607:
1263:
263:, three main forces were driving the direction of the English language: (1) to reduce the language to rule and effect a standard of correct usage; (2) to refine the language by removing supposed defects and introducing certain improvements; and (3) to fix English permanently in the desired form. This desire for system and regularity in the language contrasted with the individualism and spirit of independence characterized by the previous age.
270:, as well as global trade, had led to the spread of English around the world. The rising importance of some of England's larger colonies and former colonies, such as the rapidly developing United States, enhanced the value of the English varieties spoken in these regions, encouraging the belief, among the local populations, that their distinct varieties of English should be granted equal standing with the standard of
1249:
634:. In this transplantation of English, speakers from England carried the language to Australia, New Zealand, and North America. The Inner Circle thus represents the traditional historical and sociolinguistic bases of English in regions where it is now used as a primary language: the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and anglophone Canada. English is the
990:'s "wheel model" has an idealized central variety called "World Standard English," which is best represented by "written international English." The next circle is made of regional standards or standards that are emerging. Finally, the outer layer consists of localized varieties which may have similarities with the regional standards or emerging standards.
825:
involved (indigenous population and settlers). These determine sociolinguistic conditions of language contact (such as the acquisition of the other party's language), linguistic usage (such as the amount and kind of mutual interaction), and language attitudes. Linguistic developments, and structural changes in the varieties concerned, follow.
1154:. It is also said that dialects, in contrast with languages, are mutually intelligible, though this is not always the case. Dialects are characteristically spoken, do not have a codified form and are used only in certain domains. In order to avoid the difficult dialect-language distinction, linguists tend to prefer a more neutral term,
821:. His model suggests that, despite all differences in geography and history, there is a fundamentally uniform process underlying all instances of the emergence of new World Englishes, motivated by the changing social relationship between a region's indigenous population and settlers who came to that region.
434:, where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with
824:
The relationship between historical and social conditions and linguistic developments is viewed as a unilateral implicational relationship among four components. The political history of a country, typically from colony to independent nationhood, is reflected in the identity rewritings of the groups
1194:
When we talk about the spread of
English, then, it is not that the conventionally coded forms and meanings are transmitted into different environments and different surroundings, and taken up and used by different groups of people. It is not a matter of the actual language being distributed but of
1232:
When the internet started it was of course 100 percent
English because of where it came from, but since the 1980s that status has started to fall away. By 1995, it was down to about 80 per cent present of English on the internet, and the current figures for 2001 are that it is hovering somewhere
978:
The oldest map of the spread of
English is Strevens's world map of English. His world map, even predating that of Kachru's three circles, showed that since American English became a separate variety from British English, all subsequent Englishes have had affinities with either one or the other.
1199:
In this new paradigm, English spreads and adapts according to the linguistic and cultural preferences of its users in the Outer and
Expanding circles (refer to Kachru's Three Circles of English). However, if English is genuinely to become the language of 'others', then the 'others' have to be
1212:
altogether or come to share it with a number of equals. Although this would not happen mainly as a result of native-speaker resistance to the spread of non-native speaker
Englishes and the consequent abandoning of English by large numbers of non-native speakers, the latter could play a part.
764:
encompasses countries where
English plays no historical or governmental role, but where is nevertheless widely used as a medium of international communication. This includes much of the rest of the world's population not categorized above, including territories such as China, Russia, Japan,
54:. The study of World Englishes consists of identifying varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally and analyzing how sociolinguistic histories, multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of English in different regions of the world.
57:
The issue of World
Englishes was first raised in 1978 to examine concepts of regional Englishes globally. Pragmatic factors such as appropriateness, comprehensibility and interpretability justified the use of English as an international and intra-national language. In 1988, at a
519:
progressed in their less than half a century colonization of the islands. English has been taught since the
American period and is one of the official languages of the Philippines. Ever since English became the official language, a localized variety gradually emerged -
781:), and Middle East. The total in this expanding circle is the most difficult to estimate, especially because English may be employed for specific, limited purposes, usually in a business context. The estimates of these users range from 100 million to one billion.
524:. Lately, linguist Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales argued that this variety has in itself more varieties, suggesting that we move towards Philippine Englishes paradigm to progress further in Schneider's dynamic model after gathering evidences of such happening.
1195:
the virtual language being spread and in the process being variously actualized. The distribution of the actual language implies adoption and conformity. The spread of virtual language implies adaptation and nonconformity. The two processes are quite different.
319:, the varieties spoken in modern North America and Caribbean, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand have been modified in response to the changed and changing sociolinguistic contexts of the migrants, for example being in contact with indigenous
860:
is marginal. A few members of the local populace may play an important role as interpreters, translators, and guides. Borrowings are limited to lexical items; with local place names and terms for local fauna and flora being adopted by the
English.
