9026:
8312:
4556:"The isotopic analyses disclosed a species of mass 248 in constant abundance in three samples analysed over a period of about 10 months. This was ascribed to an isomer of Bk with a half-life greater than 9 . No growth of Cf was detected, and a lower limit for the β half-life can be set at about 10 . No alpha activity attributable to the new isomer has been detected; the alpha half-life is probably greater than 300 ."
8718:
7918:
3168:
of the Th atomic shell was conducted using a Th ion cloud with 2% of the ions in the nuclear excited state. This allowed probing for the hyperfine shift induced by the different nuclear spin states of the ground and the isomeric state. In this way, a first experimental value for the magnetic dipole
3113:
But even knowing the higher energy, most of the searches in the 2010s for light emitted by the isomeric decay failed to observe any signal, pointing towards a potentially strong non-radiative decay channel. A direct detection of photons emitted in the isomeric decay was claimed in 2012 and again in
2190:
These lenses were used for aerial reconnaissance because the radiation level is not high enough to fog film over a short period. This would indicate the radiation level is reasonably safe. However, when not in use, it would be prudent to store these lenses as far as possible from normally inhabited
3066:
In 1976, this technique first indicated that Th has a nuclear isomer, Th, with a remarkably low excitation energy. At that time the energy was inferred to be below 100 eV, purely based on the non-observation of the isomer's direct decay. However, in 1990, further measurements led to the conclusion
2186:
Aero-Ektar lenses are 11% and 13% thorium by weight. The thorium-containing glasses were used because they have a high refractive index with a low dispersion (variation of index with wavelength), a highly desirable property. Many surviving Aero-Ektar lenses have a tea colored tint, possibly due to
5970:
Kraemer, Sandro; Moens, Janni; Athanasakis-Kaklamanakis, Michail; Bara, Silvia; Beeks, Kjeld; Chhetri, Premaditya; Chrysalidis, Katerina; Claessens, Arno; Cocolios, Thomas E.; Correia, João G. M.; Witte, Hilde De; Ferrer, Rafael; Geldhof, Sarina; Heinke, Reinhard; Hosseini, Niyusha (May 2023).
3121:
decay channel of Th was achieved in 2016. However, at the time the isomer's transition energy could only be weakly constrained to between 6.3 and 18.3 eV. Finally, in 2019, non-optical electron spectroscopy of the internal conversion electrons emitted in the isomeric decay allowed for a
3046:
These applications were for a long time impeded by imprecise measurements of the isomeric energy, as laser excitation's exquisite precision makes it difficult to use to search a wide frequency range. There were many investigations, both theoretical and experimental, trying to determine the
4982:
Raeder, S.; Sonnenschein, V.; Gottwald, T.; Moore, I.D.; Reponen, M.; Rothe, S.; Trautmann, N.; Wendt, K. (July 2011). "Resonance ionization spectroscopy of thorium isotopes - towards a laser spectroscopic identification of the low-lying 7.6 eV isomer of Th".
4361:
Elwell, R.; Schneider, Christian; Jeet, Justin; Terhune, J. E. S.; Morgan, H. W. T.; Alexandrova, A. N.; Tran Tan, Hoang Bao; Derevianko, Andrei; Hudson, Eric R. (18 April 2024). "Laser excitation of the Th nuclear isomeric transition in a solid-state host".
5569:
While we do not exclude that the decay of the Th isomer has contributed to the photon emission observed in , we conclude that the sought-after signal would be heavily masked by background from other nuclear decays and radioluminescence induced in the
5696:
Seiferle, B.; von der Wense, L.; Bilous, P.V.; Amersdorffer, I.; Lemell, C.; Libisch, F.; Stellmer, S.; Schumm, T.; Düllmann, C.E.; Pálffy, A.; Thirolf, P.G. (12 September 2019). "Energy of the Th nuclear clock transition".
5511:
Borisyuk, P. V.; Chubunova, E. V.; Kolachevsky, N. N.; Lebedinskii, Yu Yu; Vasiliev, O. S.; Tkalya, E. V. (2018-04-01). "Excitation of Th nuclei in laser plasma: the energy and half-life of the low-lying isomeric state".
3669:
Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04).
5760:
Thielking, J.; Okhapkin, M.V.; Przemyslaw, G.; Meier, D.M.; von der Wense, L.; Seiferle, B.; Düllmann, C.E.; Thirolf, P.G.; Peik, E. (2018). "Laser spectroscopic characterization of the nuclear-clock isomer Th".
5263:
Jeet, Justin; Schneider, Christian; Sullivan, Scott T.; Rellergert, Wade G.; Mirzadeh, Saed; Cassanho, A.; et al. (23 June 2015). "Results of a Direct Search Using
Synchrotron Radiation for the Low-Energy".
5885:
Sikorsky, Tomas; Geist, Jeschua; Hengstler, Daniel; Kempf, Sebastian; Gastaldo, Loredana; Enss, Christian; et al. (2 October 2020). "Measurement of the Th Isomer Energy with a
Magnetic Microcalorimeter".
5629:
von der Wense, Lars; Seiferle, Benedict; Laatiaoui, Mustapha; Neumayr, Jürgen B.; Maier, Hans-Jörg; Wirth, Hans-Friedrich; et al. (5 May 2016). "Direct detection of the Th nuclear clock transition".
5592:
416:
reclassified thorium as binuclidic, due to large amounts of Th in deep seawater. Thorium has a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition and thus a standard atomic weight can be given.
3047:
transition energy precisely and to specify other properties of the isomeric state of Th (such as the lifetime and the magnetic moment) before the frequency was accurately measured in 2024.
423:
have been characterized, with the most stable being Th, Th with a half-life of 75,380 years, Th with a half-life of 7,917 years, and Th with a half-life of 1.92 years. All of the remaining
2221:
2155:
It is currently used in cathodes of vacuum tubes, for a combination of physical stability at high temperature and a low work energy required to remove an electron from its surface.
3854:
Zhang, Chuankun; Ooi, Tian; Higgins, Jacob S.; Doyle, Jack F.; von der Wense, Lars; Beeks, Kjeld; Leitner, Adrian; Kazakov, Georgy; Li, Peng; Thirolf, Peter G.; Schumm, Thorsten;
3078:
Improved gamma ray spectroscopy measurements using an advanced high-resolution X-ray microcalorimeter were carried out in 2007, yielding a new value for the transition energy of
1896:# – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).
3655:
3067:
that the energy is almost certainly below 10 eV, making it one of the lowest known isomeric excitation energies. In the following years, the energy was further constrained to
368:
6493:
2973:), so internal conversion is impossible in Th ions. Radiative decay occurs with a half-life 8.4 orders of magnitude longer, in excess of 1000 seconds. Embedded in
413:
6238:
4824:
Tkalya, E.V.; Varlamov, V.O.; Lomonosov, V.V.; Nikulin, S.A. (1996). "Processes of the nuclear isomer Th(3/2, 3.5±1.0 eV) Resonant excitation by optical photons".
4669:
Tkalya, Eugene V.; Schneider, Christian; Jeet, Justin; Hudson, Eric R. (25 November 2015). "Radiative lifetime and energy of the low-energy isomeric level in Th".
4056:
3161:, possibly resulting in an energy shift and altered lifetime, although the states involved are primarily nuclear, shielding them from electronic interactions.
3180:
based on the direct detection of internal conversion electrons and a secure population of Th from the nuclear ground state was achieved by excitation of the
3987:
2214:
1985:# – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
5822:
Masuda, T.; Yoshimi, A.; Fujieda, A.; Fujimoto, H.; Haba, H.; Hara, H.; et al. (12 September 2019). "X-ray pumping of the Th nuclear clock isomer".
3164:
In another 2018 experiment, it was possible to perform a first laser-spectroscopic characterization of the nuclear properties of Th. In this experiment,
427:
isotopes have half-lives that are less than thirty days and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than ten minutes. One isotope, Th, has a
5402:
Stellmer, S.; Kazakov, G.; Schreitl, M.; Kaser, H.; Kolbe, M.; Schumm, T. (2018). "On an attempt to optically excite the nuclear isomer in Th-229".
4490:
Plus radium (element 88). While actually a sub-actinide, it immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a three-element gap of instability after
2791:
3063:
excited state of Th, and measuring the difference in emitted gamma ray energies as it decays to either the Th (90%) or Th (10%) isomeric states.
6119:
5378:
4466:
2965:
Due to this low energy, the lifetime of Th very much depends on the electronic environment of the nucleus. In neutral Th, the isomer decays by
2207:
361:
2071:, ejecting an electron. There is not enough energy to eject a second electron, so Th ions live much longer, decaying by gamma emission. See
9387:
9356:
6486:
6460:
6443:
6090:
6027:
5386:
4596:
3375:
and makes up effectively all of natural thorium, with other isotopes of thorium appearing only in trace amounts as relatively short-lived
2969:
within a few microseconds. However, the isomeric energy is not enough to remove a second electron (thorium's second ionization energy is
4629:
Karpeshin, F.F.; Trzhaskovskaya, M.B. (November 2007). "Impact of the electron environment on the lifetime of the Th low-lying isomer".
4529:
Milsted, J.; Friedman, A. M.; Stevens, C. M. (1965). "The alpha half-life of berkelium-247; a new long-lived isomer of berkelium-248".
5457:
Zhao, Xinxin; Martinez de
Escobar, Yenny Natali; Rundberg, Robert; Bond, Evelyn M.; Moody, Allen; Vieira, David J. (18 October 2012).
4582:" nuclides with half-lives significantly in excess of Th; e.g., while Cd has a half-life of only fourteen years, that of Cd is eight
4612:
354:
4724:
Minkov, Nikolay; Pálffy, Adriana (23 May 2017). "Reduced transition probabilities for the gamma decay of the 7.8 eV isomer in Th".
6479:
445:
It has been proposed to perform laser spectroscopy of the Th nucleus and use the low-energy transition for the development of a
4985:
3094:
in 2009. This higher energy has two consequences which had not been considered by earlier attempts to observe emitted photons:
6433:
6305:; Böhlke, John Karl; De Bièvre, Paul; Hidaka, Hiroshi; Peiser, H. Steffen; Rosman, Kevin J. R.; Taylor, Philip D. P. (2003).
6115:
5229:
Beck BR, Wu CY, Beiersdorfer P, Brown GV, Becker JA, Moody KJ, Wilhelmy JB, Porter FS, Kilbourne CA, Kelley RL (2009-07-30).
4086:
2977:, ionization is not quite 100%, so a small amount of internal conversion occurs, leading to a recently measured lifetime of ≈
3184:
nuclear excited state via synchrotron radiation. Additional measurements by a different group in 2020 produced a figure of
6215:
6082:
5230:
6148:
4583:
3031:, giving the only known opportunity for direct laser excitation of a nuclear state, which could have applications like a
9377:
9351:
6425:
6381:
4017:
2425:
2386:
2353:
2326:
5533:
Peik, Ekkehard; Zimmermann, Kai (2013-07-03). "Comment on "Observation of the
Deexcitation of the Th Nuclear Isomer"".
9346:
2146:
2085:
6340:
6311:
5037:
Kroger, L.A.; Reich, C.W. (1976). "Features of the low energy level scheme of Th as observed in the α-decay of U".
2717:
2686:
2663:
2641:
2610:
3308:
8344:
8340:
6144:
4278:
Seiferle, B.; von der Wense, L.; Thirolf, P.G. (January 2017). "Lifetime measurement of the Th nuclear isomer".
3771:
3253:) measurement soon followed in June 2024, and future high-precision lasers will measure the frequency up to the
9079:
9075:
8771:
8767:
8470:
8466:
2152:
In many countries the use of thorium in consumer products is banned or discouraged because it is radioactive.
4867:
von der Wense, Lars; Seiferle, Benedict; Thirolf, Peter G. (March 2018). "Towards a Th-based nuclear clock".
