to meet physical requirements and had to undergo a political review. The Party forbid recruitment of those whose families were "landlords, rich peasant, counterrevolutionary, bad element, or rightist."
424:
Mao's judgment, there was possibility that China would be involved in a war, while China's population and industries were concentrated on the east coast. As one of his inspirations for the Third Front, Mao cited the negative example of
283:
Mao created the concept of the Third Front to locate critical infrastructure and national defense facilities away from areas where they would be vulnerable to invasions. Describing the geographical foundation of the concept, he stated:
416:) put “solving the problems of food, clothes, and other life necessities” (解决人民的吃穿用) as the priority of economic works in their proposal for the Third Five-Year Plan. The preliminary draft for the Third Five Year Plan, of which
274:
starting in the 1980s, many Third Front plants went bankrupt, though some others reinvented themselves and continued to serve as pillars in their respective local economies or were developed into successful private enterprises.
641:
On September 11, 1964, the Party established centralized organizations to direct the Third Front construction. The highest Third Front-specific administrative body was the Third Front Construction Support and Examination
839:
3124:
3119:
2892:
2842:
1820:
657:. It in turn established a planning group to administer the industrial complex being developed in Panzhihua and another planning group to administer conventional weapons production around Chongqing.
456:
was given the lead role in developing the Third Five Year Plan, consistent with its changing focus to preparations for the possibility that "the imperialists launch an aggressive war against China."
842:. Initial industries brought in by the Third Front plants and infrastructure kick-started the industrialization of China's remote and mountainous west. Existing cities in the Third Front such as
2670:
2499:
826:
is regarded as one of China's most innovative cities. However, the economic viability of a number of Third Front cities decreased after the end of the initiative, resulting in a "rust belt."
2847:
535:
Movement. This priority is reflected in the slogans at the time such as “Choose the best people and best horses for the Third Front," “prepare for war, prepare for famine, for the people” (
296:
and southwest is the third front ... in the period of the atomic bomb, we need a strategic rear for retreat, and we should be prepared to go into the mountains . We need a place like this.
2635:
2640:
2390:
481:
The Third Front construction was primarily carried out in secret, with the location for Third Front projects following the principle of “close to the mountains, dispersed, and hidden” (
3023:
2620:
2309:
2192:
2949:
2650:
2837:
1022:
270:
After rapprochement with the United States reduced the national defense considerations underlying the Third Front, investment in its projects decreased. Since the reform of
1955:
665:
2484:
611:
In the late 1960s and the early 1970s, nearly all work units in China's aerospace industry were established via the Third Front. These Third Front Projects benefitted
499:
housing so that more resources could be directed to production. This policy came to be expressed through the slogan, "First build the factory and afterward housing."
329:
China built 1,100 Third Front projects (encompassing 1,945 industrial enterprises and research institutions) between 1965 and 1980. Major universities, including both
646:, which was tasked with providing physical and financial resources for the building of the Third Front. This Small Group was led by Economic Commission Vice Director
2645:
2469:
1995:
975:. Set in the 1980s, it is a bleak and thoughtful drama that shows the life of some ordinary families who had moved there and would like to move back to Shanghai.
669:
this Commission within the Economic Commission's supervision and then within the jurisdiction of the Infrastructure Committee when it was created in March 1965.
374:
of the country, in particular to develop the mining and heavy industry. Although the policy laid the seeds of industrial development in the Northwest, during the
2610:
2369:
1923:
1828:
834:
programs had created a railway grid linking previously isolated parts of western China, in addition to a galaxy of power, aviation and electronic plants, said
725:. At these events, local officials exhorted crowds to join the Third Front construction effort. The Party instructed them to urge workers to "learn from the
2934:
2862:
1879:
216:
2675:
2660:
2329:
1789:
818:
even including the United States, has identified all of China's special weapons related facilities. Many of them may still be hiding in the mountains.
2544:
754:
2992:
2680:
2900:
3114:
2695:
2655:
2625:
1950:
231:, the Third Front Movement stimulated previously poor and agricultural economies in China's southwest and northwest. Dozens of cities, such as
1532:[The Nationalist Government's Northwest Industrial Construction Strategy before and after the Anti-Japanese War] (in Chinese). 广东社会科学.