465:) during the second half of the eighteenth century. In India, English was given status through the implementation of Macaulay 'Minute' of 1835, which proposed the introduction of an English educational system in India. Over time, the process of '
70:, the International Committee of the Study of World Englishes (ICWE) was formed. In 1992, the ICWE formally launched the International Association for World Englishes (IAWE) at a conference of "World Englishes Today", at the
1065:, other major varieties, local varieties, and foreign varieties) each with features particular to their own speech community and which are unlikely to be understood by most members of the other four groups.
1237:
On the other hand, there are at least 1500 languages present on the internet now and that figure is likely to increase. Nevertheless, Crystal predicts that
English will retain its dominant presence.
244:, patriotic feelings regarding English brought about the recognition of English as the national language of England. The language was advocated as acceptable for learned and literary use. With the
621:'s model of World Englishes. In this model the diffusion of English is captured in terms of three concentric circles of the language: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.
1053:
In Modiano's model of English, the center consists of users of English as an International Language, with a core set of features that are comprehensible to the majority of native and competent
1131:
and multiple possibilities for scholarship. The notion of varieties in this context is similarly dynamic, as new contexts, new realities, new discourses, and new varieties continue to emerge.
921:, supported by a new locally rooted linguistic self-confidence. By this time political events have made it clear that the settler and indigenous strands are inextricably bound in a sense of
1798:
1079:
The World Englishes paradigm is not static, and neither are rapidly changing realities of language use worldwide. The use of English in the Outer and Expanding Circle societies (refer to
1799:"Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales | Master of Arts, English Language and Linguistics | National University of Singapore, Singapore | NUS | Department of English Language & Literature"
1186:
If English is, numerically speaking, the language of 'others', then the center of gravity of the language is almost certain to shift in the direction of the 'others'. In the words of
1824:
237:. By the beginning of the 14th century, English had regained universal use and become the principal tongue of all England, but not without having undergone significant change.
1694:"Barbara Seidlhofer: Understanding English as a Lingua Franca: A Complete Introduction to the Theoretical Nature and Practical Implications of English used as a Lingua Franca"
642:
of most people in these countries. The total number of English speakers in the inner circle is as high as 380 million, of whom some 120 million are outside the United States.
3183:
836:: This is the initial stage of the introduction of English to a new territory over an extended period of time. Two linguistic processes are operative at this stage: (a)
1282:
1057:
of English. The second circle consists of features that may become internationally common or may fall into obscurity. Finally, the outer area consists of five groups (
1582:
1533:
1486:
792:) is 'norm-developing'. The expanding circle (which includes much of the rest of the world) is 'norm-dependent' because it relies on the standards set by
3278:
2251:
1001:, are conflated in the second circle. Secondly, the multitude of Englishes in Europe is also missing in this layer. Finally, the outside layer includes
897:
based on present and local realities, rather than sole allegiance to their 'mother country'. By this time, the indigenous strand has also stabilized an
1200:
accorded – or perhaps more likely, accord themselves – at least the same English language rights as those claimed by mother-tongue speakers.
105:. It is difficult to establish the total number of Englishes in the world, as new varieties of English are constantly being developed and discovered.
233:
period, France and England experienced a process of separation. This period of conflicting interests and feelings of resentment was later termed the
3384:
1030:
998:
719:(colonized by the US) and others. The total number of English speakers in the outer circle is estimated to range from 150 million to 300 million.
71:
1855:
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and variety differentiation emerge. The different varieties range from English in the Inner circle societies such as the United States, Canada,
3394:
3328:
3113:
1880:
1642:
1607:
1558:
1509:
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543:
The spread of English around the world is often discussed in terms of three distinct groups of users, where English is used respectively as:
311:
and New Zealand. Over time, their own English dialects developed into modern American, Canadian, West Indian, South African, Australian, and
3348:
2421:
2306:
869:: At this stage, the settler communities tend to stabilize politically under British rule. English increases in prominence and though the
2829:
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and more as a composite of subgroups defined on regional, social and ethnic lines. Coupled with the simple effects of time in effecting
1736:
Stockwell, R. (2002). "How much shifting actually occurred in the historical English vowel shift?", Minkova, Donka; Stockwell, Robert.
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1776:
1437:
1412:
1287:
1029:
Manfred Görlach's and McArthur's models are reasonably similar. Both exclude English varieties in Europe. As Görlach does not include
320:
2170:
2129:
2115:
877:, the speakers look to England for their formal norms. Local vocabulary continues to be adopted. Bilingualism increases amongst the
222:
became the language of everyday life among the upper classes in England. Although the language of the masses remained English, the
893:: According to Schneider, this is the stage at which a transition occurs as the English settler population starts to accept a new
2733:
192:
2981:
2777:
1178:), or that the current different varieties may converge so that differences across groups of speakers are largely eliminated.
1158:, which covers both concepts and is not butted by popular usage. This term is generally used when discussing World Englishes.
723:, while in the Outer Circle, may be drifting into the Inner Circle as English becomes more often used as a home language (see
590:. Most of these Englishes developed as a result of imperial expansion that brought the language to various parts of the world.