4164:
Yang, H. B.; et al. (2022). "New isotope Th and odd-even staggering in α-decay energies for nuclei with
9289:
9285:
9247:
9243:
9226:
9222:
8596:
8592:
8512:
8508:
8491:
8487:
6622:
6175:"Redistribution of thorotrast into a liver allograft several years following transplantation: a case report"
5888:
5535:
5463:
5266:
5178:
5080:
4938:
4280:
4094:
3779:
1849:
525:
5587:
4421:. This feature is assigned to the excitation of the Th nuclear isomeric state, whose energy is found to be
8918:
8914:
8876:
8872:
8813:
8809:
8689:
8685:
8668:
8664:
8617:
8613:
8449:
8445:
8386:
8382:
8323:
8319:
7619:
7615:
7598:
7594:
7009:
7005:
6520:
3770:
Tiedau, J.; Okhapkin, M. V.; Zhang, K.; Thielking, J.; Zitzer, G.; Peik, E.; et al. (29 April 2024).
3464:
3056:
340:
302:
4930:
3498:
through beta decay. It has a half-life of 21.83 minutes. Traces occur in nature as the result of natural
9205:
9201:
9163:
9159:
9142:
9138:
9121:
9117:
9002:
8998:
8792:
8788:
8729:
8725:
8638:
8634:
8575:
8571:
8554:
8550:
7808:
7804:
7682:
7678:
7640:
7636:
7556:
7552:
7512:
7508:
7377:
7373:
7230:
7226:
7102:
7098:
6967:
6963:
6944:
6940:
6765:
6761:
6365:
6302:
4452:
3538:
3439:
2262:
409:
4494:(84) where no nuclides have half-lives of at least four years (the longest-lived nuclide in the gap is
4217:"Production and decay properties of neutron deficient isotopes with N < 126 and 74 ≤ Z ≤ 92 at SHIP"
9310:
9306:
9037:
9033:
8855:
8851:
8834:
8830:
8533:
8529:
8274:
8270:
8223:
8219:
8202:
8198:
8139:
8135:
8076:
8072:
7992:
7988:
7971:
7967:
7929:
7925:
7787:
7783:
7491:
7487:
7419:
7415:
7209:
7205:
7188:
7184:
7167:
7163:
7146:
7142:
7051:
7047:
6872:
6868:
6830:
6826:
6691:
6687:
6531:
6398:
6278:
6056:
5984:
5907:
5843:
5780:
5718:
5651:
5601:
5544:
5472:
5423:
5340:
5285:
5187:
5138:
5089:
5048:
5003:
4886:
4833:
4744:
4690:
4640:
4538:
4470:
4299:
4241:
4181:
4113:
4032:
3858:(4 September 2024). "Frequency ratio of the Th nuclear isomeric transition and the Sr atomic clock".
3788:
3723:
3222:
In April 2024, two separate groups finally reported precision laser excitation Th cations doped into
2836:
6123:
3671:
9268:
9264:
9100:
9096:
8981:
8977:
8939:
8935:
8897:
8893:
8428:
8424:
8407:
8403:
8365:
8361:
8181:
8177:
8118:
8114:
8055:
8051:
8013:
8009:
7950:
7946:
7880:
7876:
7724:
7720:
7661:
7657:
7577:
7573:
7535:
7531:
7461:
7457:
7440:
7436:
7398:
7394:
7356:
7352:
7123:
7119:
6988:
6984:
6744:
6740:
6448:
4943:
3554:
3400:
3118:
2966:
2068:
1949:
1533:
1444:
405:
5238:. 12th Int. Conf. on Nuclear Reaction Mechanisms. Varenna, Italy. LLNL-PROC-415170. Archived from
3130:. However, this value appeared at odds with the 2018 preprint showing that a similar signal as an
9184:
9180:
8960:
8956:
8750:
8746:
8295:
8291:
8034:
8030:
7901:
7897:
7829:
7825:
7745:
7741:
7703:
7699:
7314:
7310:
7293:
7289:
7272:
7268:
7030:
7026:
6923:
6919:
6851:
6847:
6809:
6805:
6714:
6710:
5955:
5931:
5897:
5867:
5833:
5804:
5770:
5742:
5708:
5675:
5641:
5513:
5439:
5413:
5369:
5309:
5275:
5211:
5019:
4993:
4947:
4902:
4876:
4849:
4797:
4768:
4734:
4706:
4680:
4579:
4566:
4363:
4323:
4289:
4197:
4137:
4103:
4048:
3869:
3706:
3499:
3453:
3368:
3165:
2856:
2848:
2111:
103:
4085:
Campbell, C.J.; Radnaev, A.G.; Kuzmich, A.; Dzuba, V.A.; Flambaum, V.V.; Derevianko, A. (2012).
3102:
first ionization energy, neutral Th will decay radiatively with an extremely low likelyhood, and
9341:
9335:
8244:
8240:
8125:
7850:
7846:
7072:
7068:
6788:
6784:
6456:
6389:
6196:
6008:
6000:
5923:
5859:
5796:
5734:
5667:
5560:
5490:
5404:
5382:
5301:
5203:
5154:
5129:
5105:
5039:
4760:
4671:
4631:
4315:
4257:
4232:
4129:
3714:
3687:
3624:
3295:
was a name given early in the study of radioactive elements to the Th isotope produced in the
3246:
3040:
536:
88:
68:
59:
9382:
8656:
8262:
8160:
8156:
8097:
8093:
7868:
7479:
7335:
7331:
7251:
7247:
7090:
6911:
6893:
6889:
6732:
6679:
6584:
6579:
6574:
6506:
6406:
6349:
6320:
6286:
6230:
6186:
6173:
Krasinskas, Alyssa M; Minda, Justina; Saul, Scott H; Shaked, Abraham; Furth, Emma E (2004).
6064:
5992:
5915:
5851:
5824:
5788:
5726:
5699:
5659:
5632:
5609:
5552:
5480:
5431:
5348:
5293:
5195:
5146:
5097:
5056:
5011:
4957:
4894:
4841:
4806:
4752:
4726:
4698:
4648:
4546:
4502:). Radium's longest lived isotope, at 1,600 years, thus merits the element's inclusion here.
4307:
4249:
4189:
4121:
4040:
3879:
3860:
3796:
3739:
3731:
3679:
3633:
3599:
3546:
3495:
3427:
3396:
3347:
3343:
3242:
3227:
3114:
2018. However, both reports were subject to controversial discussions within the community.
2908:
2860:
2277:
1939:
1274:
530:
401:
291:
268:
216:
210:
6262:
3211:
In
September 2022, spectroscopy on decaying samples determined the excitation energy to be
7766:
7762:
6569:
6564:
6559:
6554:
6549:
6544:
6539:
6258:
6032:
5329:"Experimental search for the low-energy nuclear transition in Th with undulator radiation"
4616:
4516:
4512:
3468:
3461:
3431:
3155:
2778:
2295:
2254:
1909:
5015:
4609:
4216:
6402:
6282:
6060:
5988:
5911:
5847:
5784:
5722:
5655:
5605:
5588:"The 229-thorium isomer: doorway to the road from the atomic clock to the nuclear clock"
5548:
5476:
5427:
5353:
5344:
5328:
5289:
5191:
5142:
5093:
5052:
5007:
4890:
4837:
4748:
4694:
4644:
4542:
4303:
4245:
4185:
4117:
4036:
3792:
3727:
3553:-238 usually decays into this isotope of thorium (although in rare cases it can undergo
2182:
during World War II. Thus they are mildly radioactive. Two of the glass elements in the
3584:
3522:
3415:. The remainder of the chain is quick; the longest half-lives in it are 5.75 years for
3408:
3223:
2974:
2927:
2896:
2798:
2286:
2269:
1871:
483:
431:(or metastable state) with a remarkably low excitation energy, recently measured to be
428:
9371:
8351:
5972:
5935:
5871:
5746:
5679:
5327:
Yamaguchi, A.; Kolbe, M.; Kaser, H.; Reichel, T.; Gottwald, A.; Peik, E. (May 2015).
5232:
Improved value for the energy splitting of the ground-state doublet in the nucleus Th
5060:
5023:
4906:
4853:
4845:
4710:
4550:
4201:
4052:
3534:
3376:
3288:
3032:
2852:
2053:
2025:
1976:( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
1929:
1385:
517:
495:
476:
446:
93:
6471:
6410:
6290:
5215:
4772:
4327:
4141:
3303:
before it was realized that ionium and thorium are chemically identical. The symbol
2873:
Together with its decay product Ra it is used for alpha particle radiation therapy.
408:. This isotope makes up nearly all natural thorium, so thorium was considered to be
9086:
8778:
8477:
6594:
6526:
5919:
5808:
5556:
5485:
5458:
5443:
5313:
5297:
4756:
4311:
4125:
3800:
3542:
3258:
2911:
2163:
2114:
420:
5199:
4565:
This is the heaviest nuclide with a half-life of at least four years before the "
4193:
9296:
9254:
9233:
8603:
8519:
8498:
6589:
6441:
Holden, Norman E. (2004). "11. Table of the
Isotopes". In Lide, David R. (ed.).
6094:
5239:
5076:"Energy separation of the doublet of intrinsic states at the ground state of Th"
4924:
4044:
3449:
3420:
3404:
3384:
3359:
3327:
3300:
3296:
3273:
3028:
3024:
2915:
2904:
2885:
2864:
2844:
2258:
2238:
2100:
2041:
2029:
1586:
1472:
573:
490:
453:
424:
393:
223:
114:
6152:
5996:
5614:
5435:
5101:
4702:
4652:
3883:
3735:
3637:
3622:
Varga, Z.; Nicholl, A.; Mayer, K. (2014). "Determination of the Th half-life".
3603:
8925:
8883:
8820:
8696:
8675:
8624:
8456:
8393:
8330:
7626:
7605:
7016:
6191:
6174:
5855:
5792:
5730:
4970:
Characterization of the elusive Th isomer – milestones towards a nuclear clock
4898:
3476:
3457:
3416:
3200:
wavelength). Combining these measurements, the expected transition energy is
2159:
1887:) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
687:
509:
245:
191:
164:
143:
120:
6414:
6004:
5150:
4962:
4253:
3691:
9212:
9170:
9149:
9128:
9009:
8799:
8736:
8645:
8582:
8561:
7815:
7689:
7647:
7563:
7519:
7384:
7237:
7109:
6974:
6951:
6772:
6614:
6604:
6599:
6452:
6354:
6335:
6325:
6306:
4495:
3530:
3388:
3335:
2900:
2840:
2243:
2191:
areas; allowing the inverse square relationship to attenuate the radiation.
503:
73:
6200:
6047:
Knight, G. B.; Macklin, R. L. (1 January 1949). "Radiations of
Uranium Y".
6012:
5950:
5927:
5863:
5800:
5738:
5671:
5564:
5494:
5305:
5207:
5109:
4764:
4319:
4133:
17:
6068:
5158:
4810:
4792:
4261:
3683:
3109:
vacuum ultraviolet cutoff, the produced photons cannot travel through air.
9317:
9044:
8862:
8841:
8540:
8281:
8230:
8209:
8146:
8083:
7999:
7978:
7936:
7794:
7498:
7426:
7216:
7195:
7174:
7153:
7058:
6879:
6837:
6698:
5586:
Thirolf, Peter G.; Seiferle, Benedict; von der Wense, Lars (2019-10-28).
4491:
3412:
3339:
3323:
3238:
2832:
2234:
2183:
400:
stable, with a half-life of 1.405×10 years, considerably longer than the
6234:
5663:
9275:
9107:
9065:
8988:
8946:
8904:
8435:
8414:
8372:
8188:
8062:
8020:
7957:
7887:
7731:
7668:
7584:
7542:
7468:
7447:
7405:
7363:
7130:
6995:
6751:
6609:
6502:
3991:
3744:
3672:"Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)"
3550:
3526:
3518:
3514:
3491:
3446:
3443:
3435:
3380:
3372:
3346:. It has a decay energy of 0.39 MeV. It has a mass of 231.0363043
3280:
3276:
2892:
2888:
2828:
2824:
2785:
389:
381:
36:
32:
6380:
G. Audi; A. H. Wapstra; C. Thibault; J. Blachot; O. Bersillon (2003).
6376:
Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources.
