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like a steel spring wound up too long, to its original position and became a body of well-meaning and cultured
Central Europeans" Sternhell argued that Nolte's equating of Hitler with National Socialism meant that National Socialism entered and left the world with Hitler, and that with Hitler's death, the commandant of a death camp returned once more to the model citizen he was before falling under Hitler's spell. Finally, Sternhell noted that if National Socialism was the "practical and violent resistance to transcendence", and if "transcendence" was a universal process affecting all societies, that Nolte had totally failed to answer why National Socialism was only a German phenomenon.
1782:" force comprising two types of change. The first type, "practical transcendence", manifesting in material progress, technological change, political equality, and social advancement, comprises the process by which humanity liberates itself from traditional, hierarchical societies in favour of societies where all men and women are equal. The second type is "theoretical transcendence", the striving to go beyond what exists in the world towards a new future, eliminating traditional fetters imposed on the human mind by poverty, backwardness, ignorance, and class. Nolte himself defined "theoretical transcendence" as:
1828:' concept of being. It is equally obvious that he regarded the unity of world economics, technology, science and emancipation merely as another and more recent form of "anti-nature". It was not difficult to find a place for Hitler's ideas as a cruder and more recent expression of this schema. Maurras' and Hitler's real enemy was seen to be "freedom towards the infinite" which, intrinsic in the individual and a reality in evolution, threatens to destroy the familiar and beloved. From all this it begins to be apparent what is meant by "transcendence".
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that Hitler was "logically consistent" in seeking genocide of the Jews because Hitler detested modernity and identified Jews with the things that he most hated in the world. According to Nolte, "In Hitler's extermination of the Jews, it was not a case of criminals committing criminal deeds, but of a uniquely monstrous action in which principles ran riot in a frenzy of self-destruction". Nolte's theories about Nazi
1624:
1973:, centred on Nolte's focus on ideas as opposed to social and economic conditions as a motivating force for fascism, and that Nolte depended too much on fascist writings to support his thesis. Kershaw described Nolte's theory of fascism as "resistance to transcendence" as "mystical and mystifying". From the right, historians such as
1870:
fascism. In the early 1960s, Nolte's book helped to facilitate a change in emphasis from totalitarianism theory, in which Nazi
Germany and the Soviet Union were perceived as the regimes most nearly alike, to fascism theory, in which Fascist Italy and the Third Reich were the regimes held to be most nearly alike. In the 1960s,
1998:, by promoting a non-Marxist theory of generic fascism over the previously dominant totalitarianism paradigm (the only alternative for theorists of fascism in the 1950s had been the Marxist-inspired "Rage of the Lower Middle Class" thesis), was much welcomed in general by the non-Marxist left. Together with the work of
1924:
The "issues" of which
Sternhell spoke were concerns about Nolte's "phenomenological" approach to history in which Nolte claimed, for Hegelian reasons, that the particular examples he had chosen to study were valid in more general contexts. Especially objectionable to Sternhell was Nolte's insistence
1723:
which seeks to discover the "metapolitical dimension" of history. The "metapolitical dimension" is considered to be the history of grand ideas functioning as profound spiritual powers, which infuse all levels of society with their force. In Nolte's opinion, only those with training in philosophy can
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is an attempt to give a comprehensive explanation of fascism. The book is based on the most meticulous scholarship, the command of the material is impressive, and the methodological rigour is admirable. The work has been translated into
English and French, and was acclaimed an immediate success. In
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identified Jews with modernity, the basic thrust of Nazi policies towards Jews had always aimed at genocide: "Auschwitz was contained in the principles of Nazi racist theory like the seed in the fruit". Nolte believed that, for Hitler, Jews represented "the historical process itself". Nolte argues
1961:
Sternhell complained that Nolte, by reducing
National Socialism to the ideas of Hitler, exonerated the German people. In particular, Sternhell expressed concern about the passage where Nolte wrote: "after the Führer's death, the core of the leadership of the National Socialist state snapped back,
1786:
Theoretical transcendence may be taken to mean the reaching out of the mind beyond what exists and what can exist toward an absolute whole; in a broader sense this may be applied to all that goes beyond, that releases man from the confines of the everyday world, and which, as an "awareness of the