206:
of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the
3298:
2738:
2244:
2156:
2143:
130:
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through education and increased contacts with English settlers. Knowledge of English becomes an asset, and a new indigenous
3338:
3031:
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1292:
1115:, has been partly motivated by a consideration of the local linguistic factors and partly by a consideration of the wider
466:
3333:
2986:
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2623:
2444:
805:
2709:
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2297:
2264:
2260:
1074:
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2866:
2277:
1340:
207:
142:
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Although the model is neat, it raises several problems. Firstly, the three different types of English — ENL,
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system that is a synthesis of substrate effects, interlanguage processes, and features adopted from the settlers'
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3273:
2799:
2757:
2728:
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32:
This article is about the classification of Englishes around the world. For Global English or World English, see
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tries to avoid a purely geographical and historical approach evident in the 'circles' models and incorporates
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Paradowski, M.B. 2008, Apr. Winds of change in the English language – Air of peril for native speakers?
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at all, his model is more consistent, though less comprehensive. Outside the circle are mixed varieties (
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and World Englishes are far from similar, although the terms are often mistakenly used interchangeably.
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of the majority population of a country, such as in the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia.
332:
215:
114:
33:
3316:
234:
2229:
1190:, there is likely to be a paradigm shift from one of language distribution to one of language spread:
2745:
2638:
2578:
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2429:
2346:
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728:
497:
469:' led to the development of a distinctive national character of English in the Indian sub-continent.
253:
2020:
Modiano, M. (1999). "Standard English(es) and educational practices for the world's lingua franca".
727:), much as Ireland did earlier. The Outer Circle also includes countries where most people speak an
683:, national commerce and so on may all be carried out predominantly in English. This circle includes
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3173:
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3063:
3026:
2912:
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2772:
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between 60 percent and 70 percent, with a significant drop likely over the next four or five years.
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As evidence that English may eventually give way to another language (or languages) as the world's
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and use. This, in turn, has involved the creative rewriting of discourses towards a recognition of
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World Englishes : implications for international communication and English language teaching
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1527:
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364:
159:
2217:
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varieties of English, especially varieties that have developed in territories influenced by the
3238:
3223:
3195:
3155:
2947:
2929:
2884:
2633:
2409:
2373:
2213:
2208:
2199:
2185:
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2152:
2139:
2125:
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1638:
1613:
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1554:
1515:
1505:
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1458:
1433:
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962:
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902:
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853:
245:
1208:
The other potential shift in the linguistic center of gravity is that English could lose its
137:
has been used by scholars in the field to emphasise the more recent spread of English due to
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3311:
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3088:
3083:
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2670:
2615:
2513:
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2482:
2319:
2314:
1297:
1084:
1058:
837:
785:
778:
752:
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552:
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refers to English as it originally took shape and was spread across the world in the first
527:
Nowadays, English is also learnt in other countries in neighbouring areas, most notably in
3228:
3130:
3068:
3038:
3021:
2846:
2721:
2542:
2518:
2490:
2461:
2434:
2399:
2286:
1344:
1254:
1187:
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1038:
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954:
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356:
328:
316:
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176:
90:
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was the result of the colonization of Asia and Africa, which led to the development of '
248:, the language in this period matured to a standard and differed significantly from the
17:
3303:
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2902:
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2550:
2466:
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1317:
1277:
1167:
1042:
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began in the late eighteenth century, involving primarily the territories now known as
435:
267:
260:
249:
230:
86:
47:
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stabilize as English is made to adapt to local sociopolitical and cultural practices.
85:
Currently, there are approximately 75 territories where English is spoken either as a
82:(since 1982). There are a number of published handbooks and textbooks on the subject.
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3353:
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2924:
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2782:
2694:
2645:
2523:
2505:
2073:
1832:
1221:
1217:
668:
656:
639:
396:
352:
300:
271:
180:
169:
138:
122:
51:
2856:
2704:
2583:
2194:
2180:
1378:
1312:
1302:
1268:
1088:
857:
712:
571:
372:
308:
202:
was then influenced by two further waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the
188:
74:, USA. There are two academic journals devoted to the study of this topic, titled
597:(EFL); used almost exclusively for international communication, such as in Japan.
1021:
do not belong to one family: rather they have overlapping multiple memberships.
766:
716:
676:
618:
516:
407:
360:
241:
199:
184:
1248:
1045:
involving English), which are better categorized as having partial membership.
125:
used in business, trade, diplomacy and other spheres of global activity, while
2767:
1568:
1519:
1244:
906:
870:
692:
446:
442:
359:, the history of English is distinct between West and East Africa. English in
211:
94:
59:
2077:
2059:
Widdowson, H. G. (1997). "EIL, ESL, EFL: Global Issues and Local Interests".
