31:
1304:
256:
236:
280:
669:
Information about the study and life-sustaining treatment was withheld from 399 Black men with syphilis so researchers could observe the progress of the disease. Over the course of the 40-year study, 28 men died from syphilis, 40 spouses were infected, and 19 children were born with a congenital form of the disease.
672:
An official committee at the
University of Pittsburgh reported the following on Parran, who was a founder of the University's Graduate School of Public Health: “Dr. Parran’s role, and the extent of his influence in approving, funding, and providing oversight of the Tuskegee and Guatemalan studies, is
386:
After receiving an
Assistant Surgeon's commission in September 1917, Parran continued on assignments in rural health services administration, sanitation, and the control of communicable diseases; between field assignments, Parran tasted life as an administrator in Washington, DC. In October 1923, he
354:
A lifelong interest in research was sparked during medical school. He self-identified as Thomas Parran Jr. to distinguish himself from his uncle Thomas Parran, a
Maryland politician and U.S. Representative in the Sixty-second Congress (who also had a son named Thomas Parran Jr.). Later in life Dr.
655:
The
American Sexually Transmitted Diseases Association named its lifetime achievement award after Parran in recognition of his work to raise awareness of sexually transmitted diseases. However, his role in the early part of the Tuskegee study and in the Guatemala syphilis experiments prompted the
668:
which has a legacy of unethical experimentation. The
Tuskegee Syphilis Study took place during his tenure while serving as U.S. Surgeon General from 1936 to 1948, and involved experimentation on African-American adults, children, and people with disabilities without their knowledge or consent.
611:
a proving ground for ideas developed during his tenure at PHS, recruiting the school's first generation of senior faculty and bringing his deputy surgeon general and veteran international health administrator, Dr. James A. Crabtree, who succeeded him as dean in 1958. Beyond his tenure as
Surgeon
590:
for supporting
President Truman's proposed national insurance program. Truman's decision not to reappoint Parran in the spring of 1948 may have been an outcome of public disputes over this issue. Parran declined the position of Director of the World Health Organization to attempt to maintain the
577:
Parran was an early and committed advocate of national health insurance, shielding PHS from direct conflict with those who opposed insurance by tempering his public advocacy with a focus on creating a regionally-organized health services infrastructure to precede federal dollars for care. The
517:
In addition to syphilis control, Surgeon
General Parran left his mark on the scope and structure of public health, both at home and abroad. World War II brought quick expansion and new opportunities for expanded duties. In response Parran and his deputies rewrote the statutes underlying PHS
501:
Branch (G-5) of the newly formed headquarters. Because all of the senior Army medical officers with competence in this field were already holding highly important positions, the Army turned to Dr. Parran for help, and he released his deputy, Dr.
591:
independence of the Public Health
Service from the newly created bureaucracy, the Department of Health Education and Welfare. He lost that fight and his job, only to move on again to further advances in the health education field.
1343:
1338:
709:"Condemns Delaying State Building Bill — Governor Takes Republicans to Task for Holding Up Appropriation Two Months — Eleven Bills Approved — They Include an Addition to Workmen's Compensation Law — Two Measures Are Vetoed"
680:(the lead researcher of the Guatemala STD studies) Parran is quoted as having said "You know, we couldn’t do such an experiment in this country,” which would suggest he was aware of some of the ethical issues in the study.
430:
inadvertently launched his campaign after radio executives censored the phrase "syphilis control" from a talk, leading Parran to cancel his appearance. Newspapers across the United States reprinted the censored speech.
664:
In June 2018, the
University of Pittsburgh announced that it would remove Parran's name from the campus building that houses the Graduate School of Public Health due to his involvement in the infamous
656:
association to consider renaming the award. In April, 2013, after some consultation with members, the Association executive renamed the Thomas Parran Award as 'The ASTDA Distinguished Career Award'.
