Thwaites Glacier - Knowledge (XXG)

1040: in) contained in the full glacier). It found that the uncertainty about glacier bed friction was almost as important as the future ocean temperature. Another finding was that lower-resolution models (those which simulated the glacier as a mesh of 20 km (7.7 sq mi) areas) consistently estimated faster break-up than the more detailed models with mesh size of 6.5 km (2.5 sq mi). While in the less-detailed models, practically the entirety of the simulated area was lost around a 250-year mark under the combination of high warming and low friction, higher-resolution simulation showed that about quarter would remain under those conditions, to be lost over 100 more years. Under high warming yet high seabed friction, a quarter was still left at the end of 500 years in the detailed simulations. The same outcome occurred under low warming and low friction. With low warming and high friction, over half of the studied area remained after 500 years. 502:. The final remainder of the old glacier tongue, with an area of 470 square kilometres (180 sq mi), disintegrated in 2016. This "melange" of icebergs is still referred to by its old name, as it continues to occupy a substantial amount of area and may retain a stabilizing effect on the glacier. However, future retreat of the surrounding sea ice is likely to trigger disintegration of ever-larger sections, like during the 2019 disintegration of icebergs on its western margin. In 2023, scientists found that ice tongue retreat rates are subject to wide fluctuations after its break-up: over six years of observations, annual retreat accelerated by as much as 40% (from around 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) to 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) per year) twice, before slowing back down. These researchers have also repurposed a 255:, in part because they seem vulnerable to irreversible retreat and collapse even under relatively little warming, yet also because if they go, the entire ice sheet is likely to eventually follow. This hypothesis is based on both theoretical studies of the stability of marine ice sheets and observations of large changes on these two glaciers. In recent years, the flow of both of these glaciers has accelerated, their surfaces have lowered, and their grounding lines have retreated. They are believed very likely to eventually collapse even without any further warming. The outsized danger Thwaites poses has led to some reporters nicknaming it the 293: 569: 63: 1049: 396: 676: 923: 707: 897: 987: 560:", drifted in the vicinity of the glacier even as the rest of the glacier tongue continued to break up. In 2012, it got stuck on seafloor, 53 km (33 mi) away from the ice tongue, where its presence had some stabilizing impact on the rest of the glacier. In October 2022, it finally started moving again, rapidly drifting to the northwest. It is likely to end up as one of the longest-lived icebergs in history. 804: 47: 486:. Initially, their southern extent was only 3 mi (4.8 km) north of Thwaites Glacier Tongue, but as parts of the iceberg tongue continued to calve, it diminished in size (to 70 mi (110 km) long and 20 mi (32 km) wide. By 1986, the entire iceberg tongue had rotated to the side and started to drift away, travelling 140 km (87 mi) west between 1986 and 1992. 604: 70: 667:. At the same time, both Marie Byrd Land and the central rift also contain the majority of West Antarctica's 29 volcanoes whose height exceeds 1 km (0.62 mi), even as they remain completely covered by ice. This massive size is likely to make them into significant roadblocks to ice flows, and thus gives them the potential to delay glacier retreat in its advanced stages. 595:, ice cliffs at the edge of the glacier would end up unsustainably tall once this ice shelf fails and no longer buttresses them, leading to a chain reaction of collapse over centuries. However, the accuracy of this hypothesis has been disputed in multiple papers, and some research suggests that the loss of the ice shelf would result in almost no change to glacier's trajectory. 523: 324:. The fastest flows of ice occur between 50 and 100 kilometres (31 and 62 mi) east of Mount Murphy, where they can exceed 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) per year. At 120 km (75 mi) in width, Thwaites Glacier is the single widest glacier in the world, and it has an area of 192,000 km (74,000 sq mi). This makes it larger than the American state of 614:-like canal areas and streams underlie the glacier. The upstream swamp canals feed streams, while the dry areas between those streams retard flow of the glacier. Due to this friction, the glacier is considered stable in the short term. As warming progresses, these streams expand and form larger structures underneath the glacier. The largest one to date was discovered by 270:, it would quickly reach 5%, before accelerating further. The amount of ice from Thwaites likely to be lost in this century will only amount to several centimetres of sea level rise, but its breakdown will rapidly accelerate in the 22nd and 23rd centuries, and the volume of ice contained in the entire glacier can ultimately contribute 65 cm ( 4561: 934:. It found that at some point in the last two centuries, the glacier moved 2.1 km (1.3 mi) per year, twice the rate it did between 2011–2019. This rate of retreat could reoccur if the glacier recedes and is dislodged beyond a sea bed that is currently keeping it somewhat stable. In 2023, researchers found that at the end of 1004:

that this tipping point for the entire ice sheet is no more than 3 °C (5.4 °F) of global warming away, and is very likely to be triggered around the near-future levels of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F): at worst, it may have even been triggered by now, after the warming passed 1 °C (1.8 °F) in the early 21st century.

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published projections of Thwaites Glacier contribution to sea level rise for the next 100 years. They estimated that the ice lost from Thwaites alone over the next 30 years would amount to 5 mm of sea level rise, but there was less certainty about 100-year ice loss, which could range between 14 and 42 mm depending on

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retreated at 50 to 600 meters per day over the course of several days to months, far faster than any rate observed today, because its bed, the ground it rested on, was completely flat. As Thwaites Glacier continues to retreat, the grounding line will eventually reach a similarly flat portion, and the

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upstream of the grounding line. Altogether, annual ice loss had increased substantially since Rignot's 2001 analysis: from around 16 billion tonnes of ice between 1992 and 1996 to about 50 billion tons between 2002 and 2016. Cumulative ice loss over those 14 years was equivalent to a global sea level

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to either physically reinforce it, or to block some fraction of warm water flow. The former would be the simplest intervention, yet equivalent to "the largest civil engineering projects that humanity has ever attempted". It is also only 30% likely to work. Constructions blocking even 50% of the warm

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floor would be able to interrupt warm water flow. This approach would reduce costs and increase the longevity of the material (conservatively estimated at 25 years for curtain elements and up to 100 years for the foundations) relative to more rigid structures. With them in place, Thwaites Ice Shelf

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did not consider Thwaites Glacier on its own, but it did note that the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet would most likely take 2,000 years to disintegrate entirely once it crosses its tipping point, and the minimum plausible timescale is 500 years, and could be as long as 13,000 years. It also noted

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of 2–6 km (1.2–3.7 mi) which is regularly exposed to water. Some areas of the glacier are additionally exposed to meltwater flowing another 6 km (3.7 mi) inwards during the strong spring tides. This increased exposure to meltwater would increase the rate of ice loss, potentially

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In 2021, further ITGC research suggested that the Thwaites Ice Shelf, which currently restrains the eastern portion of the Thwaites Glacier, could start to collapse within five years. This would lead to a greater outflow from the glacier, increasing its annual contribution to sea level rise from 4%

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Because Thwaites sits below sea level on ground that dips away from the coast, the warm water is likely to melt its way inland, beneath the glacier itself, freeing its underbelly from bedrock. A collapse of the entire glacier, which some researchers think is only centuries away, would raise global

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A 2014 study, using satellite measurements and computer models, predicted that only the lowest possible warming offered any chance of preserving Thwaites Glacier: otherwise, it will inevitably reach the point of "rapid and irreversible collapse" in the next 200 to 900 years. Once that happens, its

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that are permanently floating just offshore, and whose presence helps to stabilize the glacier. Though the Thwaites Ice Shelf has a width of 45 km (28 mi) and a vertical thickness of at least 587 m (1,926 ft)), it is relatively light for its size, and is stabilized by partially

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Thwaites Eastern Ice Shelf (TEIS) and Thwaites Ice Tongue in 2013, soon after the latter broke up and lost cohesion, leading to much faster retreat rates (red instead of blue). Other labels refer to the ice tongue's grounding line, and northern and southern shear zones where it's in direct contact

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resting on an underwater mountain 50 km (31 mi) offshore. While it only shields the eastern part of the glacier (with the western formerly covered by the Ice Tongue), its presence is already sufficient to counter large calving events on that side of the glacier. Under the hypothesis of