1652:
1617:
1472:
1166:
Two hypotheses have been advanced about English's future status as the major
2324:
1175:
1120:
1091:, Australia and New Zealand, to the Outer circle post-colonial societies of
949:
as the young nation sees itself as less defined by its differences from the
720:
680:
667:. In these regions, English is not the native tongue but serves as a useful
587:
505:
489:
481:
454:
304:
223:
102:
1548:
925:
independent of Britain. Acceptance of local English(es) expresses this new
784:
The inner circle is 'norm-providing'; that means that the English language
1632:
1597:
1146:
are not easily defined concepts. It is often suggested that languages are
2351:
1307:
1225:
1136:
1116:
929:. National dictionaries are enthusiastically supported, at least for new
740:
704:
700:
696:
652:
631:
579:
485:
450:
431:
419:
384:
348:
288:
63:
1738:
Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective
828:
The model outlines five characteristic stages in the spread of English:
515:
but their influence spread quickly as their reforms on education in the
3288:
3283:
3093:
2439:
2366:
2361:
1921:
Kachru, B. (1992). World Englishes: approaches, issues, and resources.
1338:
1142:
1034:
1002:
849:
732:
688:
583:
477:
380:
324:
296:
172:
1875:(1. edition, 3. reprint ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 14–15.
187:
was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the
2356:
2336:
1428:
Schreier, Daniel; Hundt, Marianne; Schneider, Edgar W., eds. (2020).
1096:
1083:) continues its rapid spread, while at the same time new patterns of
922:
770:
748:
744:
672:
664:
528:
501:
462:
427:
423:
415:
388:
368:
133:
developed in different regions of the world. Alternatively, the term
67:
1357:
655:
of English, which spread the language through imperial expansion by
1936:
Acts of identity: Creole-based approaches to language and ethnicity
1693:
1103:
Initiative, in recognizing and describing the New Englishes of the
882:
708:
684:
605:
575:
532:
458:
411:
376:
1602:. Rakesh Mohan Bhatt. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1403:
Nelson, Cecil L.; Proshina, Zoya; Davis, Daniel R., eds. (2020).
917:: This stage is characterized by the gradual acceptance of local
410:, extensive British settlements were established in what are now
1112:
1092:
660:
2233:
1453:
Markku Filppula; Juhani Klemola; Devyani Sharma, eds. (2017).
994:
98:
1912:. (Larry E. Smith Eds.) Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press
731:, yet retain standard English for official purposes, such as
2222:
1599:
World Englishes : the study of new linguistic varieties
2093:
Crystal, D. (2001) Language and the Internet. Cambridge UP.
343:
Second dispersal: English is transported to Asia and Africa
788:
is developed in these countries. The outer circle (mainly
60:
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
1777:"Minute on Education (1835) by Thomas Babington Macaulay"
1170:: that it may ultimately fragment into a large number of
848:
of the settlers which eventually results in a new stable
441:
English was formally introduced to the sub-continent of
367:. English soon gained official status in what are today
283:
First dispersal: English is transported to the New World
191:
kingdoms of England. Eventually, one of these dialects,
799:
617:
The most influential model of the spread of English is
1970:
World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties
1358:"English World-Wide A Journal of Varieties of English"
945:: At this stage, there is a change in the dynamics of
109:
World English vs. World Englishes vs. Global Englishes
2050:. Department of English, Stockholm University, Sweden
226:
character of England in this period was thus formed.
3256:
3209:
3164:
3144:
3056:
2972:
2965:
2883:
2815:
2669:
2614:
2603:
2596:
2541:
2504:
2481:
2420:
2382:
2305:
2296:
2285:
2276:
1873:
World englishes : a resource book for students
1825:"Philippine Englishes: A timely or premature call?"
800:
Schneider's dynamic model of postcolonial Englishes
2108:World Englishes: Critical concepts in linguistics.
2046:Melchers, G. and Shaw, P. (2003) World Englishes.
2033:Kachru, B. B., Kachru, Y. and Nelson, C. (2009).
1857:The Features of Philippine English across Regions
214:and ultimately developed a Norman variety called
129:refers to the different varieties of English and
2106:Bolton, Kingsley; Braj B. Kachru (Eds.) (2006).
1954:Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world
1283:List of countries by English-speaking population
395:which developed from English contact, including
355:', the second-language varieties of English. In
2076:(Research on Youth and Language) 2(1), 92–119.
1934:Le Page, R. B. and Tabouret-Keller, A. (1985).
1550:English around the world : an introduction
1230:
1192:
570:national communication in communities that are
218:. For two centuries after the Norman Conquest,
2136:World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students.
2080:However, it remains to be seen whether such a
2009:Studies in the History of the English Language
1994:McArthur, A. (1987). "The English Languages?"
1968:Mesthrie, Rajend and Bhatt, Rakesh M. (2008).
1763:World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students.
89:(L1) or as an unofficial or institutionalized
2245:
1983:Teaching English as an International Language
1337:International Association of World Englishes
8:
2224:International Association of World Englishes
675:and language groups. Higher education, the
141:, which has resulted in increased usage of
3279:Comparison of American and British English
3148:
2969:
2677:
2611:
2600:
2302:
2293:
2282:
2252:
2238:
2230:
2150:The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes.