6307:"Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)"
5973:"Observation of the radiative decay of the 229Th nuclear clock isomer"
9191:
8967:
8757:
8302:
8041:
7908:
7836:
7752:
7710:
7321:
7300:
7279:
7037:
6930:
6858:
6816:
6721:
4230:
H. Ikezoe; et al. (1996). "alpha decay of a new isotope of Th".
3855:
5173:
5124:
5075:
4087:"A single ion nuclear clock for metrology at the 19th decimal place"
3651:
6028:"The First Nuclear Clock Will Test if Fundamental Constants Change"
5902:
5838:
5775:
5713:
5646:
5518:
5418:
5280:
4952:
4881:
4739:
4685:
4610:
Report to
Congress on the extraction of medical isotopes from U-233
4368:
4294:
3874:
3583:
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).
8251:
7857:
7079:
6795:
6429:
4998:
4597:"Thor Medical – production of alpha emitters for cancer treatment"
4108:
3472:
3331:
3284:
3036:
2179:
3988:"Atomic Nucleus Excited with Laser: A Breakthrough after Decades"
27:
Nuclides with atomic number of 90 but with different mass numbers
8167:
8104:
7342:
7258:
6900:
5174:"Energy splitting in the ground state doublet in the nucleus Th"
4018:"Nuclear laser spectroscopy of the 3.5 eV transition in Th"
2248:
6475:
6214:
Peppard, D. F.; Mason, G. W.; Gray, P. R.; Mech, J. F. (1952).
3307:
was used for this supposed element. (The name is still used in
2981:, which can be extrapolated to a lifetime for isolated ions of
2835:. It was once named Radiothorium, due to its occurrence in the
7773:
6336:"Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)"
4931:
XXXVI Mazurian Lakes
Conference on Physics (1–7 November 2019)
2801:(thermal neutron capture cross section greater than 3k barns)
3169:
and the electric quadrupole moment of Th could be inferred.
2992:
This excitation energy corresponds to a photon frequency of
5593:
Journal of
Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
3172:
In 2019, the isomer's excitation energy was constrained to
5459:"Observation of the Deexcitation of the Th Nuclear Isomer"
1967:
as daughter – Daughter product is stable.
4793:"Shedding Light on the Thorium-229 Nuclear Clock Isomer"
3423:, with all other half-lives totaling less than 15 days.
3075:, which was for a long time the accepted energy value.
2870:
Th has an atomic weight of 228.0287411 grams/mole.
1908: – nearly stable, half-life longer than
6382:"The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties"
6298:
Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
404:, and even slightly longer than the generally accepted
4374:
a narrow, laser-linewidth-limited spectral feature at
6366:"News & Notices: Standard Atomic Weights Revised"
3117:
A direct detection of electrons being emitted in the
2907:, and its principal use is for the production of the
3549:, and it has a decay energy of about 270 keV.
3122:determination of the isomer's excitation energy to
2174:Thorium was also used in certain glass elements of
317:
301:
6257:Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean;
3821:, and the fluorescence lifetime in the crystal is
6370:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
5691:
5689:
3585:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties"
2851:. Occasionally it decays by the unusual route of
4926:'Phase Transition' in the 'Thorium-Isomer Story'
4273:
4271:
4080:
4078:
4076:
3982:
3980:
3805:The nuclear resonance for the Th ions in Th:CaF
3245:) measurement of the transition energy. A one-
3241:for charge compensation), giving a precise (~1
2763:
2758:
2751:
2730:
2723:
2711:
2702:
2582:
2577:
2563:
2012:Theoretically capable of electron capture to Ac
2003:Theoretically capable of electron capture to Ac
4918:
4916:
4786:
4784:
4782:
3475:diagnostics. Thorium-232 is now classified as
3134:xenon VUV photon can be shown, but with about
2903:of 7917 years. Th is produced by the decay of
2647:
2633:
2626:
2619:
2614:
2602:
2597:
2592:
6487:
6216:"Occurrence of the (4n + 1) series in nature"
4923:Thirolf, Peter G.; et al. (March 2020).
4356:
4354:
4352:
4350:
4348:
3533:of 24.1 days, and when it decays, it emits a
2948:, with a remarkably low excitation energy of
2695:
2690:
2676:
2667:
2545:
2540:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2503:
2498:
2484:
2477:
2453:
2448:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2419:
2414:
2407:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2215:
362:
8:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3755:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3572:
3570:
3154:lifetime. In that paper, Th was embedded in
3146:less energy and a (retrospectively correct)
2203:Actinides and fission products by half-life
30:
6267:evaluation of nuclear and decay properties"
3849:
3847:
3845:
3843:
3841:
3839:
3837:
3330:. It is found in very small amounts on the
3027:frequency range, it is possible to build a
2470:in the range of 100 a–210 ka ...
2341:
2332:
2314:
6494:
6480:
6472:
5123:Helmer, R. G.; Reich, C. W. (April 1994).
4515:fission of uranium-235, e.g. in a typical
4159:
4157:
4011:
4009:
3825:, corresponding to an isomer half-life of
3338:of 25.5 hours. When it decays, it emits a
2222:
2208:
2158:It has, for about a century, been used in
1883:( ) – Uncertainty (1
1850:
369:
355:
6353:
6324:
6190:
5949:von der Wense, Lars (28 September 2020).
5901:
5837:
5774:
5712:
5645:
5613:
5517:
5484:
5417:
5352:
5279:
5088:(3). American Physical Society: 271–273.
4997:
4961:
4951:
4880:
4738:
4684:
4664:
4662:
4367:
4293:
4219:. Goethe Universität Frankfury Allemagne.
4107:
3873:
3743:
3617:
3615:
3613:
6223:Journal of the American Chemical Society
5074:Reich, C. W.; Helmer, R. G. (Jan 1990).
3772:"Laser Excitation of the Th-229 Nucleus"
3023:). Although in the very high frequency
2792:naturally occurring radioactive material
2781:cross section in the range of 8–50 barns
463:
52:
5125:"An Excited State of Th at 3.5 eV"
4619:. U.S. Department of Energy. March 2001
3566:
2125:Theorized to also undergo ββ decay to U
2063:
2061:
1863:
452:The known isotopes of thorium range in
5379:Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
5172:B. R. Beck; et al. (2007-04-06).
4465:Michael S. Briggs (January 16, 2002).
3055:Early measurements were performed via
2145:Thorium has been suggested for use in
1994:Theoretically capable of β decay to Ac
29:
9058:
6444:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
6091:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
5506:
5504:
3888:The transition frequency between the
2744:
2463:
2095:
2093:
2020:
2018:
280:
277:
257:
254:
230:
227:
203:
200:
176:
173:
155:
152:
132:
129:
107:
102:
7:
6026:Howlett, Joseph (4 September 2024).
3383:and thorium. The isotope decays by
4498:with a half life of less than four
4016:Peik, E.; Tamm, Chr. (2003-01-15).
3652:"Standard Atomic Weights: Thorium"
392:but none are stable. One isotope,
388:Th) has seven naturally occurring
25:
4791:Thirolf, Peter (April 29, 2024).
4409:) that decays with a lifetime of
3829:for a nucleus isolated in vacuum.
3029:laser operating at this frequency
2609:
2134:Produced in neutron capture by Th
2072:
9024:
8716:
8655:
8310:
8261:
7916:
7867:
7478:
7089:
6910:
6731:
6678:
6244:from the original on 2019-04-29.
5951:"Ticking Toward a Nuclear Clock"
3902:excited state is determined as:
3545:-234. Th has a mass of 234.0436
6411:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
6291:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
4986:J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys.
4062:from the original on 2024-04-14
3395:10 years, over three times the
2187:radiation damage to the glass.
2162:of gas and vapor lamps such as
1844:This table header & footer:
6434:Brookhaven National Laboratory
6116:Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
5920:10.1103/PhysRevLett.125.142503
5557:10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.018901
5486:10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.160801
5298:10.1103/physrevlett.114.253001
5016:10.1088/0953-4075/44/16/165005
4757:10.1103/PhysRevLett.118.212501
4312:10.1103/PhysRevLett.118.042501
4126:10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.120802
3809:is measured at the wavelength
3801:10.1103/PhysRevLett.132.182501
3098:Because it is above thorium's
3035:of very high accuracy or as a
2863:. It is a daughter isotope of
2843:of 1.9116 years. It undergoes
2195:Actinides vs. fission products
2099:Intermediate decay product of
2052:Intermediate decay product of
2040:Intermediate decay product of
1:
5371:On the direct detection of Th
5354:10.1088/1367-2630/17/5/053053
5200:10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.142501
3326:. It is the decay product of
3237:with additional interstitial
2867:in the thorium decay series.
2067:Neutral Th decays rapidly by
1870:Th – Excited
9388:Lists of isotopes by element
6426:National Nuclear Data Center
6083:"Isotopes of Thorium (Z=90)"
5368:von der Wense, Lars (2016).
5061:10.1016/0375-9474(76)90494-2
4946:, Poland. pp. 561–570.
4942:. Vol. 51, no. 3.
4551:10.1016/0029-5582(65)90719-4
4194:10.1103/PhysRevC.105.L051302
3452:, which is the basis of the
2746:... nor beyond 15.7 Ma
449:of extremely high accuracy.
6334:Wieser, Michael E. (2006).
2465:No fission products have a
2198:
2147:thorium-based nuclear power
9404:
8705:
6958:
6779:
6705:
6341:Pure and Applied Chemistry
6312:Pure and Applied Chemistry
5997:10.1038/s41586-023-05894-z
5436:10.1103/PhysRevA.97.062506
5102:10.1103/PhysRevLett.64.271
4846:10.1088/0031-8949/53/3/003
4703:10.1103/PhysRevC.92.054324
4653:10.1103/PhysRevC.76.054313
3884:10.1038/s41586-024-07839-6
3736:10.1103/PhysRevC.73.044326
3676:Pure and Applied Chemistry
3638:10.1103/PhysRevC.89.064310
3357:
1841:
9331:
9021:
6513:
6192:10.1038/modpathol.3800008
6145:World Nuclear Association
5856:10.1038/s41586-019-1542-3
5793:10.1038/s41586-018-0011-8
5731:10.1038/s41586-019-1533-4
4899:10.1007/s11018-018-1337-1
4045:10.1209/epl/i2003-00210-x
3707:"Nuclear structure of Th"
3283:that can be used to date
2839:of thorium-232. It has a
2773:
2253:
2242:
2233:
2201:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1585:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1465:
1437:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
952:
928:
911:
909:
906:
897:
894:
891:
888:
886:
883:
807:
805:
802:
793:
790:
787:
784:
782:
779:
767:
765:
762:
752:
749:
746:
743:
741:
738:
726:
724:
721:
711:
708:
705:
702:
700:
697:
682:
680:
677:
667:
664:
661:
658:
656:
653:
545:
535:
524:
516:
508:
502:
489:
482:
475:
470:
466:
350:
274:
251:
222:
197:
170:
149:
126:
99:
58:
55:
51:
6259:Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik
5615:10.1088/1361-6455/ab29b8
5151:10.1103/PhysRevC.49.1845
4968:Originally presented as
4963:10.5506/APhysPolB.51.561
4254:10.1103/PhysRevC.54.2043
4215:Cardona, J.A.H. (2012).
3604:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae
3105:Because it is above the
2855:, emitting a nucleus of
6667:Chalcogens
6355:10.1351/pac200678112051
6326:10.1351/pac200375060683
5889:Physical Review Letters
5536:Physical Review Letters
5464:Physical Review Letters
5267:Physical Review Letters
5179:Physical Review Letters
5081:Physical Review Letters
4939:Acta Physica Polonica B
4453:f2.5 Aero Ektar Lenses
4281:Physical Review Letters
4168: > 82 and
4095:Physical Review Letters
3780:Physical Review Letters
3411:, eventually ending in
6303:de Laeter, John Robert
5333:New Journal of Physics
4869:Measurement Techniques
4172: < 126".