1869:
has been much praised as a seminal contribution to the creation of a theory of generic fascism based on a history of ideas, as opposed to the previous class-based analyses (especially the "Rage of the Lower Middle Class" thesis) that had characterized both
Marxist and liberal interpretations of
1878:
as one of the most influential history books of the 1960s. As a result of Nolte's book and the ensuing debates it caused, numerous international conferences were held to discuss generic fascism as a concept, several anthologies were put together to consider generic fascism, and a significant
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in the late 1960s, Nolte was a target of student protesters, an experience that left him with a strong distaste for the West German left. For a time in the 1960s, all of Nolte's classes were boycotted by radical students, who demanded Nolte's dismissal, an experience that some such as
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has written that although written in arcane and obscure language, Nolte's theory of fascism as a "form of resistance to transcendence" marked an important step in the understanding of fascism, and helped to spur scholars into new avenues of research on fascism. Israeli historian
1773:
Fascism is anti-Marxism which seeks to destroy the enemy by the evolvement of a radically opposed and yet related ideology and by the use of almost identical and yet typically modified methods, always, however within the unyielding framework of national self-assertion and
1855:
1769:, at the sociological level in opposition to bourgeois values, and in the "metapolitical" world as "resistance to transcendence" ("transcendence" in German can be translated as the "spirit of modernity"). Nolte defined the relationship between fascism and Marxism as:
2018:, that such a thing as generic fascism ever existed. Answering the criticism that generic fascism was an invalid concept because no other fascist movement produced anything equivalent to the Holocaust, Nolte argued that National Socialism was "radical fascism".
1816:'s ideas have been seen to penetrate to this level. By "monotheism" and "anti-nature" he did not imply a political process: he related these terms to the tradition of Western philosophy and religion, and left no doubt that for him they were not only adjuncts of
1977:
criticized the entire notion of generic fascism as intellectually invalid and argued that it was individual choice on the part of
Germans, rather than Nolte's philosophical view of the "metapolitical", that produced National Socialism. Bracher's
1795:
in 1961 as an example of "practical transcendence", of how humanity was pressing forward in its technological development and rapidly acquiring powers traditionally thought to be only the providence of the gods. Drawing upon the work of
2050:. Nolte argued then that Nazi Germany was a "mirror image" of the Soviet Union and, with the exception of the "technical detail" of mass gassing, everything the Nazis did in Germany had already been done by the Communists in Russia.
1920:, this masterly work was hailed as a very great book. Professor Nolte's work contains such a wealth of observations, information, insight and throwaway ideas that are well worth keeping that inevitably one takes issue with some.
1957:, for Meinecke, and now Maurras, for Nolte, are so many proofs of the universality of evil, so many proofs that it was almost by accident, by a mere conjunction of political circumstances, that the Nazis arose in Germany.
1845:
as a rejection of modernity inspired the
Israeli historian Otto Dov Kulka to argue that National Socialism was an attack on "the very roots of Western civilisation, its basic values and moral foundations".
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have credited with Nolte's radical change of views about the
National Socialist period. Later in the 1970s, Nolte was to reject aspects of the theory of generic fascism that he had championed in
1808:, Nolte argued that the progress of both types of "transcendence" generates fear as the older world is swept aside by a new world and that these fears led to fascism. Nolte wrote that:
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as a totalitarian regime created and sustained by human actions. In the early 1960s, Nolte was identified with the left, which helped to explain why
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had an immense impact on the scholarly community by advancing this new theory of generic fascism, and was described by the
British historian Sir
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1754:. In Nolte's view, fascism was the rejection of everything the modern world had to offer and was an essentially negative phenomenon. In a
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as the causal factors of fascism. Sternhell commented that the effect of this single-minded focus on ideas and personalities was that:
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was the thesis, Italian Fascism was the antithesis, and German National Socialism the synthesis of the two earlier fascist movements.