2078:http://www.novitasroyal.org/paradowski.pdf
1754:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1581:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1532:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1485:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1013:Englishes. Most scholars would argue that
266:By the 19th century, the expansion of the
1897:The Other Tongue: English across cultures
1502:The Routledge handbook of world Englishes
1432:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1430:The Cambridge Handbook of World Englishes
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1379:"World Englishes - Wiley Online Library"
965:starts to show greater differentiation.
933:(and not always for localized grammar).
601:
299:, Scotland and Ireland predominantly to
1938:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
1330:
1024:
982:
295:of mother-tongue English speakers from
1698:The Interpreter and Translator Trainer
1574:
1525:
1478:
1455:The Oxford handbook of World Englishes
651:of English was produced by the second
611:Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English
403:, have large numbers of speakers now.
1964:
1962:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1669:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
937:in local English begins to flourish.
914:Phase 4 – Endonormative stabilization
7:
3349:Non-native pronunciations of English
1854:Villanueva, Rey John Castro (2016).
1678:Galloway, N. & Rose, H. (2015).
1637:. Cambridge : Cambridge Univ Press.
973:
866:Phase 2 – Exonormative stabilization
121:refers to the English language as a
42:is a term for emerging localised or
1723:Baugh, A. C. and Cable. T. (1993).
1504:(Second ed.). Abingdon, Oxon.
1407:(2nd ed.). Malden: Blackwell.
1182:English as the language of 'others'
363:began with trade, particularly the
1704:(2): 312–320 – via Academia.
1288:List of macaronic forms of English
983:McArthur's Circle of World English
562:(ESL); an additional language for
25:
1910:World Englishes in Asian Contexts
1823:Gonzales, Wilkinson Daniel Wong.
1725:A History of the English Language
1081:Kachru's Three Circles of English
1025:Görlach's circle model of English
602:Kachru's Three Circles of English
1347:, Retrieved on 18 November 2010.
1261:
1247:
1174:varieties (in effect, different
1048:
844:; (b) contact between different
500:, exemplified the English-based
291:involved relatively large-scale
27:Indigenized varieties of English
2035:The Handbook of World Englishes
1899:. University of Illinois Press.
1765:London and New York: Routledge.
1405:The Handbook of World Englishes
974:Strevens's world map of English
252:period, becoming recognizably "
3385:Comparison of forms of English
3299:English-based creole languages
2163:Oxford Guide to World English.
1553:(Second ed.). Cambridge.
1500:Andy Kirkpatrick, ed. (2021).
969:Other models of classification
315:Englishes. In contrast to the
1:
3339:List of English-based pidgins
2122:English as a Global Language.
1972:. Cambridge University Press.
1956:. Cambridge University Press.
1680:Introducing Global Englishes.
1667:English as a Global Language.
1293:List of English-based pidgins
1162:The future of World Englishes
339:populations in the colonies.
3395:English as a global language
3334:Linguistic purism in English
2124:Cambridge University Press.
1547:Schneider, Edgar W. (2020).
2435:London & Thames Estuary
2148:Kirkpatrick, Andy. (2010).
2134:Jenkins, Jennifer. (2003).
2048:The English Language Series
1075:List of dialects of English
539:Classification of Englishes
511:The Americans came late in
208:Normans in the 11th century
3411:
3294:English as a lingua franca
2011:. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
1871:Jenkins, Jennifer (2006).
1631:Kirkpatrick, Andy (2007).
1204:A different world language
1072:
1049:Modiano's model of English
803:
790:New Commonwealth countries
157:
143:English as a lingua franca
31:
3274:Broad and general accents
3184:regional and occupational
3151:
3017:
2943:
2680:
2569:
2165:Oxford University Press.
1985:. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
1952:Schneider, E. W. (2007).
1925:, 25: 1-14. Cambridge UP.
1596:Mesthrie, Rajend (2008).
942:Phase 5 – Differentiation
806:Schneider's dynamic model
168:that originated from the
2120:Crystal, David. (2003).
1682:Arbingdon, UK: Routledge
1069:Variations and varieties
815:sociolinguistic concepts
317:English of Great Britain
278:Global spread of English
18:Three Circles of English
2161:McArthur, Tom. (2002).
1383:onlinelibrary.wiley.com
1172:mutually unintelligible
93:(L2) in fields such as
2452:Received Pronunciation
1692:Paradowski, Michał B.
1235:
1197:
959:social differentiation
890:Phase 3 – Nativisation
873:English is a colonial
817:pertaining to acts of
811:Edgar Werner Schneider
725:Languages of Singapore
614:
166:West Germanic language
72:University of Illinois
2646:Multicultural Toronto
1981:Strevens, P. (1980).
1181:
1150:, while dialects are
951:former colonial power
879:indigenous population
796:in the inner circle.
609:
472:British influence in
131:English-based creoles
34:International English
2807:Western Pennsylvania
1740:. Mouton de Gruyter.
1665:Crystal, D. (2007).
1125:language acquisition
842:indigenous languages
840:between English and
833:Phase 1 – Foundation
729:English-based creole
566:national as well as
498:British protectorate
195:, came to dominate.