653:
Another body, the Southwest Third Front Preparatory Small Group, was established to oversee regional construction and planning. It was led by
1970:
1652:
1614:
1496:
1172:
714:
help solve employees' concrete problems." In the official perspective, it was a political privilege to be selected as a Third Front recruit.
39:
2939:
2872:
2817:
2615:
2359:
2150:
1930:
925:
773:
26:
1900:
2349:
2098:
857:
Another legacy of the Third Front was an increase in China's resolve in developing industrial systems with region-wide impacts. China's
781:
began in 1978, China began to gradually wind down Third Front projects with a "shut down, cease, merge, transform, and move" strategy.
432:, resulting in the Nationalist government being forced to retreat to a small inland industrial base in the face of Japanese invasion.
2526:
1853:
810:
2944:
1739:
2982:
2924:
2877:
2630:
2494:
1885:
1674:
1262:
1030:
951:
459:
3016:
2685:
2573:
2301:
2072:
1873:
565:. Approximately 400 state-owned enterprises were re-located from coastal cities to secret locations in China's interior regions.
271:
119:
3055:
2857:
2703:
2210:
2067:
1965:
630:
626:
622:
86:
49:
2852:
2489:
2474:
2405:
2057:
1782:
1644:
1606:
929:
600:
In Sichuan province, China developed an integrated nuclear sector which included uranium mining and processing facilities.
2479:
2005:
130:
861:, initiated in 2001, was shaped by the Third Front. Many cities developed during the Third Front are now involved in the
516:
bringing industry to undeveloped regions and building an industrial base to help protect China in the event of invasion.
3045:
3028:
2987:
2914:
2590:
2531:
2506:
2432:
2314:
2120:
2105:
2085:
2081:
2025:
1940:
393:
20:
3050:
2905:
2728:
2516:
2442:
2344:
2324:
2248:
2000:
1985:
1895:
1812:
569:
208:
1251:
Everyday Lives in China's Cold War Military Industrial Complex: Voices from the Shanghai Small Third Front, 1964-1988
914:
726:
581:
defects. Three such projects were completed in the early 1970s but still not fully operational until the late 1970s.
2977:
2919:
2867:
2723:
2665:
2140:
2130:
1980:
1910:
1843:
1602:
1480:
933:
918:
3078:
2832:
2602:
2539:
2447:
2419:
2415:
2285:
2270:
2172:
2125:
2115:
2015:
1775:
858:
809:
According to academic Covell F. Meyskens, the Third Front developed out of China's recognition that its lack of
2809:
2774:
2753:
2464:
2459:
2395:
2364:
2230:
2045:
1990:
1975:
1868:
1838:
862:
846:, Lanzhou, Chengdu, Chongqing, and Guiyang benefited from large investments during this period. Cities such as
452:
of attack by the United States increased also, and the Third Front received broad support thereafter. In 1965,
429:
363:
224:
90:
63:
463:
Investment per capita relative to the national mean, Third Front region and non-Third Front region, 1955-2000
2882:
2822:
2708:
2578:
2568:
2556:
2297:
2258:
2220:
2145:
1945:
1890:
1833:
1571:[The Northwestern Development of the Nationalist Government in the War of Resistance Against Japan]
448:
220:
200:
74:
3011:
2549:
2452:
2265:
2238:
2215:
2205:
2135:
2062:
1639:
Meyskens, Covell F. (2022). "China's Cold War Motor City". In Altehenger, Jennifer; Ho, Denise Y. (eds.).
717:
Among the important recruitment mechanisms were oath-swearing ceremonies or mobilization meetings held at
594:
519:
Construction of the Third Front slowed during 1966. As the Cultural Revolution ignited leftist extremism,
359:
31:
1696:
Meyskens, Covell F. (2015-10-01). "Third Front Railroads and Industrial Modernity in Late Maoist China".
3006:
2909:
2738:
2177:
1156:
778:
612:
45:
3093:
2967:
2799:
2733:
2583:
2400:
2280:
2200:
2110:
2050:
1935:
597:
transferred a third of its workforce to develop the Second Automobile Works as part of the campaign.
195:). Its development was motivated by national defense considerations following the escalation of the
2972:
2718:
2561:
2275:
2160:
2155:
2035:
1863:
1148:
722:
650:. It also formed the Southwest Railroad Construction headquarters to oversee railroad development.