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A 2014 paper noted that while the Thwaites Glacier was expected to add less than 0.25 mm of global sea level rise per year over the 21st century, this would eventually increase to over 1 mm per year during its "rapid collapse" phase. In 2018, a team of glaciologists, including Eric Rignot, had

1121: 482:), a loose collection of icebergs occupying an area as large as 150 kilometres (93 mi) long and 35–65 kilometres (22–40 mi) wide at the time. After breaking off from Thwaites Glacier Tongue, those icebergs ran aground in the Amundsen Sea, about 20 mi (32 km) northeast of 990:

Contribution to sea level rise from a modelled area of Thwaites Glacier under high- and low warming (HSO and LSO) and high (m1) and low (m8) friction. Top shows both warming scenarios in a high-detail model, while middle and bottom graphics show the HSO and LSO scenarios in low-resolution

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to physically stabilize its ice or to preserve it. These interventions would block the flow of warm ocean water, which currently renders the collapse of these two glaciers practically inevitable even without further warming. A proposal from 2018 included building sills at the Thwaites'

266:, a floating ice shelf which braces and restrains the eastern portion of Thwaites Glacier, is likely to collapse within a decade from 2021. The glacier's outflow is likely to accelerate substantially after the shelf's disappearance; while the outflow currently accounts for 4% of global 1072:

water flow are expected to be far more effective, yet far more difficult as well. Some researchers argued that this proposal could be ineffective, or even accelerate sea level rise. The authors of the original proposal suggested attempting this intervention on smaller sites, like the

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In 2017, British and American research institutions founded a 5-year research mission named International Thwaites Glacier Collaboration (ITGC). The mission involves over 100 scientists and support staff, with an estimated cost of $ 50 million across the entire research period.

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Damiani, Theresa M.; Jordan, Tom A.; Ferraccioli, Fausto A.; Young, Duncan A.; Blankenship, Donald D. (October 10, 2014). "Variable crustal thickness beneath Thwaites Glacier revealed from airborne gravimetry, possible implications for geothermal heat flux in West Antarctica".

703: in). This is more than twice as large as all of the sea level rise which occurred between 1901 and 2018 (estimated at 15–25 cm (6–10 in)), though only a fraction of the total sea level rise which would be seen in the future, particularly under high warming. 851:

In 2011, an analysis of IceBridge data showed a rock ridge 700 m (2,300 ft) tall, which helps to anchor the glacier and slows its glacier's slide into the sea. In early 2013, a minor speedup of ice flow was detected, which was later attributed to the activity of

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Between 1992 and 2017, Thwaites Glacier retreated at between 0.3 km (0.19 mi) and 0.8 km (0.50 mi) annually, depending on the sector, and experienced a net loss of over 600 billion tons of ice as the result. This loss had caused about 4% of the global

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which had already occurred. Similarly, there is now widespread agreement that its loss is likely to pave the way for the loss of the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet, which would raise the sea levels by around 3.3 m (10 ft) over several centuries or millennia.

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Batchelor, Christine L.; Christie, Frazer D. W.; Ottesen, Dag; Montelli, Aleksandr; Evans, Jeffrey; Dowdeswell, Evelyn K.; Bjarnadóttir, Lilja R.; Dowdeswell, Julian A. (5 April 2023). "Rapid, buoyancy-driven ice-sheet retreat of hundreds of metres per day".

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Using hot water, they bored through the full thickness of Thwaites's ice shelf—587 meters (0.4 mile)—until they reached water...Davis and his colleagues calculated that overall, the underside of Thwaites is melting far less rapidly than predicted by

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In May 2023, a modelling study considered the future of Thwaites Glacier over the course of 500 years. Due to computational limitations, it was only able to simulate about two-thirds of the glacier catchment (volume of ice equivalent to 40 cm

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and Pine Island Ice Shelf would presumably regrow to a state they last had a century ago, thus stabilizing these glaciers. To achieve this, the curtains would have to be placed at a depth of around 600 metres (0.37 miles) (to avoid damage from

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Our results confirm the existence of kilometer-size grounding zones on the main trunk of Thwaites Glacier. Models with km-size grounding zones and vigorous ice melt will produce higher projections of glacier loss, possibly by a factor of

284: in) to global sea level rise, which is more than twice the total sea level rise to date. Some researchers have proposed engineering interventions to stabilize the glacier, but they are very new, costly and their success uncertain. 1156:(CDR), as while those would stop a much larger spectrum of climate change impacts, their estimated annual costs range from $ 7–70 billion for SAI to $ 160–4500 billion for CDR powerful enough to help meet the 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) 304:. It shows the glacier, the ice shelf on its eastern side, and the remains of the ice tongue in the west, now reduced to a "mélange" of icebergs which is much less effective at supporting the glacier and preventing calving events. 820:(annual loss of around 16 billion tonnes of ice, equivalent to 17 cubic kilometers of volume) meant that the retreat was going to continue. Further analysis of this data suggested that each 0.1 °C (0.18 °F) increase in 848:, followed by NASA's IceBridge Campaign in 2009–2018. Geophysical data collected from IceBridge campaign flights showed that the most vulnerable parts of Thwaites Glacier sit 1.5 mi (2.4 km) below the sea level. 739:

serving as the trigger for the subsequent collapse of the entire ice sheet. This theory was informed by radar measurement data from research flights over West Antarctica in the 1960s and 1970s, which had revealed that in

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noted in an interview that Thwaites, along with the rest of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, would start to see major losses "within decades" after the ice shelf's failure, and this would be especially pronounced if the

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data from the Earth Remote Sensing Satellites 1 and 2 by Eric Rignot revealed that the grounding line of Thwaites Glacier had retreated by 1.4 km (0.87 mi) between 1992 and 1996, while its strongly negative

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which would be regularly drifting above) and be 80 km (50 mi) long. The authors acknowledged that while work on this scale would be unprecedented and face many challenges in the Antarctic (including

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over that period. If all of the ice contained within Thwaites Glacier melted (which is expected to take place over multiple centuries), it would be sufficient to raise the global sea level by 65 cm

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J.H. Mercer. These concerns were reiterated by Mercer's 1978 follow-up study and by another study in 1973. In 1981, scientists also advanced the theory that "the weak underbelly" of the WAIS lay in the

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The comparison of current rates of retreat on the eastern side of Thwaites (left) and ones projected after the collapse of the Thwaites Ice Shelf. This projection was challenged the following year.

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in 1940 is believed to be first official sighting of the coastline of Thwaites. Detailed mapping of the glacier's surface took place between 1959 and 1966. In 1967, it was officially named by the

655:, was found to harbor around one volcano per every 11,200 km (4,300 sq mi) of area. This density is relatively high, though it is lower than in other global hotspots such as the 958:

in the absence of this feedback. If confirmed, this would mean that the melting of Thwaites Glacier can be expected to accelerate at a similar rate for the next century, regardless of whether

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are likely to increase at triple the historical rate even with low or "medium" atmospheric warming and even faster with high warming, which further "worsens the outlook" for the glacier.

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magazine article by Jeff Goodell, and it has subsequently been used more widely. While some scientists have embraced the name, many others, including leading researchers like Ted Scambos,

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wasn't a surprise, the model estimated that over just the past 12 years, this feedback accelerated melting by 30%, or as much as what is expected from a whole century of a high-emission

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named B-22 broke off. This iceberg was about 85 km (53 mi) long by 65 km (40 mi) wide, with a total area of some 5,490 km (2,120 sq mi), comparable to

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firmly attached to the rest of the glacier to a series of icebergs floating next to each other, each no larger than 1–5 kilometres (0.62–3.11 mi) in width and only held in place by

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A proposed "underwater sill" blocking 50% of warm water flows heading for the glacier could have the potential to delay its collapse and the resultant sea level rise by many centuries.

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and the currently insufficient numbers of specialized polar ships and underwater vessels), it would also not require any new technology and there is already experience of laying down

889:, where melting proceeded much faster. Crevassed areas amount to 10% of the glacier's underside, yet 27% of its current ice loss. At the same time, their research had also found that 3632:

Holt, John W.; Blankenship, Donald D.; Morse, David L.; Young, Duncan A.; Peters, Matthew E.; Kempf, Scott D.; Richter, Thomas G.; Vaughan, David G.; Corr, Hugh F. J. (3 May 2006).