3537:, and in doing so, it
3399:and approximately the
3057:gamma ray spectroscopy
2166:and camping lanterns.
2086:Uranium–thorium dating
303:Standard atomic weight
6253:Isotope masses from:
6069:10.1103/PhysRev.75.34
4811:10.1103/Physics.17.71
4102:(12) 120802: 120802.
3895:ground state and the
3705:E. Ruchowska (2006).
3684:10.1515/pac-2019-0603
3309:ionium–thorium dating
3257:accuracy of the best
2859:and producing stable
2790:№, primarily a
2777:₡, has thermal
2170:Low dispersion lenses
1466:8.355733554021(8) eV
1438:8.355733554021(8) eV
6430:"NuDat 2.x database"
6120:"Th-232 Decay Chain"
2837:disintegration chain
1504:7.538(30)×10 y
1414:7.916(17)×10 y
540:(mole fraction)
412:. However, in 2013,
9378:Isotopes of thorium
9357:Isotopes by element
9352:Metastable isotopes
6449:Boca Raton, Florida
6403:2003NuPhA.729....3A
6283:2003NuPhA.729....3A
6235:10.1021/ja01143a074
6061:1949PhRv...75...34K
5989:2023Natur.617..706K
5912:2020PhRvL.125n2503S
5848:2019Natur.573..238M
5785:2018Natur.556..321T
5723:2019Natur.573..243S
5664:10.1038/nature17669
5656:2016Natur.533...47V
5606:2019JPhB...52t3001T
5549:2013PhRvL.111a8901P
5477:2012PhRvL.109p0801Z
5428:2018PhRvA..97f2506S
5345:2015NJPh...17e3053Y
5290:2015PhRvL.114y3001J
5192:2007PhRvL..98n2501B
5143:1994PhRvC..49.1845H
5094:1990PhRvL..64..271R
5053:1976NuPhA.259...29K
5008:2011JPhB...44p5005R
4944:Piaski, Pisz County
4891:2018MeasT..60.1178V
4838:1996PhyS...53..296T
4749:2017PhRvL.118u2501M
4695:2015PhRvC..92e4324T
4645:2007PhRvC..76e4313K
4543:1965NucPh..71..299M
4467:"Aero-Ektar Lenses"
4304:2017PhRvL.118d2501S
4246:1996PhRvC..54.2043I
4186:2022PhRvC.105e1302Y
4118:2012PhRvL.108l0802C
4037:2003EL.....61..181P
4025:Europhysics Letters
3811:148.3821(5) nm
3793:2024PhRvL.132r2501T
3728:2006PhRvC..73d4326R
3555:spontaneous fission
3467:, it was used as a
3419:and 1.91 years for
3401:age of the universe
3119:internal conversion
2967:internal conversion
2073:§ Thorium-229m
2069:internal conversion
1950:Isomeric transition
1299:30.57(10) min
552:Range of variation
406:age of the universe
48:
9347:Tables of nuclides
6372:. 19 October 2005.
4615:2011-09-27 at the
4580:classically stable
4567:sea of instability
4511:Specifically from
4473:on August 12, 2015
3500:neutron activation
3454:thorium fuel cycle
3369:primordial nuclide
3166:laser spectroscopy
3025:vacuum ultraviolet
2354:> 9 a
1658:21.83(4) min
1604:1.405(6)×10 y
1366:1.9116(16) y
1146:2.237(13) ms
953:2637(20) keV
929:2042(13) keV
570:9.7(+46.6−4.4) ms
549:Normal proportion
546:Excitation energy
9365:
9364:
9336:Table of nuclides
9326:
9325:
9313:
9292:
9271:
9250:
9229:
9208:
9187:
9166:
9145:
9124:
9103:
9082:
9061:
9040:
9005:
8984:
8963:
8942:
8921:
8900:
8879:
8858:
8837:
8816:
8795:
8774:
8753:
8732:
8692:
8671:
8641:
8620:
8599:
8578:
8557:
8536:
8515:
8494:
8473:
8452:
8431:
8410:
8389:
8368:
8347:
8326:
8298:
8277:
8247:
8226:
8205:
8184:
8163:
8142:
8121:
8100:
8079:
8058:
8037:
8016:
7995:
7974:
7953:
7932:
7904:
7883:
7853:
7832:
7811:
7790:
7769:
7748:
7727:
7706:
7685:
7664:
7643:
7622:
7601:
7580:
7559:
7538:
7515:
7494:
7464:
7443:
7422:
7401:
7380:
7359:
7338:
7317:
7296:
7275:
7254:
7233:
7212:
7191:
7170:
7149:
7126:
7105:
7075:
7054:
7033:
7012:
6991:
6970:
6947:
6926:
6896:
6875:
6854:
6833:
6812:
6791:
6768:
6747:
6717:
6694:
6664:Pnictogens
6625:
6523:
6507:chemical elements
6462:978-0-8493-0485-9
6447:(85th ed.).
6390:Nuclear Physics A
6348:(11): 2051–2066.
6271:Nuclear Physics A
6266:
6229:(23): 6081–6084.
5983:(7962): 706–710.
5832:(7773): 238–242.
5769:(7701): 321–325.
5707:(7773): 243–246.
5405:Physical Review A
5388:978-3-319-70461-6
5130:Physical Review C
5040:Nuclear Physics A
4875:(12): 1178–1192.
4672:Physical Review C
4632:Physical Review C
4578:Excluding those "
4340:has been measured
4233:Physical Review C
4174:Physical Review C
3990:(Press release).
3715:Physical Review C
3625:Physical Review C
3592:Chinese Physics C
3547:atomic mass units
3494:that decays into
3490:is an isotope of
3456:. In the form of
3247:part-per-trillion
3041:quantum computing
2808:
2807:
2769:0.7–14.1 Ga
2765:
2760:
2753:
2732:
2725:
2713:
2704:
2697:
2692:
2678:
2669:
2649:
2635:
2628:
2621:
2616:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2584:
2579:
2565:
2547:
2542:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2505:
2500:
2486:
2479:
2455:
2450:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2421:
2416:
2409:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2343:
2334:
2316:
1955:
1954:
1861:
1860:
1824:9.4(20) min
1760:37.5(2) min
1256:8.72(4) min
603:1.7(+1.7-0.6) ms
537:Natural abundance
456:from 207 to 238.
379:
378:
297:
296:
16:(Redirected from
9395:
9311:§ List
9305:
9290:§ List
9284:
9269:§ List
9263:
9248:§ List
9242:
9227:§ List
9221:
9206:§ List
9200:
9185:§ List
9179:
9164:§ List
9158:
9143:§ List
9137:
9122:§ List
9116:
9101:§ List
9095:
9080:§ List
9074:
9059:§ List
9053:
9038:§ List
9032:
9028:
9027:
9003:§ List
8997:
8982:§ List
8976:
8961:§ List
8955:
8940:§ List
8934:
8919:§ List
8913:
8898:§ List
8892:
8877:§ List
8871:
8856:§ List
8850:
8835:§ List
8829:
8814:§ List
8808:
8793:§ List
8787:
8772:§ List
8766:
8751:§ List
8745:
8730:§ List
8724:
8720:
8719:
8690:§ List
8684:
8669:§ List
8663:
8659:
8639:§ List
8633:
8618:§ List
8612:
8597:§ List
8591:
8576:§ List
8570:
8555:§ List
8549:
8534:§ List
8528:
8513:§ List
8507:
8492:§ List
8486:
8471:§ List
8465:
8450:§ List
8444:
8429:§ List
8423:
8408:§ List
8402:
8387:§ List
8381:
8366:§ List
8360:
8345:§ List
8339:
8324:§ List
8318:
8314:
8313:
8296:§ List
8290:
8275:§ List
8269:
8265:
8245:§ List
8239:
8224:§ List
8218:
8203:§ List
8197:
8182:§ List
8176:
8161:§ List
8155:
8140:§ List
8134:
8119:§ List
8113:
8098:§ List
8092:
8077:§ List
8071:
8056:§ List
8050:
8035:§ List
8029:
8014:§ List
8008:
7993:§ List
7987:
7972:§ List
7966:
7951:§ List
7945:
7930:§ List
7924:
7920:
7919:
7902:§ List
7896:
7881:§ List
7875:
7871:
7851:§ List
7845:
7830:§ List
7824:
7809:§ List
7803:
7788:§ List
7782:
7767:§ List
7761:
7746:§ List
7740:
7725:§ List
7719:
7704:§ List
7698:
7683:§ List
7677:
7662:§ List
7656:
7641:§ List
7635:
7620:§ List
7614:
7599:§ List
7593:
7578:§ List
7572:
7557:§ List
7551:
7536:§ List
7530:
7513:§ List
7507:
7492:§ List
7486:
7482:
7462:§ List
7456:
7441:§ List
7435:
7420:§ List
7414:
7399:§ List
7393:
7378:§ List
7372:
7357:§ List
7351:
7336:§ List
7330:
7315:§ List
7309:
7294:§ List
7288:
7273:§ List
7267:
7252:§ List
7246:
7231:§ List
7225:
7210:§ List
7204:
7189:§ List
7183:
7168:§ List
7162:
7147:§ List
7141:
7124:§ List
7118:
7103:§ List
7097:
7093:
7073:§ List
7067:
7052:§ List
7046:
7031:§ List
7025:
7010:§ List
7004:
6989:§ List
6983:
6968:§ List
6962:
6945:§ List
6939:
6924:§ List
6918:
6914:
6894:§ List
6888:
6873:§ List
6867:
6852:§ List
6846:
6831:§ List
6825:
6810:§ List
6804:
6789:§ List
6783:
6766:§ List
6760:
6745:§ List
6739:
6735:
6715:§ List
6709:
6692:§ List
6686:
6682:
6621:
6519:
6516:
6515:
6496:
6489:
6482:
6473:
6466:
6437:
6421:
6419:
6413:. Archived from
6386:
6373:
6359:
6357:
6330:
6328:
6293:
6264:
6246:
6245:
6243:
6220:
6211:
6205:
6204:
6194:
6170:
6164:
6163:
6161:
6160:
6151:. Archived from
6141:
6135:
6134:
6132:
6131:
6122:. Archived from
6112:
6106:
6105:
6103:
6102:
6093:. Archived from
6087:Isotopes Project
6079:
6073:
6072:
6044:
6038:
6037:
6023:
6017:
6016:
5967:
5961:
5960:
5946:
5940:
5939:
5905:
5882:
5876:
5875:
5841:
5819:
5813:
5812:
5778:
5757:
5751:
5750:
5716:
5693:
5684:
5683:
5649:
5626:
5620:
5619:
5617:
5583:
5577:
5576:
5530:
5524:
5523:
5521:
5508:
5499:
5498:
5488:
5454:
5448:
5447:
5421:
5399:
5393:
5392:
5376:
5365:
5359:
5358:
5356:
5324:
5318:
5317:
5283:
5260:
5254:
5253:
5251:
5250:
5244:
5237:
5226:
5220:
5219:
5169:
5163:
5162:
5137:(4): 1845–1858.
5120:
5114:
5113:
5071:
5065:
5064:
5034:
5028:
5027:
5001:
4979:
4973:
4967:
4965:
4955:
4935:
4920:
4911:
4910:
4884:
4864:
4858:
4857:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4788:
4777:
4776:
4742:
4727:Phys. Rev. Lett.
4721:
4715:
4714:
4688:
4666:
4657:
4656:
4626:
4620:
4607:
4601:
4600:
4593:
4587:
4576:
4570:
4563:
4557:
4554:
4526:
4520:
4509:
4503:
4488:
4482:
4481:
4479:
4478:
4469:. Archived from
4462:
4456:
4450:
4444:
4443:
4436:
4426:
4420:
4408:
4398:
4395:
4389:
4379:
4371:
4358:
4343:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4297:
4275:
4266:
4265:
4240:(4): 2043–2046.