643:
330:
152:
593:
Chinese policy-makers determined that vehicle manufacturing should be advanced, and therefore the
2827:
2794:
2748:
2743:
2319:
2253:
1858:
1721:
1510:
1254:
1194:
1178:
1067:
1059:
850:
in Hubei, Mianyang and Panzhihua in Sichuan, were literally created by the Third Front Movement.
420:
was a major author, had no provision for largescale industrialization in the country's interior.
382:
371:
367:
176:
396:
should “solve the problems of food, clothes, and other life necessities” (jiejue chichuanyong).
70:
710:
means necessary for socialist development given the level of China's development at the time.
2779:
2769:
2385:
2076:
2030:
2020:
1918:
1744:
1713:
1648:
1610:
1502:
1492:
1258:
1186:
1168:
1040:
Naughton, Barry (1988). "The Third Front: Defence Industrialization in the Chinese Interior".
1026:
375:
334:
322:
204:
114:
340:
Operating on the principle of "choose the best people and best horses for the Third Front," (
3088:
2784:
2713:
2437:
2339:
2334:
2167:
1798:
1705:
1484:
1160:
1051:
760:
730:
617:
511:). According to academic Covell F. Meyskens's analysis of remuneration based on Third Front
2010:
1749:
1042:
967:
875:
425:
1529:
2959:
2354:
2090:
1848:
1669:
984:
972:
887:
835:
748:
228:
590:
Hunan-Guizhou connected the central and western provinces by rail for the first time.
3108:
3034:
2789:
2243:
2182:
1960:
1725:
1514:
1198:
1071:
417:
1709:
890:, who published the first Western scholarship on the Third Front in 1988 and 1991.
496:
436:
100:
577:) which risked undermining preparations to defend China from potential invasion.
2511:
996:
903:
882:
conducting oral history research among Shanghai Small Third Front participants.
739:
681:
654:
528:
409:
405:
196:
1506:
1190:
1055:
979:
745:
Third Front factories often assigned workers to read the classic Mao speeches
444:
397:
1717:
1543:
843:
428:'s failure to establish sufficient industry away from the coast prior to the
3000:
2929:
1182:
827:
718:
673:
605:
524:
512:
435:
In April 1964, Mao read a General Staff report commissioned by deputy chief
401:
288:
Our first front is coastal regions, second front is the line that cuts from
240:
184:
59:
1488:
987:, reflects the director's own experience growing up in a Third Front City.
793:
transmission manufacturer and its annual revenues exceed US$ 10 billion.
2521:
1599:
Building for Oil: Daqing and the Formation of the Chinese Socialist State
1164:
554:
546:
520:
453:
389:
232:
3040:
1019:
The Third Front Movement: The Western Development in Preparation of War
991:
823:
677:
562:
550:
413:
293:
244:
192:
180:
172:
168:
160:
104:
96:
82:
78:
53:
35:
1063:
847:
558:
289:
248:
236:
188:
138:
840:
Commission for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense
1767:
647:
458:
252:
164:
113:
108:
95:
69:
58:
44:
25:
965:
The Third Front is the setting for a recent Chinese film called
1771:
1577:
Journal of Zhejiang University (Humanities and Social Sciences)
2843:
Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement
897:
2671:
State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission
568:
In 1969, Third Front construction accelerated following the
2500:
National Fund for Technology Transfer and Commercialisation
2848:
Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement
1153:
Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise
664:
Administrative changes occurred in February 1965, as the
688:
Every Third Front project was a state-owned enterprise.
1477:
Mao's Third Front: The Militarization of Cold War China
2621:
China Council for the Promotion of International Trade
2958:
2891:
2808:
2762:
2694:
2601:
2414:
2378:
2296:
2229:
2191:
1909:
1819:
3125:Economic history of the People's Republic of China
3120:Military history of the People's Republic of China
822:example, Mianyang has become a high-tech city and
2485:China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund
621:(China's first satellite) in 1970, expansion of
2646:Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
2470:China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation
443:Other key leadership, including Deng Xiaoping,
286:
2611:All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce
1783:
8:
2651:National Financial Regulatory Administration
1605:monograph series. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
1012:Sānxiàn jiànshè: Bèizhàn shíqī de xībù kāifā
2863:Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
1880:Grasping the large, letting go of the small
932:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3084:
2838:Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macau Greater Bay Area
2676:State Administration for Market Regulation
2661:National Development and Reform Commission
1790:
1776:
1768:
2545:National Equities Exchange and Quotations
952:Learn how and when to remove this message
366:, drafted a policy to move industries to
2681:State Administration of Foreign Exchange
1740:"China putting on a brave 'Third Front'"
1085:
755:The Foolish Old Man who Moved Mountains
255:, emerged as major industrial cities.