497:, reports from Europe indicated that the public health situation was dire, prompt action was needed, and a highly qualified medical officer was required to direct the Public Health Division of the
647:. Most of his papers concerning his tenure as Surgeon General and his work after are held at the University of Pittsburgh. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery with his second wife Carol.
1368:
813:
In J. Broch (dir.), Médecins et politique (XVIe – XXe siècles). Études d’histoire des idées politiques et sociales, Bordeaux, LEH Édition, coll. « Les Cahiers du droit de la santé »
1388:
600:
1353:
1095:
1378:
1348:
260:
673:
not entirely clear. Based upon the evidence available today, it might not be possible to determine with certainty Dr. Parran’s level of knowledge and involvement in the studies.”
914:
422:. His primary task was chairing a Special Health Commission whose recommendations (1932) provided a framework to bolster county health departments in the face of needs in the
1398:
448:
1333:
567:
1363:
629:
531:
375:
in 1930). Kinyoun recruited Parran to join a field team of young physicians under PHS's Dr. Leslie L. Lumsden, building privies and surveying conditions in the
1303:
599:
On 1 October 1948, Surgeon General Parran retired from PHS as Vice Admiral to begin a career in academic administration, to serve as the first dean of the new
1088:
510:'s staff as the Chief of the Public Health Branch and the top public health adviser for Supreme Headquarters, American Expeditionary Forces with the rank of
335:
1373:
1358:
530:, and Office of the Surgeon General) that would remain in place through 1967 deftly arranged for the transfer of wartime research contracts from the
1383:
535:
343:
466:
Parran's syphilis control campaign was in full swing by the fall of 1936. Title VI funds supported efforts to identify and treat syphilis, and the
1081:
786:
387:
joined a group of young medical officers who attended 6 months of coursework at the Hygienic Laboratory, receiving the practical equivalent of a
954:
636:
and public health until his death in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The home of the University of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Public Health,
1104:
460:
307:
43:
419:
303:
125:
885:
1393:
1055:
519:
613:
563:
30:
766:
490:(1946–1948), which were conducted by the PHS's Division of Venereal Diseases, partially during his tenure as Surgeon General.
487:
444:
689:
467:
969:
929:
482:
was published and very well received. However, some scholars have argued that his work against syphilis is tainted by the
315:
162:
410:
His talents in rural health administration would soon lead him temporarily in a new direction. A reform-minded governor,
583:
427:
372:
311:
283:
734:
708:
455:
of 1935; Title VI authorized millions for public health departments and for biomedical research. After Surgeon General
403:. Parran worked to sway public sentiment away from moral condemnation of venereal diseases and toward consideration of
558:, and international health. Parran's leadership role in international health affairs dated back to the 1930s with the
538:
physicians, to whom he gave the leeway to create new institutions and programs in the areas of clinical research into
861:
Stanhope, Bayne-Jones; Turner, Thomas B. (1976), "Planning and Preparation for the European Theater of Operations",
811:
Sermet, Laurent (2019). "« Carrières et engagement politique de Thomas Parran en santé publique (1892–1968)".
527:
571:
608:
604:
523:
347:
210:
426:. Few of the commission's recommendations were enacted. Parran's work on syphilis achieved more success. The
1165:
665:
483:
1115:
862:
617:
559:
471:
376:
1226:
368:
327:
190:
67:
831:
1328:
1323:
1248:
1237:
790:
867:, vol. XII, Washington D.C.: Office of the Surgeon General, United States Army, pp. 412–21
579:
1170:
900:"Proposed ten-year postwar program of the United States Public Health Service / Thomas Parran 1944"
677:
534:, creating an extramural grants program for NIH. Parran also served as a mentor to a generation of
503:
452:
339:
150:
1282:
1176:
1160:
1150:
1145:
1033:
644:
411:
380:
118:
957:(Press release). Western Pennsylvania Disability History and Action Consortium. August 15, 2018.