3344:Mid-Atlantic accent
2935:Trinidad and Tobago
2110:London: Routledge.
2007:Görlach, M. (1990).
1908:Kachru, Y. (2006).
1895:Kachru, B. (1992).
1835:on October 13, 2016
1775:Frances Pritchett.
1055:non-native speakers
935:Literary creativity
846:dialects of English
737:Trinidad and Tobago
399:(Sierra Leone) and
204:Scandinavian branch
2867:Pennsylvania Dutch
2196:English World-Wide
2176:and the journals:
2037:. Wiley-Blackwell.
1343:2010-12-14 at the
1210:international role
961:) the new English
856:). At this stage,
615:
522:Philippine English
387:, and some of the
235:Hundred Years' War
160:History of English
154:History of English
149:Historical context
76:English World-Wide
3367:
3366:
3252:
3251:
3052:
3051:
2961:
2960:
2879:
2878:
2875:
2874:
2800:Pacific Northwest
2661:Standard Canadian
2592:
2591:
2537:
2536:
2477:
2476:
1923:Language Teaching
1882:978-0-415-25806-7
1759:Jenkins, Jennifer
1644:978-0-521-61687-4
1609:978-0-511-40823-6
1560:978-1-108-44226-8
1511:978-0-367-14439-5
1464:978-0-19-977771-6
957:(with the aid of
769:, non-Anglophone
246:Great Vowel Shift
177:Germanic invaders
78:(since 1980) and
16:(Redirected from
3402:
3380:Anglic languages
3264:English language
3149:
2970:
2953:Falkland Islands
2852:General American
2825:African-American
2678:
2612:
2601:
2303:
2294:
2283:
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2240:
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2094:
2091:
2085:
2084:will take place.
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2018:
2012:
2005:
1999:
1992:
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1900:
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1831:. Archived from
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1366:
1364:
1354:
1348:
1335:
1298:Standard English
1271:
1266:
1265:
1257:
1252:
1251:
1085:language contact
1059:American English
838:language contact
779:Nordic countries
761:Expanding Circle
753:Papua New Guinea
595:foreign language
553:primary language
494:Papua New Guinea
135:Global Englishes
21:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3400:
3399:
3370:
3369:
3368:
3363:
3248:
3205:
3160:
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3048:
3044:Solomon Islands
3013:
2957:
2939:
2871:
2862:New York Latino
2837:American Indian
2817:
2811:
2672:
2665:
2606:
2588:
2574:Channel Islands
2565:
2533:
2500:
2473:
2416:
2378:
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2272:
2258:
2182:World Englishes
2103:
2101:Further reading
2098:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2071:
2067:
2061:World Englishes
2058:
2054:
2045:
2041:
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2019:
2015:
2006:
2002:
1993:
1989:
1980:
1976:
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1355:
1351:
1345:Wayback Machine
1336:
1332:
1327:
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1267:
1260:
1255:Language portal
1253:
1246:
1243:
1206:
1184:
1164:
1101:World Englishes
1077:
1071:
1063:British English
1051:
1043:mixed languages
1027:
1015:English pidgins
985:
976:
971:
955:language change
808:
802:
794:native speakers
636:native language
604:
560:second language
549:native language
541:
513:South-East Asia
474:South-East Asia
401:Cameroon Pidgin
357:colonial Africa
345:
321:Native American
285:
280:
193:Late West Saxon
162:
156:
151:
127:World Englishes
113:The notions of
111:
91:second language
80:World Englishes
40:World Englishes
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3408:
3406:
3398:
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3392:
3390:Global culture
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3306:
3304:Englishisation
3301:
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3211:Southeast Asia
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3126:South Atlantic
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3101:
3096:
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2908:Cayman Islands
2905:
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2895:
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2818:ethno-cultural
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2269:Modern English
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2228:
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2206:
2192:
2174:
2173:
2159:
2146:
2132:
2118:
2102:
2099:
2096:
2095:
2086:
2082:paradigm shift
2065:
2063:, 16: 135–146.
2052:
2039:
2026:
2013:
2000:
1987:
1974:
1958:
1940:
1927:
1914:
1901:
1888:
1881:
1863:
1846:
1815:
1790:
1779:. Columbia.edu
1767:
1742:
1729:
1707:
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1671:
1658:
1643:
1623:
1608:
1588:
1559:
1539:
1510:
1492:
1463:
1445:
1439:978-1108425957
1438:
1420:
1414:978-1119164210
1413:
1395:
1370:
1349:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1320:
1318:Pseudo-English
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1278:Language shift
1274:
1273:
1272:
1258:
1242:
1239:
1205:
1202:
1183:
1180:
1168:world language
1163:
1160:
1073:Main article:
1070:
1067:
1050:
1047:
1026:
1023:
984:
981:
975:
972:
970:
967:
804:Main article:
801:
798:
775:Central Europe
603:
600:
599:
598:
591:
556:
540:
537:
344:
341:
284:
281:
279:
276:
268:British Empire
250:Middle English
231:Middle English
158:Main article:
155:
152:
150:
147:
110:
107:
87:first language
62:conference in
48:United Kingdom
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
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6:
4:
3:
2:
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3324:International
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3004:Torres Strait
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2739:North-Central
2737:
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2717:New York City
2715:
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2651:Ottawa Valley
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2445:Multicultural
2443:
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2423:
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2411:
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2405:Black Country
2403:
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2395:West Midlands
2393:
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2390:East Midlands
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2024:: 15/4: 3-13.