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discover the "metapolitical dimension", and those who use normal historical methods miss this dimension of time. Using the methods of
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1990:), was partly written to rebut Nolte's theory of generic fascism, presenting an alternative picture of the National Socialist
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Epstein, Klaus (1976). "A New Study of Fascism". In Turner, Henry A. (ed.).
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horizon", makes it possible for him to experience the world as a whole.
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Sternhell, Zeev (1976). "Fascist Ideology". In Laqueur, Walter (ed.).
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movement of France, but many have questioned Nolte's claim that the
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Other historians were more hostile in their assessment of
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Maier, Charles (1 December 1986). "Immoral Equivalence".
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Heilbrunn, Jacob (November 1996). "Germany's New Right".
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The book, which was translated into English in 1965 as
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In some ways, Ernst Nolte's approach recalls that of
2218:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 104.
1969:. Criticism from the left, for example by Sir
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2014:was a fascist movement, or in the case of
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2203:. Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys.
1699:and a seminal work on the history of
1196:Christian Democratic Union of Germany
754:Lectures on the Philosophy of History
7:
2134:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
1778:Nolte defined "transcendence" as a "
2042:theory as a way of explaining both
1925:on focusing solely on the ideas of
744:Elements of the Philosophy of Right
2264:. Harmondsworth. pp. 315–371.
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1204:Christian Social Union in Bavaria
784:Reflections of a Nonpolitical Man
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452:Monarchism in Bavaria after 1918
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38:Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche.
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1683:Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche
1543:Die Freischwebende Intelligenz
1450:Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung
1276:German National People's Party
734:Addresses to the German Nation
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1537:Criticism of multiculturalism
1315:Bibliothek des Konservatismus
1685:), also known in English as
834:The Concept of the Political
1532:Conservatism in Switzerland
1324:Desiderius-Erasmus-Stiftung
1219:Ecological Democratic Party
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2317:. New York: Vintage Books.
2232:Evans, Richard J. (1989).
2132:The Three Faces of Fascism
2036:The Three Faces of Fascism
2004:The Three Faces of Fascism
1996:The Three Faces of Fascism
1967:The Three Faces of Fascism
1893:The Three Faces of Fascism
1872:The Three Faces of Fascism
1867:The Three Faces of Fascism
1791:Nolte cited the flight of
1688:The Three Faces of Fascism
1569:Philosophical anthropology
1384:Studienzentrum Weikersheim
1365:Konrad Adenauer Foundation
1358:Institut für Staatspolitik
2262:Fascism: A Reader's Guide
2160:Kershaw, Ian The (1989).
1728:, Nolte subjected German
1351:Hans Filbinger Foundation
1331:Forum of German Catholics
1268:German Conservative Party
804:Prussianism and Socialism
2216:Rethinking the Holocaust
2201:The Holocaust in History
2199:Marrus, Michael (1987).
1758:, Nolte argued that the
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46:This article is part of
27:1963 book by Ernst Nolte
2177:Reappraisals of Fascism
2106:Maier, Charles (1988).
2080:Griffin, Roger (1998).
1988:The German Dictatorship
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1180:Alternative for Germany
794:The Decline of the West
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2313:Lukacs, John (1997).
2236:. New York: Pantheon.
2130:Nolte, Ernst (1965).
2108:The Unmasterable Past
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1257:
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1224:
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1211:
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1120:
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1109:
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1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1056:von Schleicher
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
981:
975:
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968:
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964:
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953:
948:
943:
938:
933:
928:
922:
919:
918:
915:
914:
911:
910:
904:Finis Germania
900:
890:
880:
870:
860:
850:
840:
830:
820:
810:
800:
790:
780:
770:
760:
750:
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729:
726:
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722:
721:
718:
717:
712:
707:
705:von Treitschke
702:
697:
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687:
682:
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617:
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592:
587:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
557:
552:
550:Jünger (Ernst)
547:
542:
540:von Hildebrand
537:
532:
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
476:
473:
472:
469:
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435:
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429:
428:
415:
410:
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393:
388:
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328:
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314:
309:
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158:
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129:
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110:
105:
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83:
77:
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61:
60:
52:
51:
36:Book cover of
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2372:
2361:
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2356:
2353:
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2348:
2347:
2345:
2332:. p. 38.