443:
politics in New York and entered national politics as well. In 1934, his former supervisor, now
388:
1209:
1187:
1059:
1025:
1017:
987:
843:
835:
621:
511:
507:
364:
91:
1260:
1254:
1220:
1120:
1007:
999:
625:
423:
415:
396:
351:
330:
to Benjamin and Mary (Latimer) Parran on September 28, 1892. He was raised on his family's
1266:
1243:
1215:
1204:
1193:
1135:
587:
456:
363:
Parran volunteered at a health laboratory operated by the District of Columbia, under Dr.
106:
72:
988:"U.S. Public Health Service STD Experiments in Guatemala (1946–1948) and Their Aftermath"
1073:
522:, establishing a four-bureau structure (consisting of the National Institute of Health,
342:, on a scholarship (1911, A.B.; 1915, A.M.). Finances influenced his decision to attend
1271:
1198:
1181:
955:"University of Pittsburgh Calls Attention to a Dishonorable History in Experimentation"
1317:
1232:
543:
498:
392:
241:
214:
194:
1037:
1293:
1288:
1277:
1155:
1125:
968:
Office of Diversity and Inclusion Review Committee on Parran Hall (June 11, 2018).
633:
547:
494:
735:"Dr. Parran is Sworn In — He Becomes Surgeon General as Morgenthau Praises Record"
620:
programs. On retiring from Pittsburgh in 1958, Dr. Parran became president of the
912:
Parran Papers, University of Pittsburgh Archives Service Center. Finding aid at:
574:(WHO) draft constitution was adopted (1946) and led subsequent U.S. delegations.
1130:
637:
400:
475:
1021:
915:"Guide to the Thomas Parran Papers, 1892–1968 UA.90.F14 | Digital Pitt"
771:
582:) was a signal step in this direction. Nevertheless, Parran was attacked by
279:
1029:
1012:
847:
643:
A collection of his papers is held at the National Library of Medicine in
612:
General, Parran remained prominent in international health, active in the
555:
440:
404:
1003:
632:, where he had served as a trustee since 1955. He continued his work in
839:
551:
470:
made funds available for rapid treatment centers that employed the new
395:. Parran's first leadership position was as Chief of PHS's Division of
331:
302:(September 28, 1892 – February 16, 1968) was an American physician and
899:
767:"Controversy engulfs STD association over name of Thomas Parran Award"
539:
506:, to the military headquarters. Draper became a member of General
355:
Parran dropped the Jr. and named his first son Thomas Parran Jr.
1344:
United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps admirals
1339:
United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps officers
1077:
1058:. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from
1056:"Office of the Surgeon General: Thomas Parran Jr. (1936–1948)"
16:
Physician and U.S. Public Health Service officer (1892–1968)
886:"Board of Trustees unanimously votes to rename Parran Hall"
554:
and other communicable diseases, construction of nonprofit
383:, for the first of many assignments in rural sanitation.
334:
farm. He was tutored at home by a relative and attended
518:
operations, the Public Health Service Acts of 1943 and
1054:
Office of Public Health and Science (4 January 2007).
407:
as a medical condition and threat to public health.
930:"Sexual diseases research award renamed after vote"
274:
266:
247:
229:
200:
177:
172:
156:
144:
124:
112:
100:
81:
60:
41:
21:
986:Spector-Bagdady, Kayte; Lombardo, Paul A. (2019).
459:'s term, President Roosevelt appointed Parran as
418:, where in April 1930 Parran took up his post as
346:(1915, M.D.) and to follow with an internship at
1389:Commissioners of Health of the State of New York
1354:Georgetown University School of Medicine alumni
1379:Franklin D. Roosevelt administration personnel
1369:St. John's College (Annapolis/Santa Fe) alumni
578:Hospital Survey and Construction Act of 1946 (
1349:United States Public Health Service personnel
1089:
630:A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust
532:Office of Scientific Research and Development
468:National Venereal Disease Control Act of 1938
310:from 1936 to 1948, and oversaw the notorious
261:U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps
8:
414:, requested for Parran to be loaned to the
1096:
1082:
1074:
660:Involvement with unethical experimentation
29:
18:
1011:
760:
758:
756:
399:(September 1926), a program begun during
536:Public Health Service Commissioned Corps
344:Georgetown University School of Medicine
1399:LĂ©on Bernard Foundation Prize laureates
700:
478:. During 1937 his book about syphilis,
975:. University of Pittsburgh. p. 4.