4227:
4221:
4220:
4212:
4206:
4205:
4161:
4152:
4151:
4149:
4148:
4111:
4091:
4082:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4067:
4061:
4022:
4013:
4004:
4003:
4001:
3999:
3984:
3975:
3974:
3971:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3962:
3959:
3925:
3923:
3922:
3919:
3916:
3901:
3894:
3877:
3851:
3832:
3831:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3819:.409(7) THz
3818:
3812:
3776:
3767:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3711:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3648:
3642:
3641:
3619:
3608:
3607:
3589:
3580:
3496:protactinium-233
3428:fertile material
3397:age of the Earth
3394:
3344:protactinium-231
3256:
3252:
3243:part per million
3218:
3216:
3207:
3205:
3199:
3197:
3191:
3189:
3183:
3179:
3177:
3153:
3151:
3145:
3143:
3142:
3133:
3129:
3127:
3108:
3101:
3093:
3091:
3085:
3083:
3074:
3072:
3062:
3061:29.5855 keV
3059:, producing the
3022:
3020:
3017:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3003:
3000:
2997:
2988:
2986:
2980:
2972:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2938:
2937:
2909:medical isotopes
2899:emission with a
2811:Notable isotopes
2764:
2759:
2752:
2731:
2724:
2712:
2703:
2696:
2691:
2687:1.61–6.5 Ma
2677:
2668:
2648:
2634:
2627:
2620:
2615:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2583:
2578:
2564:
2553:8.3–8.5 ka
2546:
2541:
2534:4.7–7.4 ka
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:1.3–1.6 ka
2504:
2499:
2485:
2478:
2468:
2454:
2449:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2420:
2415:
2408:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2342:
2333:
2315:
2255:Fission products
2224:
2217:
2210:
2199:
2135:
2132:
2126:
2123:
2117:
2109:
2103:
2097:
2088:
2082:
2076:
2065:
2056:
2050:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2022:
2013:
2010:
2004:
2001:
1995:
1992:
1986:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1968:
1962:
1956:
1940:Electron capture
1923:
1922:
1921:Modes of decay:
1919:
1913:
1903:
1897:
1894:
1888:
1881:
1875:
1868:
1857:
1852:
1792:4.8(5) min
1728:7.2(1) min
1695:24.10(3) d
1655:233.0415818(21)
1600:232.0380553(21)
1559:25.52(1) h
1556:231.0363043(19)
1501:230.0331338(19)
1363:228.0287411(24)
1332:18.68(9) d
1329:227.0277041(27)
1114:1.73(3) ms
1050:1.05(3) μs
1018:109(13) ns
956:615(55) ns
898:26.8(3) ms
834:100(25) ms
794:140(25) ms
541:
499:
464:
460:List of isotopes
444:
442:
439:
436:
402:age of the Earth
371:
364:
357:
338:
336:
329:
327:
313:
288:
283:
265:
260:
242:
237:
235:
213:
206:
188:
183:
181:
161:
140:
135:
117:
110:
85:
53:
49:
47:
46:
21:
9403:
9402:
9398:
9397:
9396:
9394:
9393:
9392:
9368:
9367:
9366:
9361:
9327:
9321:
9314:
9300:
9293:
9279:
9272:
9258:
9251:
9237:
9230:
9216:
9209:
9195:
9188:
9174:
9167:
9153:
9146:
9132:
9125:
9111:
9104:
9090:
9083:
9069:
9062:
9048:
9041:
9025:
9013:
9006:
8992:
8985:
8971:
8964:
8950:
8943:
8929:
8922:
8908:
8901:
8887:
8880:
8866:
8859:
8845:
8838:
8824:
8817:
8803:
8796:
8782:
8775:
8761:
8754:
8740:
8733:
8717:
8700:
8693:
8679:
8672:
8649:
8642:
8628:
8621:
8607:
8600:
8586:
8579:
8565:
8558:
8544:
8537:
8523:
8516:
8502:
8495:
8481:
8474:
8460:
8453:
8439:
8432:
8418:
8411:
8397:
8390:
8376:
8369:
8355:
8348:
8334:
8327:
8311:
8306:
8299:
8285:
8278:
8255:
8248:
8234:
8227:
8213:
8206:
8192:
8185:
8171:
8164:
8150:
8143:
8129:
8122:
8108:
8101:
8087:
8080:
8066:
8059:
8045:
8038:
8024:
8017:
8003:
7996:
7982:
7975:
7961:
7954:
7940:
7933:
7917:
7912:
7905:
7891:
7884:
7861:
7854:
7840:
7833:
7819:
7812:
7798:
7791:
7777:
7770:
7756:
7749:
7735:
7728:
7714:
7707:
7693:
7686:
7672:
7665:
7651:
7644:
7630:
7623:
7609:
7602:
7588:
7581:
7567:
7560:
7546:
7539:
7523:
7516:
7502:
7495:
7472:
7465:
7451:
7444:
7430:
7423:
7409:
7402:
7388:
7381:
7367:
7360:
7346:
7339:
7325:
7318:
7304:
7297:
7283:
7276:
7262:
7255:
7241:
7234:
7220:
7213:
7199:
7192:
7178:
7171:
7157:
7150:
7134:
7127:
7113:
7106:
7083:
7076:
7062:
7055:
7041:
7034:
7020:
7013:
6999:
6992:
6978:
6971:
6955:
6948:
6934:
6927:
6904:
6897:
6883:
6876:
6862:
6855:
6841:
6834:
6820:
6813:
6799:
6792:
6776:
6769:
6755:
6748:
6725:
6718:
6702:
6695:
6670:Halogens
6634:
6629:
6509:
6500:
6463:
6440:
6424:
6417:
6384:
6379:
6364:
6333:
6301:
6256:
6250:
6249:
6241:
6218:
6213:
6212:
6208:
6172:
6171:
6167:
6158:
6156:
6143:
6142:
6138:
6129:
6127:
6114:
6113:
6109:
6100:
6098:
6081:
6080:
6076:
6049:Physical Review
6046:
6045:
6041:
6033:Quanta Magazine
6025:
6024:
6020:
5969:
5968:
5964:
5959:. Vol. 13.
5948:
5947:
5943:
5884:
5883:
5879:
5821:
5820:
5816:
5759:
5758:
5754:
5695:
5694:
5687:
5640:(7601): 47–51.
5628:
5627:
5623:
5585:
5584:
5580:
5573:
5532:
5531:
5527:
5510:
5509:
5502:
5456:
5455:
5451:
5401:
5400:
5396:
5389:
5374:
5367:
5366:
5362:
5326:
5325:
5321:
5262:
5261:
5257:
5248:
5246:
5242:
5235:
5228:
5227:
5223:
5171:
5170:
5166:
5122:
5121:
5117:
5073:
5072:
5068:
5036:
5035:
5031:
4981:
4980:
4976:
4933:
4922:
4921:
4914:
4866:
4865:
4861:
4826:Physica Scripta
4823:
4822:
4818:
4790:
4789:
4780:
4723:
4722:
4718:
4668:
4667:
4660:
4628:
4627:
4623:
4617:Wayback Machine
4608:
4604:
4595:
4594:
4590:
4577:
4573:
4564:
4560:
4555:
4531:Nuclear Physics
4528:
4527:
4523:
4517:nuclear reactor
4513:thermal neutron
4510:
4506:
4489:
4485:
4476:
4474:
4464:
4463:
4459:
4451:
4447:
4440:
4434:
4430:
4424:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4377:
4375:
4360:
4359:
4346:
4335:
4333:
4332:A half-life of
4277:
4276:
4269:
4229:
4228:
4224:
4214:
4213:
4209:
4163:
4162:
4155:
4146:
4144:
4089:
4084:
4083:
4074:
4065:
4063:
4059:
4020:
4015:
4014:
4007:
3997:
3995:
3994:. 29 April 2024
3986:
3985:
3978:
3966:
3963:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3953:
3946:
3939:
3932:
3920:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3909:
3903:
3896:
3889:
3868:(8028): 63–70.
3853:
3852:
3835:
3827:1740(50) s
3826:
3822:
3816:
3814:
3810:
3808:
3774:
3769:
3768:
3753:
3709:
3704:
3703:
3699:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3650:
3649:
3645:
3621:
3620:
3611:
3587:
3582:
3581:
3568:
3563:
3508:
3485:
3469:contrast medium
3462:thorium dioxide
3392:
3362:
3356:
3317:
3267:
3254:
3250:
3236:
3231:
3214:
3212:
3203:
3201:
3195:
3193:
3187:
3185:
3181:
3175:
3173:
3159:
3149:
3147:
3140:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3125:
3123:
3106:
3099:
3089:
3087:
3086:, corrected to
3081:
3079:
3070:
3068:
3060:
3053:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3007:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2970:
2957:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2940:
2936:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2924:
2895:that decays by
2879:
2818:
2813:
2804:
2779:neutron capture
2642:327–375 ka
2611:150–250 ka
2490:430–900 a
2469:
2466:
2461:141–351 a
2246:
2229:
2228:
2197:
2178:lenses made by
2172:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2110:
2106:
2098:
2091:
2083:
2079:
2066:
2059:
2051:
2047:
2039:
2035:
2023:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1963:
1959:
1920:
1916:
1910:age of universe
1904:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1882:
1878:
1869:
1865:
1856:
1842:
1789:237.05389(39)#
1757:236.04987(21)#
1683:
1638:
1636:
1527:
1469:30(1) min
1394:
1234:
1210:1.05(2) s
1207:224.021467(12)
1178:0.60(2) s
1175:223.020811(10)
1143:222.018468(13)
1111:221.018184(10)
1082:9.7(6) μs
1079:220.015748(24)
1015:218.013284(14)
986:240(5) μs
983:217.013114(22)
932:137(4) μs
895:216.011062(14)
863:215.011730(29)
831:214.011500(18)
754:
713:
669:
665:210.015075(27)
636:
539:
533:
529:
522:
519:
514:
511:
506:
500:
493:
472:
468:
462:
440:
437:
434:
432:
387:
375:
346:
334:
332:
325:
323:
311:
305:
286:
281:
263:
258:
240:
233:
231:
209:
204:
186:
179:
177:
159:
138:
133:
113:
108:
83:
76:
69:abundance
44:
40:
31:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9401:
9399:
9391:
9390:
9385:
9380:
9370:
9369:
9363:
9362:
9360:
9359:
9354:
9349:
9344:
9338:
9332:
9329:
9328:
9324:
9323:
9315:
9304:
9302:
9294:
9283:
9281:
9273:
9262:
9260:
9252:
9241:
9239:
9231:
9220:
9218:
9210:
9199:
9197:
9189:
9178:
9176:
9168:
9157:
9155:
9147:
9136:
9134:
9126:
9115:
9113:
9105:
9094:
9092:
9084:
9073:
9071:
9063:
9052:
9050:
9042:
9031:
9029:
9022:
9019:
9018:
9015:
9007:
8996:
8994:
8986:
8975:
8973:
8965:
8954:
8952:
8944:
8933:
8931:
8923:
8912:
8910:
8902:
8891:
8889:
8881:
8870:
8868:
8860:
8849:
8847:
8839:
8828:
8826:
8818:
8807:
8805:
8797:
8786:
8784:
8776:
8765:
8763:
8755:
8744:
8742:
8734:
8723:
8721:
8714:
8712:
8710:
8707:
8706:
8703:
8702:
8694:
8683:
8681:
8673:
8662:
8660:
8652:
8651:
8643:
8632:
8630:
8622:
8611:
8609:
8601:
8590:
8588:
8580:
8569:
8567:
8559:
8548:
8546:
8538:
8527:
8525:
8517:
8506:
8504:
8496:
8485:
8483:
8475:
8464:
8462:
8454:
8443:
8441:
8433:
8422:
8420:
8412:
8401:
8399:
8391:
8380:
8378:
8370:
8359:
8357:
8349:
8338:
8336:
8328:
8317:
8315:
8308:
8300:
8289:
8287:
8279:
8268:
8266:
8258:
8257:
8249:
8238:
8236:
8228:
8217:
8215:
8207:
8196:
8194:
8186:
8175:
8173:
8165:
8154:
8152:
8144:
8133:
8131:
8123:
8112:
8110:
8102:
8091:
8089:
8081:
8070:
8068:
8060:
8049:
8047:
8039:
8028:
8026:
8018:
8007:
8005:
7997:
7986:
7984:
7976:
7965:
7963:
7955:
7944:
7942:
7934:
7923:
7921:
7914:
7906:
7895:
7893:
7885:
7874:
7872:
7864:
7863:
7855:
7844:
7842:
7834:
7823:
7821:
7813:
7802:
7800:
7792:
7781:
7779:
7771:
7760:
7758:
7750:
7739:
7737:
7729:
7718:
7716:
7708:
7697:
7695:
7687:
7676:
7674:
7666:
7655:
7653:
7645:
7634:
7632:
7624:
7613:
7611:
7603:
7592:
7590:
7582:
7571:
7569:
7561:
7550:
7548:
7540:
7529:
7527:
7525:
7517:
7506:
7504:
7496:
7485:
7483:
7475:
7474:
7466:
7455:
7453:
7445:
7434:
7432:
7424:
7413:
7411:
7403:
7392:
7390:
7382:
7371:
7369:
7361:
7350:
7348:
7340:
7329:
7327:
7319:
7308:
7306:
7298:
7287:
7285:
7277:
7266:
7264:
7256:
7245:
7243:
7235:
7224:
7222:
7214:
7203:
7201:
7193:
7182:
7180:
7172:
7161:
7159:
7151:
7140:
7138:
7136:
7128:
7117:
7115:
7107:
7096:
7094:
7086:
7085:
7077:
7066:
7064:
7056:
7045:
7043:
7035:
7024:
7022:
7014:
7003:
7001:
6993:
6982:
6980:
6972:
6961:
6959:
6957:
6949:
6938:
6936:
6928:
6917:
6915:
6907:
6906:
6898:
6887:
6885:
6877:
6866:
6864:
6856:
6845:
6843:
6835:
6824:
6822:
6814:
6803:
6801:
6793:
6782:
6780:
6778:
6770:
6759:
6757:
6749:
6738:
6736:
6728:
6727:
6719:
6708:
6706:
6704:
6696:
6685:
6683:
6675:
6674:
6671:
6668:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6658:
6656:
6654:
6652:
6650:
6648:
6646:
6644:
6642:
6640:
6638:
6636:
6631:
6630:alkali metals
6626:
6618:
6617:
6612:
6607:
6602:
6597:
6592:
6587:
6582:
6577:
6572:
6567:
6562:
6557:
6552:
6547:
6542:
6537:
6534:
6529:
6524:
6514:
6511:
6510:
6501:
6499:
6498:
6491:
6484:
6476:
6470:
6469:
6468:
6467:
6461:
6438:
6422:
6420:on 2011-07-20.