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Rignot, Eric; Thomas, Robert H.; Kanagaratnam, Pannir; Casassa, Gino; Frederick, Earl; Gogineni, Sivaprasad; Krabill, William; Rivera, Andrès; Russell, Robert; Sontag, John (2004).

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Surawy-Stepney, Trystan; Hogg, Anna E.; Cornford, Stephen L.; Davison, Benjamin J. (9 January 2023). "Episodic dynamic change linked to damage on the Thwaites Glacier Ice Tongue".

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The authors estimated this project would take a decade to construct, at $ 40–80 billion initial cost, while the ongoing maintenance would cost $ 1–2 billion a year. Yet, a single

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researchers suggested that a part of the glacier could then disappear similarly quickly. This finding does not change the annual average melting rate for the rest of the glacier.

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Thwaites Glacier Tongue had also experienced destructive changes, eventually shortening to 40 mi (64 km) long and 20 mi (32 km) wide. By 2012, it went from an

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A model created in 2023 suggested that as the outer ice at Thwaites melts due to warm water currents, it erodes in a way which strengthens the flow of those currents. While this

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events occur at the glacier's marine terminus – the point where grounding line is in contact with water. The largest events, on the glacier's more vulnerable western side, are

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van Wyk de Vries, Maximillian; Bingham, Robert G.; Hein, Andrew S. (1 January 2018). "A new volcanic province: an inventory of subglacial volcanoes in West Antarctica".

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caused by the glaciers' collapse are estimated to reach $ 40 billion annually: The authors also suggested that their proposal would be competitive with the other

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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between the fresh meltwater from the glacier and the salty ocean water caused the overall melting rate to proceed "far less rapidly than predicted by models".

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A 2022 study described the "rapid retreat" of the Thwaites Glacier, inferring its past movement in the pre-satellite era by analyzing "ribs" left behind after

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Diagram explaining how grounding line movement left behind "ribs" on the seafloor now used by the researchers to estimate glacier's past rates of retreat.

4794: 4758: 4693: 2246: 2882: 2014:"Retreat of Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica, over the next 100 years using various ice flow models, ice shelf melt scenarios and basal friction laws" 62: 4845: 1788: 659:(one per 7,200 km (2,800 sq mi)) or even Antarctica's own central rift (one per 7,800 km (3,000 sq mi)). The heat from 4733: 881:. Follow-up ITGC research published in 2023, which observed the underside of the glacier over nine months through a 587 m (1,926 ft)-deep 228:. Its fastest-flowing grounded ice is centered between 50 and 100 kilometres (31 and 62 mi) east of Mount Murphy. Like many other parts of the 4748: 4703: 4602: 1211: 332:(209,000 square kilometres (81,000 square miles)). It is also very tall, with ice thickness from bedrock to surface measuring between 800 metres ( 1379: 1285: 3593:"Improved estimation of the mass balance of glaciers draining into the Amundsen Sea sector of West Antarctica from the CECS/NASA 2002 campaign" 877:

In 2020, ITGC researchers discovered that at the glacier's baseline, the temperature of the water is already over 2 °C (36 °F) above

109: 2428:"Velocity measurements and changes in position of Thwaites Glacier/iceberg tongue from aerial photography, Landsat images and NOAA AVHRR data" 443:

in 1947. Back then, it was about 95 km (59 mi) long and 60 km (37 mi) wide. By the time updated mapping took place during

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Once the potential contribution of Thwaites to future sea level rise became better known, some stories have started to refer to it as the

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keeps going up, or stops increasing at all. Other 2023 research suggests that over the 21st century, water temperatures in the entire

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flows beneath these volcanoes can affect melting, and the risk of volcano eruptions increases as more ice is lost as a consequence of

4773: 4753: 4658: 4618: 4358:"Widespread, rapid grounding line retreat of Pine Island, Thwaites, Smith, and Kohler glaciers, West Antarctica, from 1992 to 2011" 643:

nearly twice the global average, and about 3.5 times larger in hotspots. By 2017, scientists have mapped 138 volcanoes beneath the

212:. It was initially sighted by polar researchers in 1940, mapped in 1959–1966 and officially named in 1967, after the late American 1981: 4673: 4531: 4302: 3993:

Wild, Christian T.; Alley, Karen E.; Muto, Atsuhiro; Truffer, Martin; Scambos, Ted A.; Pettit, Erin C. Pettit (3 February 2022).

3748: 1922: 4778: 4723: 4678: 4580: 2490: 2336: 1316: 1206: 1149: 454: 407: 4498: 3634:"New boundary conditions for the West Antarctic Ice Sheet: Subglacial topography of the Thwaites and Smith glacier catchments" 1854: 4713: 4663: 1918: 1191: 237: 3821: 3167: 4809: 4804: 4698: 911: 845: 4329: 3266: 679:

On this map, arrows mark warm water currents, which are the main factor in the projected demise of the Thwaites Glacier.

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Milillo, P.; Rignot, E.; Rizzoli, P.; Scheuchl, B.; Mouginot, J.; Bueso-Bello, J.; Prats-Iraola, P. (30 January 2019).

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that would have the largest near-term impact on the sea levels, and that it is likely to disappear even in response to

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in 1967, the glacier tongue had advanced up to 75 km (47 mi) further north, and had also experienced massive

2057:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 3−32, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.001. 1855:"'Doomsday' glacier,' which could raise sea level by several feet, is holding on 'by its fingernails,' scientists say" 844:

provides no obstacles to rapid retreat. These discoveries prompted an extensive airborne campaign in 2004-2005 by the

722:(WAIS) being prone to geologically rapid (centuries or even decades) collapse in response to accelerated warming from 3016: 4565: 2554: 2360:

Miles, B. W. J.; Stokes, C. R.; Jenkins, A.; Jordan, J. R.; Jamieson, S. S. R.; Gudmundsson, G. H. (26 March 2020).

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Schwans, Emily; Parizek, Byron R.; Alley, Richard B.; Anandakrishnan, Sridhar; Morlighem, Mathieu M. (9 May 2023).

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would accelerate annual bottom-up melting by 1 m (3 ft 3 in). In 2002, a team of scientists from

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is used by researchers studying the glacier, such as the International Thwaites Glacier Collaboration (ITGC).

346: ft) and 1,200 metres (3,937 ft). Due to this immense size, enormous mass is shed when the repeated 3103: 2396: 840:

survey of the glacier, confirming the acceleration in thinning and retreat, and concluding that local seabed

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Mercer, J. H. (1 January 1978). "West Antarctic ice sheet and CO2 greenhouse effect: a threat of disaster".

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does not decrease by then. In her own words: "We’ll start to see some of that before I leave this Earth."

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which separates the parts of the glacier exposed to water and those safely behind them, there is a wider

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researchers in 2019 – an underwater cavity formed mostly in the previous three years, nearly 350 m (

439:. It was the first part of the glacier to be mapped, based on 65,000 aerial photographs collected during 2250: 931: 365:

after Fredrik T. Thwaites (1883–1961), who had never personally visited the glacier, but was a renowned

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Rignot, Eric; Ciracì, Enrico; Tolpekin, Valentyn; Wollersheim, Michael; Dow, Christine (20 May 2024).