56:April 6, 1936 – April 6, 1948
1334:Surgeons General of the United States
1105:Surgeons General of the United States
447:, Roosevelt, appointed Parran to the
7:
1364:People from Calvert County, Maryland
461:Surgeon General of the United States
379:. In March 1917, Parran reported to
371:'s Hygienic Laboratory (renamed the
308:Surgeon General of the United States
306:officer. He was appointed the sixth
140:March 5, 1930 – May 6, 1936
44:Surgeon General of the United States
864:Preventive Medicine in World War II
463:; he was sworn in on 6 April 1936.
765:Vergano, Dan (February 27, 2013).
640:, was renamed for Parran in 1969.
614:Pan American Sanitary Organization
14:
1374:20th-century American physicians
1359:University of Pittsburgh faculty
1302:
564:Pan American Health Organization
278:
254:
234:
1384:Truman administration personnel
902:. National Library of Medicine.
568:International Health Conference
928:Vergano, Dan (11 April 2013).
488:Guatemala syphilis experiments
449:Committee on Economic Security
445:President of the United States
1:
316:Guatemala syphilis experiment
970:"Report and Recommendations"
828:Shadow on the Land: Syphilis
584:American Medical Association
428:Columbia Broadcasting System
373:National Institute of Health
312:Tuskegee syphilis experiment
992:Ethics & Human Research
628:, and became active in the
1415:
787:"Dr. Thomas Parran - 1938"
715:. March 6, 1930. p. 5
528:Bureau of Medical Services
1300:
1111:
741:. May 7, 1936. p. 18
690:La Follette–Bulwinkle Act
572:World Health Organization
420:state health commissioner
293:
289:
224:
220:
168:
133:
49:
37:
28:
1394:Physicians from Maryland
609:Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
605:University of Pittsburgh
524:Bureau of State Services
439:Parran became active in
348:Sibley Memorial Hospital
322:Early life and education
211:Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
129:of the State of New York
826:Parran, Thomas (1937).
666:Tuskegee Syphilis Study
601:School of Public Health
550:control, prevention of
484:Tuskegee Syphilis Study
832:Reynal & Hitchcock
624:, affiliated with the
618:Rockefeller Foundation
560:Rockefeller Foundation
542:and other conditions,
377:Southern United States
126:Commissioner of Health
566:. Parran chaired the
369:Public Health Service
328:St. Leonard, Maryland
326:Parran was born near
304:Public Health Service
267:Years of service
191:St. Leonard, Maryland
88:Franklin D. Roosevelt
68:Franklin D. Roosevelt
1062:on 16 September 2008
791:Villanova University
676:In a 1947 letter to
486:(1932–1972) and the
451:, which drafted the
1004:10.1002/eahr.500010
678:John Charles Cutler
651:Thomas Parran Award
504:Warren Fales Draper
480:Shadow on the Land,
453:Social Security Act
340:Annapolis, Maryland
151:Matthias Nicoll Jr.
834:. pp. 1–309.