6374:
6362:
6361:
6360:
6331:
6319:(6): 683–800.
6296:
6295:
6294:
6248:
6247:
6206:
6185:(1): 117–120.
6165:
6136:
6107:
6074:
6039:
6018:
5962:
5941:
5877:
5814:
5752:
5685:
5621:
5578:
5571:
5525:
5500:
5449:
5394:
5387:
5377:(PhD thesis).
5360:
5319:
5274:(25): 253001.
5255:
5221:
5186:(14): 142501.
5164:
5115:
5066:
5029:
4974:
4912:
4859:
4832:(3): 296–299.
4816:
4778:
4716:
4658:
4621:
4602:
4588:
4571:
4558:
4521:
4504:
4483:
4457:
4445:
4438:
4432:
4428:
4416:
4412:
4404:
4400:
4385:
4381:
4344:
4267:
4222:
4207:
4153:
4072:
4031:(2): 181–186.
4005:
3976:
3951:
3944:
3937:
3930:
3907:
3833:
3823:630(15) s
3806:
3751:
3697:
3661:
3643:
3609:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3507:
3504:
3484:
3481:
3409:thorium series
3377:decay products
3358:Main article:
3355:
3352:
3316:
3313:
3287:and determine
3266:
3263:
3234:
3229:
3224:ionic crystals
3157:
3111:
3110:
3103:
3052:
3049:
2975:ionic crystals
2943:
2935:
2928:nuclear isomer
2923:
2920:
2878:
2875:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2802:
2799:neutron poison
2795:
2788:
2782:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2682:
2680:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2644:
2639:
2637:
2632:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2588:32–76 ka
2586:
2581:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2567:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2488:
2483:
2481:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2331:
2329:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2302:
2293:
2284:
2275:
2266:
2265:
2252:
2241:
2231:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2219:
2212:
2204:
2202:
2196:
2193:
2171:
2168:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2127:
2118:
2104:
2089:
2077:
2057:
2045:
2033:
2014:
2005:
1996:
1987:
1978:
1969:
1957:
1953:
1952:
1947:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1932:
1927:
1914:
1906:Bold half-life
1898:
1889:
1876:
1872:nuclear isomer
1862:
1859:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1846:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1775:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1711:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1692:234.043601(4)
1690:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1674:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1640:
1633:
1632:CD (2.78×10%)
1629:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1579:
1575:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1541:
1540:
1537:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1486:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1458:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1411:229.031762(3)
1409:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1397:
1396:
1389:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1373:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1320:Radioactinium
1318:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1297:
1296:226.024903(5)
1294:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1281:
1278:
1271:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1253:225.023951(5)
1251:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1001:
1000:
998:
996:
993:
990:
987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
973:
969:
968:
966:
964:
961:
959:
957:
954:
951:
949:
945:
944:
942:
940:
937:
935:
933:
930:
927:
925:
921:
920:
917:
913:
912:
910:
908:
905:
902:
899:
896:
893:
890:
887:
885:
881:
880:
878:
876:
873:
870:
867:
866:1.2(2) s
864:
861:
858:
855:
853:
849:
848:
846:
844:
841:
838:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
821:
817:
816:
813:
809:
808:
806:
804:
801:
798:
795:
792:
789:
786:
783:
781:
777:
776:
773:
769:
768:
766:
764:
761:
758:
755:
753:36(15) ms
751:
748:
745:
742:
740:
736:
735:
732:
728:
727:
725:
723:
720:
717:
714:
712:48(20) ms
710:
707:
704:
701:
699:
695:
694:
691:
684:
683:
681:
679:
676:
673:
670:
668:17(11) ms
666:
663:
660:
657:
655:
651:
650:
648:
646:
643:
640:
637:
633:
632:209.01772(11)
630:
627:
624:
622:
618:
617:
615:
613:
610:
607:
604:
601:
598:
595:
592:
590:
586:
585:
583:
581:
579:
576:
571:
568:
566:
563:
560:
558:
554:
553:
550:
547:
543:
542:
534:
523:
515:
507:
501:
488:
481:
474:
469:
461:
458:
429:nuclear isomer
385:
377:
376:
374:
373:
366:
359:
351:
348:
347:
345:
344:
330:
320:
318:
315:
314:
309:
299:
298:
295:
294:
289:
284:
279:
276:
272:
271:
266:
261:
259:21.83 min
256:
253:
249:
248:
243:
238:
229:
226:
220:
219:
214:
207:
202:
199:
195:
194:
189:
184:
175:
172:
168:
167:
162:
157:
154:
151:
147:
146:
141:
136:
131:
128:
124:
123:
118:
111:
106:
101:
97:
96:
91:
86:
81:
71:
66:
63:
62:
57:
56:Main isotopes
42:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9400:
9389:
9386:
9384:
9381:
9379:
9376:
9375:
9373:
9358:
9355:
9353:
9350:
9348:
9345:
9343:
9339:
9337:
9334:
9333:
9330:
9320:
9319:
9312:
9308:
9303:
9299:
9298:
9291:
9287:
9282:
9278:
9277:
9270:
9266:
9261:
9257:
9256:
9249:
9245:
9240:
9236:
9235:
9228:
9224:
9219:
9215:
9214:
9207:
9203:
9198:
9194:
9193:
9186:
9182:
9177:
9173:
9172:
9165:
9161:
9156:
9152:
9151:
9144:
9140:
9135:
9131:
9130:
9123:
9119:
9114:
9110:
9109:
9102:
9098:
9093:
9089:
9088:
9081:
9077:
9072:
9068:
9067:
9060:
9056:
9051:
9047:
9046:
9039:
9035:
9030:
9023:
9020:
9016:
9012:
9011:
9004:
9000:
8995:
8991:
8990:
8983:
8979:
8974:
8970:
8969:
8962:
8958:
8953:
8949:
8948:
8941:
8937:
8932:
8928:
8927:
8920:
8916:
8911:
8907:
8906:
8899:
8895:
8890:
8886:
8885:
8878:
8874:
8869:
8865:
8864:
8857:
8853:
8848:
8844:
8843:
8836:
8832:
8827:
8823:
8822:
8815:
8811:
8806:
8802:
8801:
8794:
8790:
8785:
8781:
8780:
8773:
8769:
8764:
8760:
8759:
8752:
8748:
8743:
8739:
8738:
8731:
8727:
8722:
8715:
8713:
8711:
8709:
8708:
8704:
8699:
8698:
8691:
8687:
8682:
8678:
8677:
8670:
8666:
8661:
8658:
8654:
8653:
8648:
8647:
8640:
8636:
8631:
8627:
8626:
8619:
8615:
8610:
8606:
8605:
8598:
8594:
8589:
8585:
8584:
8577:
8573:
8568:
8564:
8563:
8556:
8552:
8547:
8543:
8542:
8535:
8531:
8526:
8522:
8521:
8514:
8510:
8505:
8501:
8500:
8493:
8489:
8484:
8480:
8479:
8472:
8468:
8463:
8459:
8458:
8451:
8447:
8442:
8438:
8437:
8430:
8426:
8421:
8417:
8416:
8409:
8405:
8400:
8396:
8395:
8388:
8384:
8379:
8375:
8374:
8367:
8363:
8358:
8354:
8353:
8346:
8342:
8337:
8333:
8332:
8325:
8321:
8316:
8309:
8305:
8304:
8297:
8293:
8288:
8284:
8283:
8276:
8272:
8267:
8264:
8260:
8259:
8254:
8253:
8246:
8242:
8237:
8233:
8232:
8225:
8221:
8216:
8212:
8211:
8204:
8200:
8195:
8191:
8190:
8183:
8179:
8174:
8170:
8169:
8162:
8158:
8153:
8149:
8148:
8141:
8137:
8132:
8128:
8127:
8120:
8116:
8111:
8107:
8106:
8099:
8095:
8090:
8086:
8085:
8078:
8074:
8069:
8065:
8064:
8057:
8053:
8048:
8044:
8043:
8036:
8032:
8027:
8023:
8022:
8015:
8011:
8006:
8002:
8001:
7994:
7990:
7985:
7981:
7980:
7973:
7969:
7964:
7960:
7959:
7952:
7948:
7943:
7939:
7938:
7931:
7927:
7922:
7915:
7911:
7910:
7903:
7899:
7894:
7890:
7889:
7882:
7878:
7873:
7870:
7866:
7865:
7860:
7859:
7852:
7848:
7843:
7839:
7838:
7831:
7827:
7822:
7818:
7817:
7810:
7806:
7801:
7797:
7796:
7789:
7785:
7780:
7776:
7775:
7768:
7764:
7759:
7755:
7754:
7747:
7743:
7738:
7734:
7733:
7726:
7722:
7717:
7713:
7712:
7705:
7701:
7696:
7692:
7691:
7684:
7680:
7675:
7671:
7670:
7663:
7659:
7654:
7650:
7649:
7642:
7638:
7633:
7629:
7628:
7621:
7617:
7612:
7608:
7607:
7600:
7596:
7591:
7587:
7586:
7579:
7575:
7570:
7566:
7565:
7558:
7554:
7549:
7545:
7544:
7537:
7533:
7528:
7526:
7522:
7521:
7514:
7510:
7505:
7501:
7500:
7493:
7489:
7484:
7481:
7477:
7476:
7471:
7470:
7463:
7459:
7454:
7450:
7449:
7442:
7438:
7433:
7429:
7428:
7421:
7417:
7412:
7408:
7407:
7400:
7396:
7391:
7387:
7386:
7379:
7375:
7370:
7366:
7365:
7358:
7354:
7349:
7345:
7344:
7337:
7333:
7328:
7324:
7323:
7316:
7312:
7307:
7303:
7302:
7295:
7291:
7286:
7282:
7281:
7274:
7270:
7265:
7261:
7260:
7253:
7249:
7244:
7240:
7239:
7232:
7228:
7223:
7219:
7218:
7211:
7207:
7202:
7198:
7197:
7190:
7186:
7181:
7177:
7176:
7169:
7165:
7160:
7156:
7155:
7148:
7144:
7139:
7137:
7133:
7132:
7125:
7121:
7116:
7112:
7111:
7104:
7100:
7095:
7092:
7088:
7087:
7082:
7081:
7074:
7070:
7065:
7061:
7060:
7053:
7049:
7044:
7040:
7039:
7032:
7028:
7023:
7019:
7018:
7011:
7007:
7002:
6998:
6997:
6990:
6986:
6981:
6977:
6976:
6969:
6965:
6960:
6954:
6953:
6946:
6942:
6937:
6933:
6932:
6925:
6921:
6916:
6913:
6909:
6908:
6903:
6902:
6895:
6891:
6886:
6882:
6881:
6874:
6870:
6865:
6861:
6860:
6853:
6849:
6844:
6840:
6839:
6832:
6828:
6823:
6819:
6818:
6811:
6807:
6802:
6798:
6797:
6790:
6786:
6781:
6775:
6774:
6767:
6763:
6758:
6754:
6753:
6746:
6742:
6737:
6734:
6730:
6729:
6724:
6723:
6716:
6712:
6707:
6701:
6700:
6693:
6689:
6684:
6681:
6677:
6676:
6672:
6669:
6666:
6663:
6661:
6659:
6657:
6655:
6653:
6651:
6649:
6647:
6645:
6643:
6641:
6639:
6637:
6635:earth metals
6632:
6627:
6624:
6620:
6619:
6616:
6613:
6611:
6608:
6606:
6603:
6601:
6598:
6596:
6593:
6591:
6588:
6586:
6583:
6581:
6578:
6576:
6573:
6571:
6568:
6566:
6563:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6535:
6533:
6530:
6528:
6525:
6522:
6518:
6517:
6512:
6508:
6504:
6497:
6492:
6490:
6485:
6483:
6478:
6477:
6474:
6464:
6458:
6454:
6450:
6446:
6445:
6439:
6435:
6431:
6427:
6423:
6416:
6412:
6408:
6404:
6400:
6396:
6392:
6391:
6383:
6378:
6377:
6375:
6371:
6367:
6363:
6356:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6327:
6322:
6318:
6314:
6313:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6299:
6297:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6260:
6255:
6254:
6252:
6251:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6217:
6210:
6207:
6202:
6198:
6193:
6188:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6169:
6166:
6155:on 2013-02-16
6154:
6150:
6146:
6140:
6137:
6126:on 2012-03-19
6125:
6121:
6117:
6111:
6108:
6097:on 2010-02-03
6096:
6092:
6088:
6084:
6078:
6075:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6043:
6040:
6035:
6034:
6029:
6022:
6019:
6014:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5978:
5974:
5966:
5963:
5958:
5957:
5952:
5945:
5942:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5925:
5921:
5917:
5913:
5909:
5904:
5899:
5896:(14) 142503.