4372: 4114: 4060: 4006: 3944: 3885: 3704: 3549: 3500: 3450: 3422:"This Antarctic glacier is the biggest threat for rising sea levels. The race is on to understand it" 3387: 3308: 3141: 3057: 2960: 2840: 2782: 2730: 2709: 2644: 2520: 2439: 2373: 2285: 2207: 1703: 1649: 1579: 1464: 935: 817: 812: 714:, the location of both Thwaites (TEIS refers to Thwaites Eastern Ice Shelf) and Pine Island Glaciers. 444: 2602: 395: 3426: 3046:"Evidence for elevated and spatially variable geothermal flux beneath the West Antarctic Ice Sheet" 1986: 1825: 1821:"Colossal Iceberg Trapped Near Antarctica's 'Doomsday Glacier' for 20 Years Is Finally on the Move" 1186: 1145: 1063: 1057: 736: 652: 640: 531: 313: 248: 3297:"Ocean variability beneath Thwaites Eastern Ice Shelf driven by the Pine Island Bay Gyre strength" 1120: 4479: 4388: 4207: 4138: 4086: 3730: 3693:"Thirteen years of subglacial lake activity in Antarctica from multi-mission satellite altimetry" 3655: 3614: 3573: 3518: 3466: 3403: 3245: 2994: 2896: 2858: 2806: 2751: 2678: 2536: 2457: 2401: 2303: 2143: 2083: 1667: 1605: 1568:"Marine Ice Sheet Collapse Potentially Under Way for the Thwaites Glacier Basin, West Antarctica" 1201: 1085: 1073: 862: 757: 577: 440: 374: 263: 4499:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer" 3044:

Schroeder, Dustin M.; Blankenship, Donald D.; Young, Duncan A.; Quartini, Enrica (9 June 2014).

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Ferrigno, J.G.; Lucchitta, B.K.; Mullins, K.F.; Allison, A.L.; Allen, R.J.; Gould, W.G. (1993).

4186:"Unavoidable future increase in West Antarctic ice-shelf melting over the twenty-first century" 2915:"Scientists Image Vast Subglacial Water System Underpinning West Antarctica's Thwaites Glacier" 2632: 675: 4471: 4463: 4257:"Widespread seawater intrusions beneath the grounded ice of Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica" 4130: 4078: 3972: 3913: 3722: 3565: 3334: 3085: 2986: 2798: 2743: 2735: 2670: 2225: 2173: 2113: 1597: 1533: 1492: 959: 922: 821: 664: 656: 4814: 4453: 4445: 4432:

Armstrong McKay, David; Abrams, Jesse; Winkelmann, Ricarda; et al. (9 September 2022).

4380: 4278: 4268: 4197: 4122: 4068: 4024: 4014: 3962: 3952: 3903: 3893: 3712: 3645: 3604: 3557: 3508: 3458: 3395: 3324: 3316: 3235: 3149: 3145: 3075: 3065: 2976: 2968: 2888: 2848: 2790: 2725: 2717: 2660: 2652: 2528: 2447: 2391: 2381: 2293: 2215: 2163: 2155: 2103: 2095: 2025: 1789:"Doomsday Glacier is melting slower than previously thought — but it's still in big trouble" 1711: 1657: 1587: 1482: 1472: 1453:"Collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet after local destabilization of the Amundsen Basin" 1426: 1384: 1177: 503: 435:) was a narrow, floating part of the glacier, located about 30 mi (48 km) east of 3931:

Davis, Peter E. D.; Nicholls, Keith W.; Holland, David M.; et al. (15 February 2023).

328:(170,000 km (66,000 sq mi)), and a little smaller than the entire island of 1157: 896: 853: 837: 741: 711: 706: 648: 382: 358: 217: 209: 996:

retreat would add over 1 mm to the global annual sea level rise, up until it disappears.

4376: 4283: 4256: 4233: 4118: 4064: 4010: 3948: 3889: 3708: 3553: 3504: 3454: 3391: 3312: 3061: 2964: 2844: 2786: 2713: 2648: 2524: 2443: 2377: 2289: 2274:"Glacial Earthquakes and Precursory Seismicity Associated with Thwaites‐Glacier Calving" 2211: 2168: 2108: 1950: 1766: 1707: 1653: 1583: 1468: 760:. Subsequent research reinforced the hypothesis that Thwaites is the single part of the 4047:

Graham, Alastair G. C.; Wåhlin, Anna; Hogan, Kelly A.; et al. (5 September 2022).

3967: 3932: 3908: 3873: 3329: 3296: 3080: 3045: 2981: 1487: 1452: 1141: 1081: 1068: 1023: 986: 878: 765: 685: 557: 483: 317: 267: 244: 233: 225: 205: 17: 4433: 2948: 2770: 1638:"Stopping the flood: could we use targeted geoengineering to mitigate sea level rise?" 1062:

Some engineering interventions have been proposed for Thwaites Glacier and the nearby

803: 522: 4874: 4483: 4211: 4185: 4142: 4090: 3734: 3618: 3522: 3470: 3249: 2862: 2810: 2682: 2540: 2461: 2405: 2307: 1740: 1609: 1133: 787: 778: 753: 632: ft) tall and 4 km (2.5 mi) wide, with an area two-thirds the size of 370: 329: 4392: 3673: 3659: 2998: 2900: 2827:

Gudmundsson, G. H.; Barnes, J. M. A.; Goldberg, D. N.; Morlighem, M. (31 May 2023).

2755: 2697: 1671: 4819: 4334: 3407: 2696:

Edwards, Tamsin L.; Brandon, Mark A.; Durand, Gael; et al. (6 February 2019).

2013: 2012:

Yu, Hongju; Rignot, Eric; Seroussi, Helene; Morlighem, Mathieu (11 December 2018).

1100: 963: 732: 727: 539: 507: 436: 321: 221: 213: 201: 3994: 3577: 3295:

Dotto, Tiago S.; Heywood, Karen J.; Hall, Rob A.; et al. (21 December 2022).

3017:"Gigantic Cavity in Antarctica Glacier Is a Product of Rapid Melting, Study Finds" 2884:

Exploration of Subsurface Antarctica: Uncovering Past Changes and Modern Processes

1637: 3224:"Model insights into bed control on retreat of Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica" 885:

and a robotic mini-submarine called Icefin, found numerous unexpected cracks, or

3537: 2159: 2099: 1110: 906: 783: 603: 514:

in the remains of the ice tongue and project how they may affect its stability.

448: 347: 4202: 4126: 4073: 4048: 3957: 3898: 3848:"Surprisingly warm water found on underside of Antarctica's 'Doomsday Glacier'" 3609: 3592: 3513: 3489:"Evidence for rapid retreat and mass loss of Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica" 3488: 3462: 3441:

Mackintosh, Andrew (5 September 2022). "Thwaites Glacier and the bed beneath".

3320: 3153: 3104:"Researchers find major West Antarctic glacier melting from geothermal sources" 2532: 2220: 2195: 1917:(Press release). Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, 639:

In 2014, the area underneath Thwaites Glacier was found to have heat flow from

46: 4830: 4434:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points" 3995:"Weakening of the pinning point buttressing Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica" 2721: 2452: 2427: 1767:"Antarctica melting: Climate change and the journey to the 'doomsday glacier'" 1431: 1414: 1196: 1167: 841: 807:

The B-22 iceberg broke off from the Thwaites Glacier Tongue on March 15, 2002.

761: 749: 495: 366: 351: 297: 229: 224:, at surface speeds which exceed 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) per year near its 4467: 4082: 4029: 3872:

Schmidt, B. E.; Washam, P.; Davis, P. E. D.; et al. (15 February 2023).

3726: 2739: 2674: 2144:"The potential for stabilizing Amundsen Sea glaciers via underwater curtains" 1692:"Strong Ocean Melting Feedback During the Recent Retreat of Thwaites Glacier" 469: 456: 422: 409: 124: 111: 4587: 4449: 4273: 3561: 3070: 2794: 2030: 1662: 1592: 1567: 1477: 1077: 939: 833: 745: 633: 583: 194: 4475: 4134: 4019: 3976: 3917: 3569: 3353: 3338: 3089: 2990: 2972: 2802: 2747: 2229: 2177: 2117: 1601: 1496: 1380:"Ice shelf holding back keystone Antarctic glacier within years of failure" 3538:"Rapid Bottom Melting Widespread near Antarctic Ice Sheet Grounding Lines" 1982:"Crucial Antarctic ice shelf could fail within five years, scientists say" 1255: 1080:, as a test. They also acknowledged that this intervention cannot prevent 4799: 4384: 4161: 3933:"Suppressed basal melting in the eastern Thwaites Glacier grounding zone" 3792: 3650: 3633: 3108: 2949:"Heterogeneous retreat and ice melt of Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica" 2853: 2829:"Limited Impact of Thwaites Ice Shelf on Future Ice Loss From Antarctica" 2828: 2656: 2298: 2273: 1716: 1691: 1690:

Holland, Paul R.; Bevan, Suzanne L.; Luckman, Adrian J. (11 April 2023).