2331:
2324:
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2316:
2309:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2268:
2263:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2240:
2235:
2228:
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2222:
2217:
2210:
2207:
2202:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2171:
2168:
2163:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2138:
2133:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2060:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1887:
1882:
1881:Roger Griffin
1877:
1873:
1868:
1861:
1856:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1843:anti-Semitism
1839:
1835:
1834:the Holocaust
1832:In regard to
1829:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1809:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1788:
1783:
1781:
1780:metapolitical
1775:
1770:
1768:
1763:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1740:
1735:
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1727:
1726:phenomenology
1722:
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1567:
1565:
1564:Pan-Germanism
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
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1540:
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1535:
1533:
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1307:Organizations
1304:
1303:
1293:
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731:
730:
724:
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713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
690:Strauss (Leo)
688:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
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666:
663:
661:
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613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
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586:
583:
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571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
477:
474:Intellectuals
471:
470:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
442:
441:
436:
434:
431:
427:
426:German Empire
424:
423:
422:
421:
416:
414:
411:
408:
407:
402:
400:
398:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
378:
372:
371:
363:
362:
357:
354:
353:
348:
346:
343:
340:
339:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
321:
320:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
281:
280:
275:
272:
271:
270:In Treue fest
266:
264:
261:
258:
257:
252:
250:
249:Germanisation
247:
245:
244:
240:
238:
237:
233:
229:
226:
224:
221:
220:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
200:
194:
193:
184:
181:
179:
176:
175:
174:
171:
167:
164:
163:
162:
161:Revolutionary
159:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
145:
142:
138:
135:
134:
133:
132:Paternalistic
130:
128:
125:
121:
120:
116:
115:
114:
111:
109:
106:
102:
101:Ritter School
99:
97:
94:
93:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
78:
72:
71:
67:
63:
62:
59:
53:
49:
45:
44:
39:
34:
30:
19:
2330:New Republic
2329:
2323:
2314:
2283:(6): 80–98.
2280:
2276:
2270:
2261:
2233:
2215:
2209:
2200:
2176:
2170:
2161:
2131:
2107:
2081:
2048:Soviet Union
2044:Nazi Germany
2040:totalitarian
2035:
2020:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1995:
1992:dictatorship
1987:
1983:
1979:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1940:
1927:Adolf Hitler
1923:
1910:George Mosse
1898:Hajo Holborn
1892:
1891:
1871:
1866:
1865:
1859:
1838:Adolf Hitler
1831:
1811:
1793:Yuri Gagarin
1790:
1785:
1777:
1772:
1764:
1759:
1737:
1712:
1710:
1687:
1686:
1668:
1667:
1666:
1595:Überfremdung
1541:
1509:
1460:Kreuzzeitung
1369:
1284:German Party
1240:
1239:
1214:Centre Party
1174:
1046:von Radowitz
989:von Bismarck
920:Commentators
902:
892:
882:
872:
863:
862:
852:
842:
832:
822:
812:
802:
798:(1918, 1922)
792:
782:
772:
764:Degeneration
762:
752:
742:
732:
480:Benedict XVI
419:
396:
381:20 July plot
345:Subsidiarity
319:Sittlichkeit
241:
236:Gemeinschaft
235:
149:Cameralistic
118:
37:
29:
2028:John Lukacs
2016:John Lukacs
2000:Eugen Weber
1980:magnum opus
1971:Ian Kershaw
1955:Machiavelli
1951:Thomas More
1918:Eugen Weber
1914:Fritz Stern
1876:Ian Kershaw
1697:magnum opus
1693:Ernst Nolte
1574:Remigration
1154:Wackenroder
1139:von Savigny
1124:Böckenförde
1096:von Westarp
999:von Gerlach
973:Politicians
645:von Salomon
447:The Junkers
286:Medievalism
263:Imperialism
228:Meritocracy
223:Aristocracy
173:Romanticism
144:Prussianism
127:Neue Rechte
113:Nationalist
2344:Categories
2054:References
1902:James Joll
1826:Parmenides
1732:, Italian
1473:Der Türmer
1129:von Gierke
1101:Wilhelm II
1076:von Storch
1061:Stresemann
1051:Rauschning
994:Fehrenbach
926:Kubitschek
727:Literature
675:Sloterdijk
361:Volksgeist
302:Patriotism
296:Organicism
291:Monarchism
243:Geopolitik
197:Principles
108:Monarchism
75:Ideologies
1850:Reception
1806:Karl Marx
1798:Max Weber
1774:autonomy.