16:Chinese industrial development campaign
2656:National Bureau of Statistics of China
2626:China Securities Regulatory Commission
1641:Material Contradictions in Mao's China
1634:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1626:
1592:
1590:
1544:"论抗战前后国民政府的西北工业建设战略 - 经济战线 - 抗日战争纪念网"
1470:
1468:
1466:
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1460:
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1234:
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1228:
1143:
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1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1109:
265:biansheji, bianshigong, bianshengchan
85:, but also important facilities like
7:
2873:Western Taiwan Straits Economic Zone
2818:Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
2616:All-China Federation of Trade Unions
1292:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1091:
1089:
930:adding citations to reliable sources
211:between China and the Soviet Union.
2350:Hong Kong Trade Development Council
811:intercontinental ballistic missiles
1854:Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns
1249:Xu, Youwei; Wang, Y. Yvon (2022).
378:development eventually died down.
14:
2878:Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone
2631:General Administration of Customs
2495:China Reform Holdings Corporation
1886:Scientific Outlook on Development
1748:. 6 December 2003. Archived from
1675:Federation of American Scientists
1567:Shen, Xiao-yun (September 2007).
869:Historiography of the Third Front
814:its industrial defense capacity.
3083:
3074:
3073:
2925:2008–2009 economic stimulus plan
2686:State Administration of Taxation
2574:Stock Exchange Executive Council
2428:
2427:
2041:
2040:
1808:
1807:
902:
2935:2015–16 stock market turbulence
2858:Pearl River Delta Economic Zone
1710:10.1179/1521538515Z.00000000068
886:exceptions include the work of
631:Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center
627:Xichang Satellite Launch Center
623:Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center
468:Construction of the Third Front
87:Xichang Satellite Launch Center
50:Xichang Satellite Launch Center
2853:Northeast China Revitalization
2490:China Internet Investment Fund
2475:China Government Guidance Fund
1645:University of Washington Press
1607:Harvard University Asia Center
672:In an August 19, 1965 report,
541:
536:
495:available, including building
487:
482:
346:
341:
143:
134:
1:
3115:Economic development in China
2945:China–United States trade war
2810:Regional economic initiatives
2763:National economic initiatives
2480:China-Africa Development Fund
1874:Deng Xiaoping's southern tour
1479:. Cambridge, United Kingdom:
1021:] (in Chinese). Beijing:
326:for the first time in 1978.
3046:List of Chinese by net worth
3029:China Compulsory Certificate
2940:Protein export contamination
2591:Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange
2507:China Investment Corporation
1971:Business process outsourcing
1670:"Nuclear Weapons Facilities"
1475:Meyskens, Covell F. (2020).
585:Sector-specific significance
542:bèizhàn bèihuāng, wéi rénmín
2360:Water supply and sanitation
742:" with the United States.
570:Chinese-Soviet border clash
120:Xiangyang–Chongqing railway
3141:
2868:Rise of Central China Plan
2666:National Energy Commission
1603:Harvard-Yenching Institute
1481:Cambridge University Press
1023:Central Party School Press
692:Shanghai Small Third Front
66:factory built on mountains
18:
3064:
2901:2005–2011 property bubble
2833:China Western Development
2540:Dalian Commodity Exchange
1805:
1056:10.1017/S030574100002748X
637:Administrative mechanisms
527:also replaced Li Fuchun,
381:After the failure of the
347:hǎorén hǎomǎ shàngsānxiàn
307:The "Small Third Front" (
2775:Belt and Road Initiative
2754:Rural credit cooperative
2527:Foreign exchange reserve
2460:Beijing Financial Street
1869:Socialist market economy
1151:; Qiao, Kunyuan (2022).