645:Bethesda, Maryland
474:drugs and, later,
412:Franklin Roosevelt
381:Okmulgee, Oklahoma
336:St. John's College
188:September 28, 1892
119:Leonard A. Scheele
1311:
1310:
622:Avalon Foundation
512:brigadier general
508:Dwight Eisenhower
416:State of New York
397:Venereal Diseases
365:Joseph J. Kinyoun
297:
296:
204:February 16, 1968
163:Edward S. Godfrey
92:Herbert H. Lehman
1406:
1306:
1098:
1091:
1084:
1075:
1070:
1068:
1067:
1042:
1041:
1015:
983:
977:
976:
974:
965:
959:
958:
951:
945:
944:
942:
940:
925:
919:
918:
910:
904:
903:
896:
890:
889:
882:
876:
875:
874:
872:
858:
852:
851:
823:
817:
816:
808:
802:
801:
799:
797:
783:
777:
776:
762:
751:
750:
748:
746:
731:
725:
724:
722:
720:
705:
424:Great Depression
352:Washington, D.C.
282:
259:
258:
257:
249:
240:
238:
237:
225:Military service
207:
187:
185:
173:Personal details
159:
147:
138:
115:
103:
54:
33:
19:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1407:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1314:
1313:
1312:
1307:
1298:
1107:
1102:
1065:
1063:
1053:
1050:
1045:
985:
984:
980:
972:
967:
966:
962:
953:
952:
948:
938:
936:
927:
926:
922:
913:
911:
907:
898:
897:
893:
884:
883:
879:
870:
868:
860:
859:
855:
825:
824:
820:
810:
809:
805:
795:
793:
785:
784:
780:
764:
763:
754:
744:
742:
733:
732:
728:
718:
716:
707:
706:
702:
698:
686:
662:
653:
597:
588:Morris Fishbein
580:Hill–Burton Act
457:Hugh S. Cumming
437:
435:Surgeon General
389:master's degree
361:
324:
255:
253:
235:
233:
209:
205:
189:
183:
181:
157:
145:
139:
134:
128:
113:
107:Hugh S. Cumming
101:
96:
77:
73:Harry S. Truman
55:
50:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1412:
1410:
1402:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1316:
1315:
1309:
1308:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1280:
1275:
1269:
1264:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1241:
1235:
1230:
1224:
1218:
1213:
1207:
1202:
1196:
1191:
1185:
1179:
1174:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1101:
1100:
1093:
1086:
1078:
1072:
1071:
1049:
1048:External links
1046:
1044:
1043:
1013:2027.42/148377
978:
960:
946:
920:
905:
891:
877:
853:
818:
815:. p. 327.
803:
778:
752:
739:New York Times
726:
713:New York Times
699:
697:
694:
693:
692:
685:
682:
661:
658:
652:
649:
607:. Parran made
596:
593:
436:
433:
360:
357:
323:
320:
295:
294:
291:
290:
287:
286:
276:
272:
271:
268:
264:
263:
251:
245:
244:
231:
227:
226:
222:
221:
218:
217:
208:(aged 75)
202:
198:
197:
179:
175:
174:
170:
169:
166:
165:
160:
154:
153:
148:
142:
141:
131:
130:
122:
121:
116:
110:
109:
104:
98:
97:
95:
94:
89:
85:
83:
79:
78:
76:
75:
70:
64:
62:
58:
57:
47:
46:
39:
38:
35:
34:
26:
25:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1411:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1319:
1305:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1094:
1092:
1087:
1085:
1080:
1079:
1076:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1051:
1047:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
982:
979:
971:
964:
961:
956:
950:
947:
935:
931:
924:
921:
916:
909:
906:
901:
895:
892:
888:. 2018-07-11.
887:
881:
878:
866:
865:
857:
854:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
822:
819:
814:
807:
804:
792:
788:
782:
779:
775:. p. 5D.