1114: 886: 882: 511: 4458: 4184:

A. Naughten, Kaitlin; R. Holland, Paul; De Rydt, Jan (23 October 2023).

3717: 3692: 3240: 3223: 2386: 2361: 2272:

Winberry, J. P.; Huerta, A. D.; Anandakrishnan, S.; et al. (2020).

1911:"The Threat from Thwaites: The Retreat of Antarctica's Riskiest Glacier" 744:, the glacier bed slopes downwards at an angle, and lies well below the 2633:"Marine Ice Cliff Instability Mitigated by Slow Removal of Ice Shelves" 1129: 1105: 607:

Map of various volcanoes found underneath the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.

587: 535: 499: 325: 197: 3749:"Surprising Ebb and Flow of Vast Subglacial Lakes Revealed by CryoSat" 2665: 2084:"Feasibility of ice sheet conservation using seabed anchored curtains" 2054: 3674:"Scientists Predict Faster Retreat for Antarctica's Thwaites Glacier" 3399: 2887:. Vol. 461. The Geological Society of London. pp. 231–248. 943: 4303:"Irreversible collapse of Antarctic glaciers has begun, studies say" 2892: 2698:"Revisiting Antarctic ice loss due to marine ice-cliff instability" 1286:"The 'Doomsday' glacier may soon trigger a dramatic sea-level rise" 1119: 1047: 985: 921: 895: 825: 802: 705: 674: 660: 611: 602: 567: 521: 394: 291: 4532:"The radical intervention that might save the "doomsday" glacier" 4157:"Ice sheets can collapse faster than previously thought possible" 3822:"Seafloor Reveals a Period of Rapid Retreat for Thwaites Glacier" 790:

and Robert Larter have criticized it as alarmist and inaccurate.

526:

B-22A in 2018, next to the remains of the Western Glacier Tongue.

3874:"Heterogeneous melting near the Thwaites Glacier grounding line" 1884: 1529: 969:

In 2024, research indicated that instead of a relatively narrow

829: 615: 4834: 4591: 3768:"Is Thwaites Glacier doomed? Scientists are racing to find out" 3195:"In Antarctica, Two Crucial Glaciers Accelerate Toward the Sea" 2142:

Wolovick, Michael; Moore, John; Keefer, Bowie (27 March 2023).

2082:

Wolovick, Michael; Moore, John; Keefer, Bowie (27 March 2023).

530:

On 15 March 2002, a notable calving event took place, when the

756:, makes both glaciers particularly vulnerable to increases in 4234:"Sea-level rise: West Antarctic ice shelf melt 'unavoidable'" 3267:"Scientists drill for first time on remote Antarctic Glacier" 1339:"The Race to Understand Antarctica's Most Terrifying Glacier" 836:

from the Chilean Navy collected the first radar sounding and

4049:"Rapid retreat of Thwaites Glacier in the pre-satellite era" 3691:

Siegfried, Matthew R.; Fricker, Helen A. (26 January 2018).

3168:"Scientists discover 91 volcanoes below Antarctic ice sheet" 2475: 2473: 2471: 2321: 2319: 2317: 1095:

In 2023, it was proposed that an installation of underwater

905:

to 5% in the near term. In December 2021, ITGC glaciologist

259:, although this nickname is controversial among scientists. 251:

have been described as part of the "weak underbelly" of the

1136:

may cost twice as much on its own, and the global costs of

776:. The first known usage of that nickname was in a May 2017 710:

Distribution of meltwater hotspots caused by ice losses in

243:

Thwaites Glacier is closely monitored for its potential to

1636:

Wolovick, Michael J.; Moore, John C. (20 September 2018).

1951:"Thwaites: Antarctic glacier heading for dramatic change" 4330:"Changing climate: 10 years after An Inconvenient Truth" 2769:

Golledge, Nicholas R.; Lowry, Daniel P. (18 June 2021).

404:

The Thwaites Glacier Tongue, or Western Glacier Tongue (

308:

Thwaites Glacier is located at the northern edge of the

2876: 2874: 2872: 2631:

Clerc, Fiona; Minchew, Brent M.; Behn, Mark D. (2019).

236:, and provides one of the more notable examples of the 3793:"International Thwaites Glacier Collaboration (ITGC)" 1415:"The weak underbelly of the West Antarctic ice sheet" 1301: 1299: 3359:. International Association Of Hydrological Sciences 4787: 4646: 4625: 1526:"The "Unstable" West Antarctic Ice Sheet: A Primer" 1088:, and would be ineffective in the long run without 451:

events which had produced Thwaites Iceberg Tongue (

391:

Thwaites Glacier Tongue and Thwaites Iceberg Tongue

180: 172: 164: 156: 148: 140: 101: 93: 82: 34: 2921:. University of Texas. 9 July 2013. Archived from 2822: 2820: 1258:. The International Thwaites Glacier Collaboration 1099:, made of a flexible material and anchored to the 726:have been present since the seminal 1968 paper by 3536:Rignot, Eric; Jacobs, Stanley S. (14 June 2002). 2397:20.500.11820/82b0834e-a1f4-4c45-b930-d01cce6bcdec 4408:"Vintage film reveals Antarctic glacier melting" 3039: 3037: 2771:"Is the marine ice cliff hypothesis collapsing?" 2137: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2077: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2069: 2067: 2065: 2063: 2045: 2043: 2041: 1909:Weeman, Katie; Scambos, Ted (13 December 2021). 1782: 1780: 1778: 1776: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1506: 1250: 1248: 316:. Both glaciers continually shed ice from their 4261:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3815: 3813: 3050:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2421: 2419: 2417: 2415: 1881:"Please Stop Calling It the 'Doomsday Glacier'" 1631: 1629: 1627: 1625: 1623: 1621: 1619: 1457:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1246: 1244: 1242: 1240: 1238: 1236: 1234: 1232: 1230: 1228: 978:doubling the rate of the previous projections. 3217: 3215: 2942: 2940: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1451:Feldmann, J; Levermann, A (17 November 2015). 1446: 1444: 1442: 1373: 1371: 1369: 1367: 1365: 1363: 1361: 1359: 354:at ranges up to 1,600 km (990 mi). 4846: 4603: 4406:Tucker, Danielle Torrent (2 September 2019). 4042: 4040: 3482: 3480: 2247:"Sentinel-1 and AI uncover glacier crevasses" 1975: 1973: 1971: 1815: 1813: 1811: 1809: 1760: 1758: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 8: 3290: 3288: 3261: 3259: 3010: 3008: 2603:""Icefin" Investigates a Glacial Underbelly" 2596: 2594: 2355: 2353: 1729: 1727: 1408: 1406: 869:International Thwaites Glacier Collaboration 216:Fredrik T. Thwaites. The glacier flows into 4497:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022). 3988: 3986: 3680:. The Earth Institute, Columbia University. 2189: 2187: 1874: 1872: 1848: 1846: 1844: 320:into Pine Island Bay, which is part of the 4853: 4839: 4831: 4795:List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands 4610: 4596: 4588: 4525: 4523: 4521: 4519: 2241: 2239: 1944: 1942: 1940: 1279: 1277: 1275: 1273: 735:region, with the collapse of Thwaites and 97:Walgreen Coast, Marie Byrd Land, Antarctic 31: 4457: 4282: 4272: 4201: 4072: 4028: 4018: 3966: 3956: 3907: 3897: 3716: 3649: 3608: 3512: 3328: 3239: 3079: 3069: 2980: 2852: 2731:1983/de5e9847-612f-42fb-97b0-5d7ff43d37b8 2729: 2664: 2451: 2395: 2385: 2297: 2219: 2196:"Geoengineering might speed glacier melt" 2167: 2107: 2029: 2007: 2005: 1715: 1661: 1591: 1486: 1476: 1430: 176:Pine Island Bay, part of the Amundsen Sea 1904: 1902: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1894: 982:Predicted timelines for glacier collapse 556: sq mi) or "twice the size of 144:192,000 km (74,000 sq mi) 69: 1224: 1212:List of seamounts in the Southern Ocean 752:, in addition to proximity to powerful 4638:List of glaciers in the Antarctic: I–Z 4633:List of glaciers in the Antarctic: A–H 3354:"ANTARCTIC ICE AND SANGAMON SEA LEVEL" 1787:Pappas, Stephanie (15 February 2023). 647:, with 91 of them previously unknown. 3820:Barbuzano, Javier (13 October 2022). 2555:"Icebergs Adrift in the Amundsen Sea" 1044:Engineering options for stabilization 582:Glaciers in Antarctica commonly have 363:Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names 7: 1284:Carolyn Gramling (24 January 2022). 1001:tipping points in the climate system 490:Post-2010 break-up and current state 232:, it has been adversely affected by 4576:Geographic Names Information System 3193:Patel, Jugal K. (26 October 2017). 3134:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2601:Kornei, Katherine (15 March 2023). 2486:Geographic Names Information System 2332:Geographic Names Information System 1980:Kaplan, Sarah (December 13, 2021). 1949:Amos, Jonathan (13 December 2021). 1765:Rowlatt, Justin (28 January 2020). 1312:Geographic Names Information System 4719:Palmer Archipelago and Graham Land 4232:Poynting, Mark (24 October 2023). 3112:. University of Texas. 9 June 2014 3015:Jacobs, Julia (February 1, 2019). 1879:Ryan, Jackson (6 September 2022). 1853:Fritz, Angela (5 September 2022). 357:The third Antarctic expedition of 160:800–1,200 metres (0.50–0.75 miles) 25: 4769:Trinity Peninsula and Graham Land 4689:James Ross Island and Graham Land 4684:Heard Island and McDonald Islands 4530:Temple, James (14 January 2022). 3846:Geggel, Laura (30 January 2020). 1378:Voosen, Paul (13 December 2021). 1132:capable of protecting the entire 912:anthropogenic emission trajectory 4564: This article incorporates 4559: 2194:Moon, Twila A. (25 April 2018). 1337:Jon Gertner (10 December 2018). 1170: 1124:Diagram of a proposed "curtain". 247:. Since the 1980s, Thwaites and 68: 61: 45: 4581:United States Geological Survey 4328:Sumner, Thomas (8 April 2016). 2577:"Long-Lived Iceberg Sails Away" 2491:United States Geological Survey 2337:United States Geological Survey 1317:United States Geological Survey 1207:List of volcanoes in Antarctica 1150:stratospheric aerosol injection 651:, the location of Thwaites and 379:University of Wisconsin–Madison 193:is an unusually broad and vast 1919:University of Colorado Boulder 1192:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 1026:, rather than the 65 cm ( 238:retreat of glaciers since 1850 1: 4820:List of subantarctic glaciers 4810:List of Antarctic ice streams 4805:List of Antarctic ice shelves 1532:. 12 May 2014. Archived from 846:University of Texas at Austin 4365:Geophysical Research Letters 3638:Geophysical Research Letters 2833:Geophysical Research Letters 2637:Geophysical Research Letters 2278:Geophysical Research Letters 1829:. LiveScience. 19 April 2023 1734:Goodell, Jeff (9 May 2017). 1696:Geophysical Research Letters 1398:sea level by 65 centimeters. 794:Observations and predictions 593:marine ice cliff instability 586:, which are large bodies of 4881:Glaciers of Marie Byrd Land 4862:Glaciers of Marie Byrd Land 4800:List of Antarctic ice rises 1566:Joughin, I. (16 May 2014). 506:algorithm normally used in 296:Photo taken in 2019 by the 4907: 4356:Rignot, E. (12 May 2014). 4203:10.1038/s41558-023-01818-x 4127:10.1038/s41586-023-05876-1 4074:10.1038/s41561-022-01019-9 3958:10.1038/s41586-022-05586-0 3899:10.1038/s41586-022-05691-0 3772:Public Radio International 3610:10.3189/172756404781813916 3514:10.3189/172756501781832340 3463:10.1038/s41561-022-01020-2 3321:10.1038/s41467-022-35499-5 3154:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.09.023 2533:10.1038/s41561-022-01097-9 2221:10.1038/d41586-018-04897-5 1055: 575: 572:A close look at the shelf. 4886:Ice streams of Antarctica 4619:Glaciers in the Antarctic 4503:climatetippingpoints.info 2722:10.1038/s41586-019-0901-4 2481:"Thwaites Iceberg Tongue" 2453:10.3189/S0260305500012908 2327:"Thwaites Glacier Tongue" 2160:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad103 2100:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad053 1432:10.3189/S002214300001159X 1290:Science News for Students 56: 44: 39: 2051:Summary for Policymakers 1256:"Thwaites Glacier Facts" 1022: in) of the global 811:In 2001, an analysis of 724:greenhouse gas emissions 720:West Antarctic Ice Sheet 645:West Antarctic Ice Sheet 310:West Antarctic Ice Sheet 253:West Antarctic Ice Sheet 152:120 km (75 mi) 4729:Princess Elizabeth Land 4450:10.1126/science.abn7950 4274:10.1073/pnas.2404766121 3562:10.1126/science.1070942 3146:2014E&PSL.407..109D 3071:10.1073/pnas.1405184111 2795:10.1126/science.abj3266 2031:10.5194/tc-12-3861-2018 1663:10.5194/tc-12-2955-2018 1593:10.1126/science.1249055 1478:10.1073/pnas.1512482112 1090:greenhouse gas emission 956:climate change scenario 952:climate change feedback 18:Thwaites Iceberg Tongue 4759:South Shetland Islands 4694:Kaiser Wilhelm II Land 4566:public domain material 4020:10.5194/tc-16-397-2022 2973:10.1126/sciadv.aau3433 1736:"The Doomsday Glacier" 1413:Hughes, T. J. (1981). 