1014:
863:Belt and Road Initiative
430:Second Sino-Japanese war
364:Second Sino-Japanese War
225:Panzhihua Iron and Steel
149:Third Front Construction
64:Panzhihua Iron and Steel
3017:Globalization and women
2883:Zhongyuan Economic Zone
2823:Beibu Gulf Economic Rim
2603:Government institutions
2579:Shenzhen Stock Exchange
2569:Shanghai Metal Exchange
2557:Shanghai Stock Exchange
2221:Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park
2206:Megalopolises in China
1698:Twentieth-Century China
449:Gulf of Tonkin Incident
300:The "Big Third Front" (
272:state-owned enterprises
221:Chengdu-Kunming Railway
201:Gulf of Tonkin Incident
75:Chengdu-Kunming Railway
40:China's nuclear project
3056:Science and technology
2950:2020–2021 reform spree
2704:International rankings
2550:Beijing Stock Exchange
2216:Suzhou Industrial Park
2211:Special Economic Zones
1050:(September): 351–386.
1010:Chen, Donglin (2003).
615:through the launch of
608:in Mianyang, Sichuan.
595:First Automotive Works
488:kàoshān, fēnsàn, yǐnbì
464:
392:had proposed that the
360:Nationalist government
298:
261:kaoshan, fensan, yinbi
122:
111:
93:
67:
56:
42:
30:China Nuclear City in
2406:Intellectual property
1901:1949–1976 wage reform
1844:Industrial Revolution
1489:10.1017/9781108784788
1157:Yale University Press
797:Evaluation and legacy
779:Reform and Opening Up
613:China's space program
473:Yunnan, and Guizhou.
462:
117:
99:
73:
62:
48:
29:
3094:Economy of East Asia
2800:Youth Business China
2636:Ministry of Commerce
2584:SZSE Component Index
2201:Dalian Software Park
1165:10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k
1149:Marquis, Christopher
926:improve this section
477:Construction process
394:Third Five-Year Plan
362:, preparing for the
127:Third Front Movement
19:For other uses, see
2641:Ministry of Finance
2562:SSE Composite Index
2532:Hedge fund industry
2379:Law and regulations
2086:academic publishing
1864:Four Modernizations
1530:"抗战前后国民政府的西北工业建设战略"
983:, also directed by
859:Western Development
705:Ideological factors
331:Tsinghua University
179:(including today's
118:A tunnel portal on
77:that links between
3051:Chinese economists
3024:National Standards
2920:2007 slave scandal
2828:Bohai Economic Rim
2795:Made in China 2025
2744:Internal migration
2729:Standard of living
2517:Financial services
2391:Labor contract law
2345:Illegal drug trade
2315:World Trade Center
2151:Telecommunications
2099:equipment industry
1931:Advanced materials
1896:Population history
1859:Great Leap Forward
1813:Companies of China
1255:Palgrave MacMillan
838:, minister of the
774:Nixon's China trip
606:Changhong Electric
465:
388:In February 1962,
383:Great Leap Forward
153:Chinese government
123:
112:
94:
68:
57:
43:
3102:
3101:
2915:2007 stock bubble
2780:Common prosperity
2770:Beijing Consensus
2724:Income inequality
2193:Development Zones
1654:978-0-295-75085-9
1616:978-0-674-26022-1
1569:"抗日战争时期国民政府的西北开发"
1498:978-1-108-78478-8
1174:978-0-300-26883-6
962:
961:
954:
335:Peking University
229:Second Auto Works
209:border skirmishes
205:Sino-Soviet Split
3132:
3089:Outline of China
3087:
3086:
3077:
3076:
2910:pet food recalls
2785:Dual circulation
2536:Stock Exchanges
2465:Financial system
2431:
2430:
2370:Trading partners
2116:Renewable energy
2044:
2043:
1811:
1810:
1799:Economy of China
1792:
1785:
1778:
1769:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1736:
1730:
1729:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1636:
1621:
1620:
1597:Hou, Li (2021).