774:
773:
768:
761:
759:
757:
753:
740:
736:
730:
727:
714:
710:
704:
701:
695:
691:
688:
687:
683:
681:
679:
674:
670:
667:
659:
657:
650:
648:
646:
641:
639:
635:
631:
627:
626:Mellon family
623:
619:
615:
610:
606:
602:
594:
592:
589:
586:editorialist
585:
581:
575:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
544:mental health
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
515:
513:
509:
505:
500:
499:Civil Affairs
496:
491:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
464:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
434:
432:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
393:public health
390:
384:
382:
378:
374:
370:
367:, founder of
366:
358:
356:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
321:
319:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
300:Thomas Parran
292:
288:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
262:
252:
246:
243:
242:United States
232:
228:
223:
219:
216:
212:
203:
199:
196:
192:
180:
176:
171:
167:
164:
161:
155:
152:
149:
143:
137:
132:
127:
123:
120:
117:
111:
108:
105:
99:
93:
90:
87:
86:
84:
80:
74:
71:
69:
66:
65:
63:
59:
53:
48:
45:
40:
36:
32:
27:
23:Thomas Parran
20:
1140:
1064:. Retrieved
1060:the original
998:(2): 29–34.
995:
991:
981:
963:
949:
937:. Retrieved
933:
923:
908:
894:
880:
869:, retrieved
863:
856:
830:. New York:
827:
821:
812:
806:
794:. Retrieved
781:
770:
743:. Retrieved
738:
729:
717:. Retrieved
712:
703:
675:
671:
663:
654:
642:
634:philanthropy
598:
576:
548:tuberculosis
516:
495:World War II
492:
479:
465:
438:
409:
385:
362:
359:Early career
325:
299:
298:
284:Vice Admiral
206:(1968-02-16)
158:Succeeded by
135:
114:Succeeded by
51:
1329:1968 deaths
1324:1892 births
1283:Trent-Adams
796:February 7,
638:Parran Hall
401:World War I
146:Preceded by
102:Preceded by
1318:Categories
1066:2008-01-17
871:January 1,
840:B00085AB5G
745:8 February
719:8 February
696:References
595:Later life
570:where the
476:penicillin
230:Allegiance
184:1892-09-28
1249:Moritsugu
1238:Moritsugu
1166:Steinfeld
1116:Woodworth
1022:2578-2363
934:USA Today
772:USA TODAY
556:hospitals
270:1917–1948
136:In office
61:President
52:In office
1285:(acting)
1274:(acting)
1272:Lushniak
1267:Benjamin
1263:(acting)
1257:(acting)
1251:(acting)
1240:(acting)
1229:(acting)
1223:(acting)
1212:(acting)
1201:(acting)
1190:(acting)
1184:(acting)
1177:Richmond
1173:(acting)
1121:Hamilton
1038:84843464
1030:30895754
939:18 April
684:See also
562:and the
441:New Deal
405:syphilis
248:Service/
82:Governor
42:6th
1244:Carmona
1233:Satcher
1227:Clinton
1210:Whitney
1205:Novello
1171:Ehrlich
1161:Stewart
1146:Scheele
1136:Cumming
616:and in
603:at the
552:malaria
493:During
332:tobacco
1294:Murthy
1278:Murthy
1261:Weaver
1255:Galson
1221:Manley
1216:Elders
1188:Brandt
1182:Greene
1151:Burney
1141:Parran
1036:
1028:
1020:
848:587745
846:
838:
540:cancer
250:branch
239:
1289:Adams
1199:Mason
1156:Terry
1126:Wyman
1034:S2CID
973:(PDF)
472:sulfa
1194:Koop
1131:Blue
1026:PMID
1018:ISSN
941:2013
873:2011
844:OCLC
836:ASIN
798:2021
747:2017
721:2017
520:1944
314:and
275:Rank
201:Died
178:Born
1008:hdl
1000:doi
391:in
350:in
338:in
318:.
215:USA
195:USA
1320::
1032:.
1024:.
1016:.
1006:.
996:41
994:.
990:.
932:.
842:.
789:.
769:.
755:^
737:.
711:.
546:,
526:,
514:.
213:,
193:,
1097:e
1090:t
1083:v
1069:.
1040:.
1010::
1002::
943:.
917:.
850:.
800:.
749:.
723:.
186:)
182:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