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2022:English Today
2017:
2014:
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1996:English Today
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758:Finally, the
756:
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669:lingua franca
666:
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657:Great Britain
654:
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640:mother tongue
637:
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629:
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581:
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574:, such as in
573:
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478:South Pacific
475:
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467:Indianisation
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353:New Englishes
350:
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307:, Australia,
306:
302:
301:North America
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272:Great Britain
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198:The original
196:
194:
190:
186:
183:. Initially,
182:
178:
174:
171:
170:Anglo-Frisian
167:
164:English is a
161:
153:
148:
146:
144:
140:
139:globalization
136:
132:
128:
124:
123:lingua franca
120:
119:World English
116:
115:World English
108:
106:
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100:
96:
92:
88:
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
55:
53:
52:United States
49:
45:
41:
35:
30:
19:
3109:South Africa
3104:Sierra Leone
2857:Miami Latino
2746:Philadelphia
2734:Inland North
2639:Newfoundland
2457:West Country
2271:by continent
2223:
2209:
2195:
2181:
2175:
2162:
2149:
2135:
2121:
2107:
2089:
2068:
2060:
2055:
2047:
2042:
2034:
2029:
2021:
2016:
2008:
2003:
1995:
1990:
1982:
1977:
1969:
1953:
1935:
1930:
1922:
1917:
1909:
1904:
1896:
1891:
1872:
1866:
1856:
1849:
1837:. Retrieved
1833:the original
1829:ResearchGate
1828:
1818:
1806:. Retrieved
1803:ResearchGate
1802:
1793:
1783:November 17,
1781:. Retrieved
1770:
1762:
1737:
1732:
1727:. Routledge.
1724:
1701:
1697:
1687:
1679:
1674:
1666:
1661:
1633:
1626:
1598:
1591:
1549:
1542:
1501:
1495:
1457:. New York.
1454:
1448:
1429:
1423:
1404:
1398:
1386:. Retrieved
1382:
1373:
1361:. Retrieved
1352:
1333:
1313:Euro English
1303:Vulgar Latin
1269:World portal
1236:
1231:
1215:
1207:
1198:
1193:
1185:
1165:
1155:
1152:heteronomous
1141:
1135:
1133:
1123:contexts of
1100:
1089:South Africa
1080:
1078:
1052:
1028:
992:
986:
977:
941:
940:
939:
913:
912:
911:
889:
888:
887:
865:
864:
863:
858:bilingualism
832:
831:
830:
827:
823:
809:
783:
773:(especially
760:
759:
757:
713:South Africa
648:Outer Circle
647:
646:
644:
627:Inner Circle
626:
625:
623:
616:
610:
572:multilingual
567:
563:
542:
531:, Japan and
526:
510:
471:
440:
405:
373:Sierra Leone
346:
309:South Africa
286:
265:
261:18th century
258:
239:
228:
216:Anglo-Norman
210:, who spoke
197:
163:
134:
126:
118:
112:
84:
79:
75:
56:
39:
38:
29:
3234:Philippines
3027:New Zealand
2913:Bay Islands
2893:The Bahamas
2816:Social and
2773:New Orleans
2690:New England
2584:Isle of Man
2529:Port Talbot
2430:East Anglia
2347:Northumbria
2138:Routledge.
767:South Korea
717:Philippines
677:legislature
619:Braj Kachru
551:(ENL); the
517:Philippines
408:East Africa
365:slave trade
361:West Africa
347:The second
313:New Zealand
242:Renaissance
240:During the
229:During the
200:Old English
189:Anglo-Saxon
185:Old English
175:brought by
44:indigenised
3374:Categories
3174:Bangladesh
3166:South Asia
3119:Cape Flats
3069:The Gambia
2994:Aboriginal
2830:vernacular
2795:California
2768:High Tider
2763:Appalachia
2624:Aboriginal
2556:South-West
2400:Birmingham
2357:Sunderland
2342:Manchester
2332:Lancashire
2157:0203849329
2144:0415258065
1998:: 11:9-13.
1761:. (2003).
1700:(Review).
1569:1193301209
1520:1200831762
1325:References
1148:autonomous
1134:The terms
923:nationhood
907:Neologisms
885:develops.
871:colloquial
693:Bangladesh
447:Bangladesh
443:South Asia
333:Aboriginal
293:migrations
287:The first
212:Old Norman
95:government
3239:Singapore
3201:Sri Lanka
3156:Hong Kong
2982:variation
2974:Australia
2885:Caribbean
2751:Baltimore
2634:Lunenburg
2579:Gibraltar
2496:Highlands
2374:Yorkshire
2337:Liverpool
2218:0266-0784
2204:0172-8865
2190:0883-2919
1860:(Thesis).