1594:
1585:
1584:
1574:
1564:
1558:
1557:
1555:
1554:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1472:
1269:
1268:
1246:
1203:
1202:
1145:
1075:
1036:
957:
950:
946:
943:
937:
906:
898:
761:Serve the People
719:urban work units
618:Dong Fang Hong 1
543:
538:
489:
484:
348:
343:
207:and small-scale
145:
136:
3140:
3139:
3135:
3134:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3105:
3104:
3103:
3098:
3060:
2954:
2887:
2804:
2758:
2690:
2597:
2410:
2396:Labor relations
2374:
2292:
2225:
2187:
2073:Pharmaceuticals
1905:
1839:Five-year plans
1815:
1801:
1796:
1766:
1765:
1755:
1753:
1752:on 6 March 2016
1738:
1737:
1733:
1695:
1694:
1690:
1680:
1678:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1655:
1638:
1637:
1624:
1617:
1596:
1595:
1588:
1572:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1552:
1550:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1499:
1474:
1473:
1272:
1265:
1248:
1247:
1206:
1175:
1147:
1146:
1087:
1082:
1043:China Quarterly
1039:
1033:
1016:
1009:
1006:
1004:Further reading
968:Shanghai Dreams
958:
947:
941:
938:
923:
907:
896:
876:grey literature
871:
799:
770:
731:Daqing oilfield
707:
694:
639:
629:, and building
587:
479:
470:
426:Chiang Kai-Shek
356:
317:
281:
144:Sānxiàn jiànshè
38:, that carries
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3138:
3136:
3128:
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3122:
3117:
3107:
3106:
3100:
3099:
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3059:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3009:
3004:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2975:
2970:
2964:
2962:
2960:Related topics
2956:
2955:
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2952:
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2942:
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2756:
2751:
2746:
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2731:
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2721:
2716:
2711:
2709:Social welfare
2706:
2700:
2698:
2692:
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2689:
2688:
2683:
2678:
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2668:
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2658:
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2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2330:Postal history
2327:
2325:Communications
2322:
2317:
2312:
2306:
2304:
2302:infrastructure
2294:
2293:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2268:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2259:Oil refineries
2256:
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2079:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
2001:Electric power
1998:
1996:Electric motor
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1915:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1891:Historical GDP
1888:
1883:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1849:Iron rice bowl
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1825:
1823:
1817:
1816:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1797:
1795:
1794:
1787:
1780:
1772:
1764:
1763:
1745:People's Daily
1731:
1704:(3): 238–260.
1688:
1660:
1653:
1622:
1615:
1586:
1579:(in Chinese).
1559:
1548:www.krzzjn.com
1535:
1520:
1497:
1270:
1263:
1204:
1173:
1084:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1037:
1031:
1015:三线建设：备战时期的西部开发
1005:
1002:
1001:
1000:
995:, directed by
988:
985:Wang Xiaoshuai
976:
973:Wang Xiaoshuai
960:
959:
910:
908:
901:
895:
892:
888:Barry Naughton
870:
867:
836:Zhang Yunchuan
806:performances.
798:
795:
769:
766:
749:Norman Bethune
723:rural communes
706:
703:
693:
690:
638:
635:
586:
583:
575:fenlie huodong
478:
475:
469:
466:
355:
352:
323:People's Daily
316:
313:
280:
277:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3137:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3082:
3080:
3072:
3071:
3067:
3066:
3063:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3036:
3035:Made in China
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3013:
3012:Globalization
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2965:
2963:
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2957:
2951:
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2911:
2907:
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2902:
2899:
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2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2807:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2790:Go Out policy
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2693:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
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32:Haiyan County
28:
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3007:Demographics
2999:
2993:Largest SOEs
2739:Urbanization
2448:Central bank
2178:Video gaming
2058:Mobile phone
1754:. Retrieved
1750:the original
1743:
1734:
1701:
1697:
1691:
1679:. Retrieved
1673:
1668:Pike, John.
1663:
1640:
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1551:. Retrieved
1547:
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924:Please help
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884:
880:
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832:
820:
816:
808:
804:
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786:
783:
771:
768:Winding down
759:
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610:
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497:rammed earth
493:
486:
480:
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442:
437:Yang Chengwu
434:
422:
387:
380:
358:In 1937 the
357:
345:
339:
328:
321:
318:
309:xiao sanxian
308:
306:
301:
299:
287:
282:
269:
264:
260:
257:
247:in Guizhou,
243:in Sichuan,
213:
158:
148:
142:
126:
124:
101:Gezhouba Dam
2968:Agriculture
2906:2007 export
2734:Foreign aid
2696:Development
2512:CITIC Group
2453:Other banks
2401:Food safety
2111:Real estate
2051:gold mining
2006:Electronics
1936:Aquaculture
1643:. Seattle:
997:Jia Zhangke
854:schedules.