1717:modernity
1675:‹See Tfd›
1463:(Defunct)
1416:(Defunct)
1066:vom Stein
1036:von Papen
1010:Hugenberg
1005:Goerdeler
936:Safranski
695:Steinbuch
620:von Ranke
565:Koselleck
530:Heidegger
500:von Galen
406:Freikorps
397:Erklärung
338:Sonderweg
203:Authority
154:Socialist
2297:20047831
2046:and the
1818:Rousseau
1707:Synopsis
1487:Die Welt
1071:Stoecker
984:Ancillon
979:Adenauer
961:Weißmann
941:Sarrazin
710:Voegelin
685:Spengler
680:Spaemann
670:Sieferle
660:Schlegel
655:Schelsky
615:Plessner
510:Gogarten
119:Völkisch
81:Agrarian
48:a series
1862:, 1966.
1814:Maurras
1767:Marxism
1734:Fascism
1701:fascism
1440:COMPACT
1413:Antaios
1241:Defunct
1171:Parties
1159:Wagener
1144:Schmitt
1118:Jurists
1086:Wagener
1081:Strauss
956:Stürmer
700:Tönnies
665:Schmitt
650:Scheler
605:Novalis
495:Gadamer
418:German
375:History
218:Elitism
91:Liberal
2295:
1933:, and
1804:, and
1750:, and
1730:Nazism
1679:German
1435:Cicero
1371:PEGIDA
1279:(DNVP)
1175:Active
1106:Winnig
1091:Weidel
1019:
1003:
908:(2017)
898:(2010)
888:(1969)
878:(1966)
868:(1963)
858:(1951)
848:(1939)
838:(1932)
828:(1931)
818:(1929)
808:(1919)
788:(1918)
778:(1913)
768:(1892)
758:(1837)
748:(1820)
738:(1806)
640:Rüstow
610:Pieper
595:Müller
575:Löwith
570:Lorenz
560:Klages
535:Herder
520:Hamann
515:Görres
505:Gehlen
490:Freyer
485:Blüher
300:
279:Kultur
256:Heimat
2293:JSTOR
1407:Media
1295:(DVP)
1271:(DkP)
1263:(FKP)
1250:(BVP)
1235:(REP)
1222:(ÖDP)
1207:(CSU)
1199:(CDU)
1183:(AFD)
1149:Stahl
1134:Möser
1041:Petry
946:Stein
715:Weber
635:Röpke
600:Nolte
580:Lübbe
545:Hoppe
525:Hegel
420:Reich
166:Young
2030:and
1945:and
1916:and
1824:and
1428:Cato
1421:Bild
1287:(DP)
1191:(BD)
1031:Merz
1026:Krah
1021:Kohl
1015:Jung
931:Kuby
874:Envy
585:Mann
399:2018
352:Volk
213:Duty
96:Ordo
2285:doi
2346::
2305:^
2291:.
2281:75
2279:.
2242:^
2224:^
2185:^
2140:^
2116:^
2090:^
2062:^
2002:,
1949::
1929:,
1908:,
1904:,
1900:,
1800:,
1746:,
1703:.
1681::
50:on
2299:.
2287::
1986:(
1672:(
1656:e
1649:t
1642:v
20:)
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