1154:carbon dioxide removal 1125: 1053: 992: 927: 901: 808: 715: 680: 608: 573: 527: 401: 352:seismically detectable 305: 4536:MIT Technology Review 4190:Nature Climate Change 3493:Journal of Glaciology 3487:Rignot, Eric (2001). 3301:Nature Communications 3228:Journal of Glaciology 2579:. NASA. 13 April 2023 2557:. NASA. 28 March 2002 2366:Journal of Glaciology 2251:European Space Agency 1419:Journal of Glaciology 1123: 1051: 999:A 2022 assessment of 989: 942:covering what is now 932:seabed gouging by ice 925: 918:Other recent research 899: 806: 709: 678: 606: 571: 525: 398: 302:European Space Agency 295: 288:Location and features 165:Lowest elevation 4764:South Orkney Islands 4734:Queen Elizabeth Land 4385:10.1002/2014GL060140 3697:Annals of Glaciology 3651:10.1029/2005GL025561 3597:Annals of Glaciology 2854:10.1029/2023GL102880 2657:10.1029/2019GL084183 2432:Annals of Glaciology 2299:10.1029/2019gl086178 1925:on 25 September 2022 1717:10.1029/2023GL103088 936:Last Glacial Maximum 813:radar interferometry 737:Pine Island Glaciers 718:Fears of the entire 653:Pine Island Glaciers 445:Operation Deepfreeze 4704:Mac. Robertson Land 4377:2014GeoRL..41.3502R 4267:(22): e2404766121. 4119:2023Natur.617..105B 4065:2022NatGe..15..706G 4011:2022TCry...16..397W 3949:2023Natur.614..479D 3890:2023Natur.614..471S 3797:thwaitesglacier.org 3755:. 14 December 2020. 3718:10.1017/aog.2017.36 3709:2018AnGla..59...42S 3554:2002Sci...296.2020R 3548:(5575): 2020–2023. 3505:2001JGlac..47..213R 3455:2022NatGe..15..687M 3427:The Washington Post 3392:1978Natur.271..321M 3313:2022NatCo..13.7840D 3271:thwaitesglacier.org 3241:10.1017/jog.2023.13 3062:2014PNAS..111.9070S 2965:2019SciA....5.3433M 2845:2023GeoRL..5002880G 2787:2021Sci...372.1266G 2781:(6548): 1266–1267. 2714:2019Natur.566...58E 2649:2019GeoRL..4612108C 2643:(21): 12108–12116. 2525:2023NatGe..16...37S 2444:1993AnGla..17..239F 2387:10.1017/jog.2020.20 2378:2020JGlac..66..485M 2290:2020GeoRL..4786178W 2212:2018Natur.556R.436M 1987:The Washington Post 1826:Scientific American 1708:2023GeoRL..5003088H 1654:2018TCry...12.2955W 1584:2014Sci...344..735J 1469:2015PNAS..11214191F 1463:(46): 14191–14196. 1187:Pine Island Glacier 1146:climate engineering 1084:from the increased 1064:Pine Island Glacier 1058:Climate engineering 641:geothermal activity 599:Subglacial features 532:National Ice Center 466: / 419: / 400:with the ice shelf. 314:Pine Island Glacier 249:Pine Island Glacier 121: / 4571:"Thwaites Glacier" 4444:(6611): eabn7950. 3678:earth.columbia.edu 3430:. 20 October 2016. 3234:(277): 1241–1259. 3199:The New York Times 3021:The New York Times 1915:cires.colorado.edu 1307:"Thwaites Glacier" 1202:Thwaites Ice Shelf 1126: 1086:ocean heat content 1074:Jakobshavn Glacier 1054: 993: 928: 902: 863:ice sheet dynamics 809: 799:Early observations 758:ocean heat content 716: 681: 609: 578:Thwaites Ice Shelf 574: 564:Thwaites Ice Shelf 528: 470:74.000°S 108.500°W 441:Operation Highjump 423:75.000°S 106.833°W 402: 375:professor emeritus 306: 264:Thwaites Ice Shelf 245:elevate sea levels 125:75.500°S 106.750°W 40:"Doomsday Glacier" 4868: 4867: 4828: 4827: 4371:(10): 3502–3509. 4307:Los Angeles Times 4196:(11): 1222–1228. 4113:(7959): 105–110. 4053:Nature Geoscience 4030:20.500.12613/9340 3943:(7948): 479–485. 3884:(7948): 471–478. 3766:Beeler, Carolyn. 3443:Nature Geoscience 3386:(5643): 321–325. 3273:. 28 January 2020 3174:. August 12, 2017 3056:(25): 9070–9072. 2513:Nature Geoscience 2024:(12): 3861–3876. 1578:(6185): 735–738. 960:ocean temperature 857:rise of 2.07 mm. 822:ocean temperature 665:isostatic rebound 657:East African Rift 534:reported that an 475:-74.000; -108.500 428:-75.000; -106.833 367:glacial geologist 300:satellite of the 188: 187: 130:-75.500; -106.750 29:Antarctic glacier 16:(Redirected from 4898: 4855: 4848: 4841: 4832: 4815:List of glaciers 4612: 4605: 4598: 4589: 4584: 4563: 4562: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4527: 4514: 4513: 4511: 4509: 4494: 4488: 4487: 4461: 4429: 4423: 4422: 4420: 4418: 4403: 4397: 4396: 4362: 4353: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4342: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4314: 4299: 4293: 4292: 4286: 4276: 4252: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4205: 4181: 4175: 4174: 4172: 4170: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4101: 4095: 4094: 4076: 4044: 4035: 4034: 4032: 4022: 3990: 3981: 3980: 3970: 3960: 3928: 3922: 3921: 3911: 3901: 3869: 3863: 3862: 3860: 3858: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3834: 3832: 3817: 3808: 3807: 3805: 3803: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3763: 3757: 3756: 3745: 3739: 3738: 3720: 3703:(76pt1): 42–55. 3688: 3682: 3681: 3670: 3664: 3663: 3653: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3612: 3588: 3582: 3581: 3533: 3527: 3526: 3516: 3499:(157): 213–222. 3484: 3475: 3474: 3438: 3432: 3431: 3418: 3412: 3411: 3400:10.1038/271321a0 3375: 3369: 3368: 3366: 3364: 3358: 3349: 3343: 3342: 3332: 3292: 3283: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3263: 3254: 3253: 3243: 3219: 3210: 3209: 3207: 3205: 3190: 3184: 3183: 3181: 3179: 3164: 3158: 3157: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3100: 3094: 3093: 3083: 3073: 3041: 3032: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3012: 3003: 3002: 2984: 2953:Science Advances 2944: 2935: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2925:on July 15, 2013 2911: 2905: 2904: 2878: 2867: 2866: 2856: 2824: 2815: 2814: 2766: 2760: 2759: 2733: 2693: 2687: 2686: 2668: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2615: 2613: 2598: 2589: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2573: 2567: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2551: 2545: 2544: 2508: 2502: 2501: 2499: 2497: 2477: 2466: 2465: 2455: 2423: 2410: 2409: 2399: 2389: 2372:(257): 485–495. 2357: 2348: 2347: 2345: 2343: 2323: 2312: 2311: 2301: 2269: 2263: 2262: 2260: 2258: 2253:. 9 January 2023 2243: 2234: 2233: 2223: 2191: 2182: 2181: 2171: 2139: 2122: 2121: 2111: 2079: 2058: 2047: 2036: 2035: 2033: 2009: 2000: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1977: 1966: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1946: 1935: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1921:. Archived from 1906: 1889: 1888: 1876: 1867: 1866: 1864: 1862: 1850: 1839: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1817: 1804: 1803: 1801: 1799: 1784: 1771: 1770: 1762: 1753: 1752: 1750: 1748: 1731: 1722: 1721: 1719: 1687: 1676: 1675: 1665: 1648:(9): 2955–2967. 1633: 1614: 1613: 1595: 1563: 1546: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1522: 1501: 1500: 1490: 1480: 1448: 1437: 1436: 1434: 1410: 1401: 1400: 1394: 1392: 1385:Science Magazine 1375: 1354: 1353: 1351: 1349: 1334: 1328: 1327: 1325: 1323: 1303: 1294: 1293: 1281: 1268: 1267: 1265: 1263: 1252: 1180: 1178:Geography portal 1175: 1174: 1173: 1117:at such depths. 1039: 1038: 1034: 1031: 1021: 1020: 1016: 1013: 854:subglacial lakes 774:Doomsday Glacier 702: 701: 697: 694: 631: 630: 626: 623: 555: 554: 550: 547: 504:machine learning 481: 480: 478: 477: 476: 471: 467: 464: 463: 462: 459: 434: 433: 431: 430: 429: 424: 420: 417: 416: 415: 412: 345: 344: 340: 337: 283: 282: 278: 275: 257:Doomsday Glacier 200:located east of 191:Thwaites Glacier 136: 135: 133: 132: 131: 126: 122: 119: 118: 117: 114: 72: 71: 65: 51:Thwaites Glacier 49: 35:Thwaites Glacier 32: 21: 4906: 4905: 4901: 4900: 4899: 4897: 4896: 4895: 4891:West Antarctica 4871: 4870: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4829: 4824: 4783: 4749:Ross Dependency 4744:Queen Maud Land 4739:Queen Mary Land 4709:Marie Byrd Land 4642: 4621: 4616: 4569: 4560: 4556: 4551: 4550: 4540: 4538: 4529: 4528: 4517: 4507: 4505: 4496: 4495: 4491: 4431: 4430: 4426: 4416: 4414: 4405: 4404: 4400: 4360: 4355: 4354: 4350: 4340: 4338: 4327: 4326: 4322: 4312: 4310: 4301: 4300: 4296: 4254: 4253: 4249: 4239: 4237: 4231: 4230: 4226: 4216: 4214: 4183: 4182: 4178: 4168: 4166: 4155: 4154: 4150: 4103: 4102: 4098: 4046: 4045: 4038: 3992: 3991: 3984: 3930: 3929: 3925: 3871: 3870: 3866: 3856: 3854: 3852:livescience.com 3845: 3844: 3840: 3830: 3828: 3819: 3818: 3811: 3801: 3799: 3791: 3790: 3786: 3776: 3774: 3765: 3764: 3760: 3747: 3746: 3742: 3690: 3689: 3685: 3672: 3671: 3667: 3631: 3630: 3626: 3590: 3589: 3585: 3535: 3534: 3530: 3486: 3485: 3478: 3440: 3439: 3435: 3420: 3419: 3415: 3377: 3376: 3372: 3362: 3360: 3356: 3351: 3350: 3346: 3294: 3293: 3286: 3276: 3274: 3265: 3264: 3257: 3221: 3220: 3213: 3203: 3201: 3192: 3191: 3187: 3177: 3175: 3166: 3165: 3161: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3115: 3113: 3102: 3101: 3097: 3043: 3042: 3035: 3025: 3023: 3014: 3013: 3006: 2959:(1): eaau3433. 