787:junzhuanmin
682:Luo Ruiqing
655:Li Jingquan
644:Small Group
625:, building
561:, Tianjin,
529:Peng Dehuai
410:Tan Zhenlin
406:Li Xiannian
197:Vietnam War
21:Third Front
3109:Categories
2973:Bankruptcy
2749:Emigration
2719:Corruption
2433:Accounting
2386:Tax system
2286:Geothermal
2156:Television
2121:Securities
2106:Rare earth
2082:Publishing
2026:Hedge fund
1941:Automotive
1911:Industries
1553:2024-05-20
1528:梁严冰; 方光华.
1507:1145096137
1191:1348572572
1080:References
980:11 Flowers
483:靠山, 分散, 隐蔽
445:Liu Shaoqi
398:Zhou Enlai
354:Background
302:da sanxian
279:Definition
199:after the
3070:See also:
3001:The Hongs
2978:Companies
2930:2010 Expo
2320:Transport
2271:Renewable
2254:Oil shale
1986:Container
1956:Aerospace
1726:155767101
1718:1521-5385
1515:218936313
1199:253067190
1072:155070416
913:does not
828:Panzhihua
747:Remember
674:Li Fuchun
537:备战备荒, 为人民
525:Chen Boda
513:work unit
509:baomi fei
402:Li Fuchun
376:Civil War
372:Southwest
368:Northwest
241:Panzhihua
185:Chongqing
177:Southwest
3079:Category
2522:Renminbi
2340:Shipping
2173:Textiles
2141:Software
2131:Shipping
2126:Sex toys
2095:Railway
2077:pharmacy
2031:Internet
2021:Gambling
1951:Aircraft
1946:Aviation
1919:Industry
942:May 2023
729:and the
555:Shenyang
547:Shanghai
521:Lin Biao
454:Yu Qiuli
390:Chen Yun
233:Mianyang
3041:Mingong
2988:Top 500
2983:Largest
2714:Poverty
2443:History
2438:Banking
2420:banking
2416:Finance
2365:Exports
2335:Tourism
2266:Nuclear
2168:Tourism
2161:digital
2016:Fishing
1924:history
1829:History
1821:History
992:24 City
934:removed
919:sources
824:Jingmen
678:Bo Yibo
563:Nanjing
551:Beijing
414:Bo Yibo
342:好人好马上三线
315:Process
294:Lanzhou
245:Guiyang
193:Guizhou
181:Sichuan
173:Qinghai
169:Ningxia
161:Shaanxi
131:Chinese
105:Yichang
91:Pangang
83:Kunming
79:Chengdu
54:Sichuan
36:Qinghai
2893:Events
2231:Energy
2046:Mining
1991:Cotton
1981:Coffee
1976:Cement
1834:Reform
1756:21 May
1724:
1716:
1681:21 May
1651:
1613:
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848:Shiyan
772:After
758:, and
604:being
559:Dalian
290:Baotou
249:Shiyan
237:Deyang
217:cadres
203:, the
191:, and
189:Yunnan
175:) and
171:, and
151:was a
141::
139:pinyin
133::
2355:Ports
2298:Trade
2281:Solar
2146:Steel
2091:Radio
2036:Media
1722:S2CID
1573:(PDF)
1511:S2CID
1195:S2CID
1179:JSTOR
1068:S2CID
1060:JSTOR
1017:[
894:Media
844:Xi’an
648:Gu Mu
253:Hubei
165:Gansu
147:) or
109:Hubei
2418:and
2300:and
2276:Wind
2244:Coal
2183:Wine
2136:Silk
2084:and
2075:and
2011:Film
1961:Beer
1758:2023
1714:ISSN
1683:2023
1649:ISBN
1611:ISBN
1583:(5).
1503:OCLC
1493:ISBN
1259:ISBN
1187:OCLC
1169:ISBN
1027:ISBN
917:any
915:cite
680:and
370:and
333:and
267:).
135:三线建设
125:The
89:and
81:and
2249:Oil
1706:doi
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