5895:
5891:
5890:
5881:
5878:
5873:
5869:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5840:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5826:
5818:
5815:
5810:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5782:
5777:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5756:
5753:
5748:
5744:
5740:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5701:
5692:
5690:
5686:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5657:
5653:
5648:
5643:
5639:
5635:
5634:
5625:
5622:
5616:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5600:(20) 203001.
5599:
5595:
5594:
5589:
5582:
5579:
5575:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5538:
5537:
5529:
5526:
5520:
5515:
5507:
5505:
5501:
5496:
5492:
5487:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5471:(16) 160801.
5470:
5466:
5465:
5460:
5453:
5450:
5445:
5441:
5437:
5433:
5429:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5412:(6): 062506.
5411:
5407:
5406:
5398:
5395:
5390:
5384:
5380:
5373:
5372:
5364:
5361:
5355:
5350:
5346:
5342:
5339:(5): 053053.
5338:
5334:
5330:
5323:
5320:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5268:
5259:
5256:
5245:on 2017-01-27
5241:
5234:
5233:
5225:
5222:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5181:
5180:
5175:
5168:
5165:
5160:
5156:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5131:
5126:
5119:
5116:
5111:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5082:
5077:
5070:
5067:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5041:
5033:
5030:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5009:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4992:(16) 165005.
4991:
4988:
4987:
4978:
4975:
4971:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4940:
4932:
4928:
4927:
4919:
4917:
4913:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4863:
4860:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4827:
4820:
4817:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4799:
4794:
4787:
4785:
4783:
4779:
4774:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4733:(21) 212501.
4732:
4729:
4728:
4720:
4717:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4673:
4665:
4663:
4659:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4633:
4625:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4611:
4606:
4603:
4598:
4592:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4575:
4572:
4568:
4562:
4559:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4525:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4508:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4487:
4484:
4472:
4468:
4461:
4458:
4454:
4449:
4446:
4442:
4437:in Th:LiSrAlF
4370:
4365:
4357:
4355:
4353:
4351:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4282:
4274:
4272:
4268:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4234:
4226:
4223:
4218:
4211:
4208:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4160:
4158:
4154:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4096:
4088:
4081:
4079:
4077:
4073:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4019:
4012:
4010:
4006:
3993:
3989:
3983:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3950:
3943:
3936:
3929:
3906:
3899:
3892:
3885:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3862:
3857:
3850:
3848:
3846:
3844:
3842:
3840:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3787:(18) 182501.
3786:
3782:
3781:
3773:
3766:
3764:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3756:
3752:
3746:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3722:(4): 044326.
3721:
3717:
3716:
3708:
3701:
3698:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3665:
3662:
3657:
3653:
3647:
3644:
3639:
3635:
3632:(6): 064310.
3631:
3627:
3626:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3605:
3601:
3598:(3): 030001.
3597:
3593:
3586:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3573:
3571:
3567:
3560:
3558:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3535:beta particle
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3505:
3503:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3482:
3480:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3441:
3440:transmutation
3437:
3433:
3429:
3424:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3361:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3289:ocean current
3286:
3282:
3278:
3275:
3271:
3264:
3262:
3260:
3259:atomic clocks
3248:
3244:
3240:
3232:
3225:
3220:
3217:0.024 eV
3209:
3170:
3167:
3162:
3160:
3120:
3115:
3104:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3076:
3064:
3058:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3033:nuclear clock
3030:
3026:
2990:
2976:
2968:
2963:
2929:
2921:
2919:
2917:
2913:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2887:
2883:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2853:cluster decay
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2815:
2810:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2776:
2775:
2772:
2768:
2756:
2750:
2747:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2735:
2729:
2721:
2719:
2718:15–24 Ma
2716:
2709:
2707:
2701:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2681:
2674:
2673:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2631:
2625:
2612:
2607:
2591:
2587:
2575:
2573:
2572:
2569:24.1 ka
2568:
2561:
2559:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2550:
2538:
2537:
2533:
2512:
2508:
2496:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2482:
2475:
2474:
2471:
2460:
2458:
2446:
2445:
2427:
2424:
2412:
2406:
2388:
2385:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2340:
2337:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2276:
2274:
2273:
2268:
2267:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2220:
2218:
2213:
2211:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2140:
2131:
2128:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2087:
2081:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2055:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2026:decay product
2024:Intermediate
2021:
2019:
2015:
2009:
2006:
2000:
1997:
1991:
1988:
1982:
1979:
1973:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1958:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1931:
1930:Cluster decay
1928:
1925:
1924:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1899:
1893:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1867:
1864:
1853:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1821:238.0565(3)#
1820:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1725:235.04751(5)
1724:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1679:
1676:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1642:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1624:SF (1.1×10%)
1623:
1622:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1564:
1561:
1542:
1538:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1525:
1523:CD (5.6×10%)
1522:
1521:
1509:
1506:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1463:
1460:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:7(1) μs
1440:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1371:
1368:
1354:Radiothorium
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1261:
1258:
1240:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1215:
1212:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1047:219.01554(5)
1046:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
991:
988:
985:
982:
979:
976:
974:
971:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
958:
955:
950:
947:
946:
943:
941:
938:
936:
934:
931:
926:
923:
922:
918:
915:
914:
903:
900:
882:
879:
877:
874:
871:
868:
865:
862:
859:
856:
854:
851:
850:
847:
845:
842:
839:
836:
833:
830:
827:
824:
822:
819:
818:
814:
811:
810:
799:
796:
791:213.01301(8)
778:
774:
771:
770:
759:
756:
750:212.01298(2)
737:
733:
730:
729:
718:
715:
709:211.01493(8)
696:
692:
689:
686:
685:
674:
671:
652:
649:
647:
644:
641:
638:
634:
631:
628:
625:
623:
620:
619:
616:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
600:208.01791(4)
599:
596:
593:
591:
588:
587:
584:
582:
580:
577:
575:
572:
569:
567:
564:
561:
559:
556:
555:
551:
548:
544:
538:
532:
527:
521:
513:
505:
497:
492:
491:Isotopic mass
487:
486:
480:
479:
465:
459:
457:
455:
450:
448:
447:nuclear clock
430:
426:
422:
421:radioisotopes
417:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
383:
372:
367:
365:
360:
358:
353:
352:
349:
342:
331:
322:
321:
319:
316:
308:
304:
300:
293:
290:
285:
273:
270:
267:
262:
250:
247:
244:
239:
225:
221:
218:
215:
212:
208:
196:
193:
190:
185:
169:
166:
163:
158:
148:
145:
142:
137:
134:1.9116 y
125:
122:
119:
116:
112:
105:
98:
95:
94:product
92:
90:
87:
80:
75:
72:
70:
67:
65:
64:
61:
54:
50:
38:
34:
19:
9340:Categories:
9316:
9295:
9274:
9253:
9232:
9211:
9190:
9169:
9148:
9127:
9106:
9085:
9064:
9054:
9043:
9008:
8987:
8966:
8945:
8924:
8903:
8882:
8861:
8840:
8819:
8798:
8777:
8756:
8735:
8695:
8674:
8644:
8623:
8602:
8581:
8560:
8539:
8518:
8497:
8476:
8455:
8434:
8413:
8392:
8371:
8350:
8329:
8301:
8280:
8250:
8229:
8208:
8187:
8166:
8145:
8124:
8103:
8082:
8061:
8040:
8019:
7998:
7977:
7956:
7935:
7907:
7886:
7856:
7835:
7814:
7793:
7772:
7751:
7730:
7709:
7688:
7667:
7646:
7625:
7604:
7583:
7562:
7541:
7518:
7497:
7467:
7446:
7425:
7404:
7383:
7362:
7341:
7320:
7299:
7278:
7257:
7236:
7215:
7194:
7173:
7152:
7129:
7108:
7078:
7057:
7036:
7015:
6994:
6973:
6950:
6929:
6899:
6878:
6857:
6836:
6815:
6794:
6771:
6750:
6720:
6697:
6673:Noble gases
6628:Hydrogen and
6442:
6415:the original
6397:(1): 3–128.
6394:
6388:
6369:
6345:
6339:
6316:
6310:
6274:
6270:
6226:
6222:
6209:
6182:
6178:
6168:
6157:. Retrieved
6153:the original
6139:
6128:. Retrieved
6124:the original
6110:
6099:. Retrieved
6095:the original
6086:
6077:
6055:(1): 34–38.
6052:
6048:
6042:
6031:
6021:
5980:
5976:
5965:
5954:
5944:
5893:
5887:
5880:
5829:
5823:
5817:
5766:
5762:
5755:
5704:
5698:
5637:
5631:
5624:
5597:
5591:
5581:
5568:
5543:(1) 018901.