2946: 2945: 2938: 2928: 2926: 2913: 2912: 2908: 2893:10.1144/SP461.7 2880: 2879: 2870: 2826: 2825: 2818: 2768: 2767: 2763: 2708:(7742): 58–64. 2695: 2694: 2690: 2630: 2629: 2625: 2611: 2609: 2600: 2599: 2592: 2582: 2580: 2575: 2574: 2570: 2560: 2558: 2553: 2552: 2548: 2510: 2509: 2505: 2495: 2493: 2479: 2478: 2469: 2425: 2424: 2413: 2359: 2358: 2351: 2341: 2339: 2325: 2324: 2315: 2271: 2270: 2266: 2256: 2254: 2245: 2244: 2237: 2193: 2192: 2185: 2141: 2140: 2125: 2081: 2080: 2061: 2048: 2039: 2011: 2010: 2003: 1993: 1991: 1990:. Washington DC 1979: 1978: 1969: 1959: 1957: 1948: 1947: 1938: 1928: 1926: 1908: 1907: 1892: 1878: 1877: 1870: 1860: 1858: 1852: 1851: 1842: 1832: 1830: 1819: 1818: 1807: 1797: 1795: 1786: 1785: 1774: 1764: 1763: 1756: 1746: 1744: 1733: 1732: 1725: 1689: 1688: 1679: 1635: 1634: 1617: 1565: 1564: 1549: 1539: 1537: 1524: 1523: 1504: 1450: 1449: 1440: 1425:(97): 518–525. 1412: 1411: 1404: 1390: 1388: 1377: 1376: 1357: 1347: 1345: 1336: 1335: 1331: 1321: 1319: 1305: 1304: 1297: 1283: 1282: 1271: 1261: 1259: 1254: 1253: 1226: 1221: 1216: 1176: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1158:Paris Agreement 1148:proposals like 1060: 1046: 1036: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1018: 1014: 1011: 1009: 984: 920: 871: 838:laser altimetry 801: 796: 742:Pine Island Bay 712:Pine Island Bay 699: 695: 692: 690: 673: 649:Marie Byrd Land 628: 624: 621: 619: 601: 580: 566: 552: 548: 545: 543: 520: 492: 474: 472: 468: 465: 460: 457: 455: 453: 452: 427: 425: 421: 418: 413: 410: 408: 406: 405: 393: 383:McMurdo Station 371:geomorphologist 359:Richard E. Byrd 342: 338: 335: 333: 290: 280: 276: 273: 271: 218:Pine Island Bay 210:Marie Byrd Land 168:Below sea level 129: 127: 123: 120: 115: 112: 110: 108: 107: 78: 77: 76: 75: 74: 73: 52: 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4904: 4902: 4894: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4873: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4860: 4858: 4857: 4850: 4843: 4835: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4791: 4789: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4669:Ellsworth Land 4666: 4661: 4656: 4650: 4648: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4640: 4635: 4629: 4627: 4623: 4622: 4617: 4615: 4614: 4607: 4600: 4592: 4586: 4585: 4555: 4552: 4549: 4548: 4515: 4489: 4424: 4398: 4348: 4320: 4294: 4247: 4224: 4176: 4165:. 5 April 2023 4148: 4096: 4059:(9): 706–713. 4036: 4005:(2): 397–417. 3999:The Cryosphere 3982: 3923: 3864: 3838: 3809: 3784: 3758: 3740: 3683: 3665: 3624: 3583: 3528: 3476: 3449:(9): 687–688. 3433: 3413: 3370: 3352:Mercer, J. H. 3344: 3284: 3255: 3211: 3185: 3159: 3123: 3095: 3033: 3004: 2936: 2906: 2868: 2816: 2761: 2688: 2623: 2590: 2568: 2546: 2503: 2467: 2411: 2349: 2313: 2264: 2235: 2183: 2154:(4): pgad103. 2123: 2094:(3): pgad053. 2059: 2037: 2018:The Cryosphere 2001: 1967: 1936: 1890: 1868: 1840: 1805: 1772: 1754: 1723: 1677: 1642:The Cryosphere 1615: 1547: 1536:on 9 July 2023 1502: 1438: 1402: 1355: 1329: 1295: 1269: 1223: 1222: 1220: 1217: 1215: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1165: 1162: 1142:sea level rise 1082:sea level rise 1069:grounding line 1045: 1042: 1024:sea level rise 983: 980: 975:grounding zone 971:grounding line 919: 916: 891:stratification 879:freezing point 870: 867: 800: 797: 795: 792: 766:climate change 754:ocean currents 686:sea level rise 672: 669: 600: 597: 576:Main article: 565: 562: 558:Houston, Texas 519: 516: 491: 488: 484:Bear Peninsula 392: 389: 318:grounding line 289: 286: 268:sea level rise 234:climate change 226:grounding line 220:, part of the 206:Walgreen Coast 186: 185: 182: 178: 177: 174: 170: 169: 166: 162: 161: 158: 154: 153: 150: 146: 145: 142: 138: 137: 105: 99: 98: 95: 91: 90: 84: 80: 79: 67: 66: 60: 59: 58: 57: 54: 53: 50: 42: 41: 37: 36: 28: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4903: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4863: 4856: 4851: 4849: 4844: 4842: 4837: 4836: 4833: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4792: 4790: 4788:Miscellaneous 4786: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4774:Victoria Land 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4754:South Georgia 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4659:Bouvet Island 4657: 4655: 4652: 4651: 4649: 4645: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4630: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4613: 4608: 4606: 4601: 4599: 4594: 4593: 4590: 4582: 4578: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4558: 4557: 4553: 4537: 4533: 4526: 4524: 4522: 4520: 4516: 4504: 4500: 4493: 4490: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4428: 4425: 4413: 4412:Stanford News 4409: 4402: 4399: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4359: 4352: 4349: 4337: 4336: 4331: 4324: 4321: 4309:. 12 May 2014 4308: 4304: 4298: 4295: 4291: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4251: 4248: 4235: 4228: 4225: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4177: 4164: 4163: 4158: 4152: 4149: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4100: 4097: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4043: 4041: 4037: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3989: 3987: 3983: 3978: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3927: 3924: 3919: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3868: 3865: 3853: 3849: 3842: 3839: 3827: 3823: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3798: 3794: 3788: 3785: 3773: 3769: 3762: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3744: 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2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2943: 2941: 2937: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2910: 2907: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2885: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2869: 2864: 2860: 2855: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2823: 2821: 2817: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2765: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2732: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2692: 2689: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2627: 2624: 2620: 2608: 2604: 2597: 2595: 2591: 2578: 2572: 2569: 2556: 2550: 2547: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2507: 2504: 2492: 2488: 2487: 2482: 2476: 2474: 2472: 2468: 2463: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2422: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2412: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2356: 2354: 2350: 2338: 2334: 2333: 2328: 2322: 2320: 2318: 2314: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2268: 2265: 2252: 2248: 2242: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2206:(7702): 436. 2205: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2138: 2136: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2110: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2078: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2068: 2066: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2038: 2032: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2008: 2006: 2002: 1989: 1988: 1983: 1976: 1974: 1972: 1968: 1956: 1952: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1937: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1905: 1903: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1895: 1891: 1886: 1882: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1856: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1828: 1827: 1822: 1816: 1814: 1812: 1810: 1806: 1794: 1790: 1783: 1781: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1768: 1761: 1759: 1755: 1743: 1742: 1741:Rolling Stone 1737: 1730: 1728: 1724: 1718: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1686: 1684: 1682: 1678: 1673: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1632: 1630: 1628: 1626: 1624: 1622: 1620: 1616: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1552: 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