1839:April 25,
1808:April 25,
1653:141382470
1618:254167348
1577:cite book
1528:cite book
1481:cite book
1473:964294896
1388:April 25,
1363:April 27,
1188:Widdowson
1176:languages
1129:pluralism
1121:political
1105:Caribbean
905:English.
721:Singapore
681:judiciary
588:Singapore
506:Tok Pisin
496:, also a
490:Hong Kong
482:Singapore
455:Sri Lanka
305:Caribbean
224:bilingual
103:education
3359:Standard
3329:Learning
3317:Nerrière
3308:Globish
3224:Malaysia
3196:Pakistan
3136:Zimbabwe
3064:Cameroon
2898:Barbados
2629:Atlantic
2597:Americas
2514:Abercraf
2483:Scotland
2462:Cornwall
2383:Midlands
2367:Teesside
2362:Tyneside
2352:Pitmatic
2315:Cheshire
2261:Dialects
1341:Archived
1308:Hinglish
1241:See also
1226:Internet
1137:language
1117:cultural
988:McArthur
947:identity
927:identity
895:identity
819:identity
741:Barbados
705:Tanzania
701:Malaysia
697:Pakistan
671:between
653:diaspora
632:diaspora
580:Pakistan
486:Malaysia
476:and the
451:Pakistan
445:(India,
432:Zimbabwe
420:Tanzania
385:Cameroon
349:diaspora
303:and the
289:diaspora
173:dialects
64:Honolulu
3289:Engrish
3284:E-Prime
3257:Related
3244:Vietnam
3229:Myanmar
3099:Nigeria
3094:Namibia
3084:Liberia
2966:Oceania
2948:Bermuda
2920:Jamaica
2847:Chicano
2685:Midland
2671:United
2607:America
2543:Ireland
2519:Cardiff
2491:Glasgow
2440:Cockney
2320:Cumbria
2298:England
2289:Britain
2265:accents
1156:variety
1143:dialect
1039:creoles
1035:pidgins
1019:creoles
1007:creoles
1003:pidgins
850:dialect
733:Jamaica
689:Nigeria
584:Nigeria
406:As for
393:creoles
381:Nigeria
325:Khoisan
297:England
259:By the
181:Britain
50:or the
3312:Gogate
3219:Brunei
3131:Uganda
3114:accent
3089:Malawi
3057:Africa
3032:accent
2987:accent
2930:Samaná
2903:Bequia
2722:accent
2695:Boston
2673:States
2656:Quebec
2616:Canada
2605:North
2561:Ulster
2551:Dublin
2467:Dorset
2325:Barrow
2287:Great
2278:Europe
2216:
2202:
2188:
2169:
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2142:
2128:
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1651:
1641:
1616:
1606:
1567:
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1471:
1461:
1436:
1411:
1228:data:
1224:cites
1109:Africa
1099:. The
1097:Africa
1041:, and
771:Europe
749:Belize
745:Guyana
715:, the
673:ethnic
665:Africa
586:, and
529:Taiwan
502:pidgin
463:Bhutan
428:Zambia
424:Malawi
416:Uganda
389:pidgin
369:Gambia
254:modern
220:French
101:, and
68:Hawaii
3354:Plain
3269:Basic
3191:Nepal
3179:India
3079:Kenya
3074:Ghana
3039:Palau
2999:South
2842:Cajun
2783:Texas
2778:Older
2758:South
2729:North
2705:Maine
2524:Gower
2506:Wales
2422:South
2307:North
963:koiné
931:lexis
919:norms
903:koiné
883:elite
875:koiné
854:koiné
852:(see
786:norms
709:Kenya
685:India
576:India
568:inter
564:intra
533:Korea
459:Nepal
436:Chewa
412:Kenya
377:Ghana
337:Maori
329:Bantu
179:into
3145:Asia
3022:Fiji
3009:West
2925:Saba
2790:West
2710:West
2700:East
2263:and
2214:ISSN
2200:ISSN
2186:ISSN
2167:ISBN
2153:ISBN
2140:ISBN
2126:ISBN
2112:ISBN
1877:ISBN
1841:2018
1810:2018
1785:2010
1649:OCLC
1639:ISBN
1614:OCLC
1604:ISBN
1583:link
1565:OCLC
1555:ISBN
1534:link
1516:OCLC
1506:ISBN
1487:link
1469:OCLC
1459:ISBN
1434:ISBN
1409:ISBN
1390:2018
1365:2021
1140:and
1119:and
1113:Asia
1111:and
1095:and
1093:Asia
1031:EFLs
1017:and
1009:and
997:and
777:and
751:and
679:and
663:and
661:Asia
645:The
624:The
488:and
461:and
430:and
397:Krio
391:and
383:and
327:and
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999:EFL
995:ESL
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335:or
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