5540:
5534:
5528:
5468:
5462:
5452:
5409:
5403:
5397:
5370:
5363:
5336:
5332:
5322:
5271:
5265:
5258:
5247:. Retrieved
5240:the original
5231:
5224:
5183:
5177:
5167:
5134:
5128:
5118:
5085:
5079:
5069:
5047:(1): 29–60.
5044:
5038:
5032:
4989:
4984:
4977:
4969:
4937:
4925:
4872:
4868:
4862:
4829:
4825:
4819:
4802:
4796:
4730:
4725:
4719:
4679:(5) 054324.
4676:
4670:
4639:(5) 054313.
4636:
4630:
4624:
4605:
4591:
4574:
4561:
4534:
4530:
4524:
4507:
4499:
4486:
4475:. Retrieved
4471:the original
4460:
4455:Some images.
4448:
4373:
4331:
4288:(4) 042501.
4285:
4279:
4237:
4231:
4225:
4210:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4145:. Retrieved
4099:
4093:
4064:. Retrieved
4028:
4024:
3996:. Retrieved
3969:(2) kHz
3948:
3941:
3934:
3927:
3904:
3897:
3890:
3887:
3865:
3859:
3813:, frequency
3804:
3784:
3778:
3719:
3713:
3700:
3675:
3664:
3646:
3629:
3623:
3595:
3591:
3543:protactinium
3525:contain 144
3510:
3509:
3487:
3486:
3477:carcinogenic
3438:and undergo
3425:
3367:is the only
3364:
3363:
3319:
3318:
3304:
3292:
3269:
3268:
3221:
3210:
3206:0.11 eV
3190:0.17 eV
3178:0.17 eV
3171:
3163:
3128:0.17 eV
3116:
3112:
3100:6.08 eV
3077:
3065:
3054:
3045:
3021:(15) nm
3012:(wavelength
2991:
2971:11.5 eV
2964:
2925:
2922:Thorium-229m
2912:actinium-225
2881:
2880:
2872:
2869:
2820:
2819:
2745:
2664:1.33 Ma
2464:
2426:29–97 a
2387:10–29 a
2297:
2288:
2279:
2271:
2189:
2175:
2173:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2144:
2130:
2121:
2115:radionuclide
2107:
2080:
2048:
2036:
2008:
1999:
1990:
1981:
1972:
1964:
1960:
1917:
1905:
1901:
1892:
1884:
1879:
1866:
1843:
1603:
1391:
1235:
1231:
635:7(5) ms
484:
477:
451:
418:
410:mononuclidic
397:
380:
306:
156:7917 y
109:18.68 d
78:
6179:Mod. Pathol
4599:. May 2023.
4584:quadrillion
4180:(L051302).
3745:10261/12130
3529:. Th has a
3506:Thorium-234
3483:Thorium-233
3450:uranium-233
3421:thorium-228
3405:decay chain
3385:alpha decay
3360:Thorium-232
3354:Thorium-232
3328:uranium-235
3315:Thorium-231
3297:decay chain
3274:radioactive
3265:Thorium-230
3233:and LiSrAlF
3198:3.2 nm
3182:29 keV
3132:8.4 eV
3107:6.2 eV
3092:0.5 eV
3084:0.5 eV
3073:1.0 eV
2960:(8) eV
2916:bismuth-213
2905:uranium-233
2886:radioactive
2877:Thorium-229
2845:alpha decay
2816:Thorium-228
2742:80 Ma
2310:<0.001%
2307:0.04–1.25%
2239:decay chain
1965:Bold symbol
901:α (99.99%)
454:mass number
443:(8) eV
425:radioactive
419:Thirty-one
282:24.1 d
205:25.5 h
18:Thorium-218
9372:Categories
6159:2010-01-25
6130:2010-01-25
6101:2010-01-18
5903:2005.13340
5839:1902.04823
5776:1709.05325
5714:1905.06308
5647:1710.11398
5519:1804.00299
5419:1803.09294
5281:1502.02189
5249:2014-05-14
4953:2108.13388
4882:1811.03889
4740:1704.07919
4686:1509.09101
4537:(2): 299.
4477:2015-08-28
4369:2404.12311
4295:1801.05205
4147:2024-04-30
4066:2024-04-30
3875:2406.18719
3561:References
3557:instead).
3539:transmutes
3465:suspension
3458:Thorotrast
3417:radium-228
3342:and forms
3334:and has a
3152:170 s
3010:2 kHz
2979:600 s
2327:4–6 a
2176:Aero-Ektar
2164:gas lights
2112:Primordial
1627:(various)
1617:0.9998(2)
1547:Uranium Y
1539:(Various)
1516:0.0002(2)
1388:(1.3×10%)
1228:CD (rare)
916:β (.006%)
757:α (99.7%)
398:relatively
312:°(Th)
6453:CRC Press
6277:: 3–128,
6149:"Thorium"
6005:1476-4687
5936:218900580
5872:119083861
5747:155090121
5680:205248786
5024:118379032
4999:1105.4646
4907:119359298
4854:250744766
4711:118374372
4496:radon-222
4407: GHz
4338:1 μs
4202:248935764
4109:1110.2490
4053:250818523
3692:1365-3075
3531:half-life
3471:in early
3442:into the
3389:half-life
3336:half-life
2987:50 s
2926:Th has a
2901:half-life
2841:half-life
2831:with 138
2797:þ,
2784:ƒ,
2467:half-life
2244:Half-life
2235:Actinides
1680:Uranium X
812:β (rare)
731:β (rare)
504:Half-life
236:10 y
74:half-life
9342:Isotopes
9307:Isotopes
9286:Isotopes
9265:Isotopes
9244:Isotopes
9223:Isotopes
9202:Isotopes
9181:Isotopes
9160:Isotopes
9139:Isotopes
9118:Isotopes
9097:Isotopes
9076:Isotopes
9055:Isotopes
9034:Isotopes
8999:Isotopes
8978:Isotopes
8957:Isotopes
8936:Isotopes
8915:Isotopes
8894:Isotopes
8873:Isotopes
8852:Isotopes
8831:Isotopes
8810:Isotopes
8789:Isotopes
8768:Isotopes
8747:Isotopes
8726:Isotopes
8686:Isotopes
8665:Isotopes
8657:⑧
8635:Isotopes
8614:Isotopes
8593:Isotopes
8572:Isotopes
8551:Isotopes
8530:Isotopes
8509:Isotopes
8488:Isotopes
8467:Isotopes
8446:Isotopes
8425:Isotopes
8404:Isotopes
8383:Isotopes
8362:Isotopes
8341:Isotopes
8320:Isotopes
8292:Isotopes
8271:Isotopes
8263:⑦
8241:Isotopes
8220:Isotopes
8199:Isotopes
8178:Isotopes
8157:Isotopes
8136:Isotopes
8115:Isotopes
8094:Isotopes
8073:Isotopes
8052:Isotopes
8031:Isotopes
8010:Isotopes
7989:Isotopes
7968:Isotopes
7947:Isotopes
7926:Isotopes
7898:Isotopes
7877:Isotopes
7869:⑥
7847:Isotopes
7826:Isotopes
7805:Isotopes
7784:Isotopes
7763:Isotopes
7742:Isotopes
7721:Isotopes
7700:Isotopes
7679:Isotopes
7658:Isotopes
7637:Isotopes
7616:Isotopes
7595:Isotopes
7574:Isotopes
7553:Isotopes
7532:Isotopes
7509:Isotopes
7488:Isotopes
7480:⑤
7458:Isotopes
7437:Isotopes
7416:Isotopes
7395:Isotopes
7374:Isotopes
7353:Isotopes
7332:Isotopes
7311:Isotopes
7290:Isotopes
7269:Isotopes
7248:Isotopes
7227:Isotopes
7206:Isotopes
7185:Isotopes
7164:Isotopes
7143:Isotopes
7120:Isotopes
7099:Isotopes
7091:④
7069:Isotopes
7048:Isotopes
7027:Isotopes
7006:Isotopes
6985:Isotopes
6964:Isotopes
6941:Isotopes
6920:Isotopes
6912:③
6890:Isotopes
6869:Isotopes
6848:Isotopes
6827:Isotopes
6806:Isotopes
6785:Isotopes
6762:Isotopes
6741:Isotopes
6733:②
6711:Isotopes
6688:Isotopes
6680:①
6633:Alkaline
6503:Isotopes
6261:(2003),
6239:Archived
6201:14631374
6013:37225880
5928:33064540
5864:31511686
5801:29670266
5739:31511684
5672:27147026
5565:23863029
5495:23215066
5306:26197124
5216:12092700
5208:17501268
5110:10041937
4773:40694257
4765:28598657
4613:Archived
4492:polonium
4435: eV
4388: nm
4328:37518294
4320:28186791
4142:40863227
4134:22540568
4057:Archived
3998:29 April
3527:neutrons
3430:able to
3426:Th is a
3413:lead-208
3391:of 1.405
3340:beta ray
3324:neutrons
3322:has 141
3239:F anions
3144: eV
2833:neutrons
2084:Used in
1737:(1/2+)#
1591:Thorium
1578:α (10%)
1536:(5×10%)
1259:α (90%)
772:β (.3%)
518:Daughter
471:Historic
390:isotopes
341:abridged
324:232.0377
33:Isotopes
9383:Thorium
9309:
9288:
9267:
9246:
9225:
9204:
9183:
9162:
9141:
9120:
9099:
9078:
9057:
9036:
9017:
9001:
8980:
8959:
8938:
8917:
8896:
8875:
8854:
8833:
8812:
8791:
8770:
8749:
8728:
8688:
8667:
8637:
8616:
8595:
8574:
8553:
8532:
8511:
8490:
8469:
8448:
8427:
8406:
8385:
8364:
8343:
8322:
8294:
8273:
8243:
8222:
8201:
8180:
8159:
8138:
8117:
8096:
8075:
8054:
8033:
8012:
7991:
7970:
7949:
7928:
7900:
7879:
7849:
7828:
7807:
7786:
7765:
7744:
7723:
7702:
7681:
7660:
7639:
7618:
7597:
7576:
7555:
7534:
7511:
7490:
7460:
7439:
7418:
7397:
7376:
7355:
7334:
7313:
7292:
7271:
7250:
7229:
7208:
7187:
7166:
7145:
7122:
7101:
7071:
7050:
7029:
7008:
6987:
6966:
6943:
6922:
6892:
6871:
6850:
6829:
6808:
6787:
6764:
6743:
6713:
6690:
6536:
6505:of the
6399:Bibcode
6279:Bibcode
6057:Bibcode
5985:Bibcode
5956:Physics
5908:Bibcode
5844:Bibcode
5809:4990345
5781:Bibcode
5719:Bibcode
5652:Bibcode
5602:Bibcode
5574:plates.
5545:Bibcode
5473:Bibcode
5444:4946329
5424:Bibcode
5341:Bibcode
5314:1322253
5286:Bibcode
5188:Bibcode
5159:9969412
5139:Bibcode
5090:Bibcode
5049:Bibcode
5004:Bibcode
4887:Bibcode
4834:Bibcode
4798:Physics
4745:Bibcode
4691:Bibcode
4641:Bibcode
4539:Bibcode
4419: s
4411:568(13)
4376:148.382
4300:Bibcode
4262:9971554
4242:Bibcode
4182:Bibcode
4114:Bibcode
4033:Bibcode
3992:TU Wien
3924:
3912:
3856:Ye, Jun
3789:Bibcode
3724:Bibcode
3658:. 2013.
3551:Uranium
3519:thorium
3515:isotope
3502:of Th.
3492:thorium
3447:nuclide
3444:fissile
3436:neutron
3407:is the
3387:with a
3381:uranium
3373:thorium
3281:thorium
3277:isotope
3051:History
3014:148.382
2893:thorium
2889:isotope
2829:thorium
2825:isotope
2786:fissile
2304:4.5–7%
2247:range (
2160:mantles
1492:Ionium
1265:(3/2)+
1187:(5/2)+
1123:(7/2+)
995:(9/2+)
875:(1/2−)
690:(rare)
520:isotope
467:Nuclide
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