475:
731:. These were complemented by smaller forts dotted across the Cilician plain, holding smaller garrisons of a dozen or so men. In the more mountainous terrain of the Mesopotamian frontier zone, the main strongholds were located in the fertile parts of relatively isolated valleys, controlling the entrances of passes over the mountains:
750:(Gr. Adata), likewise refortified by the first Abbasid caliphs and provided with 4,000 troops, and Malatya, which had been colonized by the Umayyads, destroyed by the Byzantines and rebuilt again and likewise garrisoned with 4,000 men in 757/8. Further fortresses of lesser importance in the Mesopotamian sector were
885:
By the 9th century, the Arab raiding expeditions launched against
Byzantium from the frontier zone had gradually assumed an almost ritual character and were strictly organized. According to Qudama ibn Ja'far, the conventional pattern of Arab incursions included a first expedition in spring (10 May–10
876:
every year, which were all spent locally for public works, salaries, espionage etc. In addition, the costs of cross-border expeditions typically ranged between 200,000 and 300,000 dinars annually. The
Mesopotamian sector's revenue amounted to some 70,000 dinars, to which the central government added
714:
followed in 758–760, and Tarsus in 787/8. Tarsus quickly became the largest settlement in the region and the Arabs' most important base of operations against the
Byzantines, counting between 4,000 and 5,000 troops in its garrison. Other important fortresses in Cilicia, which however were little more
428:
that forced a revision of this strategic objective: although raids into
Anatolia continued, the goal of conquest was abandoned. The border between the two powers began to acquire more permanent features. For the next two centuries, border fortresses might change hands between Byzantines and Arabs,
799:
from each particular country live. And, when they have once reached Tarsus, they settle there and remain to serve in the garrison; among them prayer and worship are most diligently performed; from all hands, funds are sent to them, and they receive alms rich and plentiful; also there is hardly a
911:
between the Arabs and the
Byzantines. Raids and counter-raids were a permanent fixture of this type of warfare. Forts on either side of the notional frontier were captured and razed, or sometimes occupied, but never for long. As a result, the region was often depopulated, necessitating repeated
886:
June), when horses could find abundant fodder, followed after about a month's rest by a summer raid (10 July–8 September), usually the main campaign of the year, and sometimes by a winter raid in
February–March. The importance of these raids is summarized by Islamic scholar
486:
This process was marked by a gradual consolidation of the previously deserted zone and its transformation into a settled and fortified borderland, especially after the
Byzantines abandoned Cilicia during the reign of Caliph
912:
resettlement. There is nevertheless evidence of some prosperity, based on agriculture and commerce, especially during the second half of the 9th century, when the borderlands became a node in a commercial route linking
1903:
865:). In early Abbasid times these troops numbered some 25,000, half of them drawn from Khurasan and the rest from Syria and Upper Mesopotamia. They were complemented by volunteers, drawn by the religious motivation of
871:
against the
Byzantines but often paid a salary by the state as well. All this entailed a heavy financial burden on the Abbasid government. Under Harun al-Rashid, taxation from the Cilician sector brought in 100,000
1005:
were divided into a Syrian and a
Mesopotamian march, as well as a rear zone along northern Syria. The Mamluks entrusted the defence of the Syrian/Cilician march to the client Turkmen principality of the
2217:
1018:. To safeguard their control of the frontier zone, and to keep the two client beyliks separated and under control, the Mamluks also retained garrisons in seven strategically important sites: Tarsus,
710:(Ar. al-Maṣṣīṣa) was the first city to be re-occupied and garrisoned, already under the Umayyads, who settled 300 soldiers there in 703, a number raised under the first Abbasids to some 4,000.
424:
Nevertheless, the ultimate aim of the caliphs remained the outright conquest of
Byzantium, as they had done with its provinces in Syria, Egypt and North Africa. It was only the failure of the
795:"...from all the great towns within the borders of Persia and Mesopotamia, and Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and Morocco, there is no city but has in Tarsus a hostelry for its townsmen, where the
1993:
498:). The Muslims began to move into the area, reoccupying and repairing the abandoned towns and forts. The process started under the Umayyads, but intensified under the first
2212:
932:
in 863 broke the power of Malatya, altering the balance of power in the region, and signalled the beginning of a gradual Byzantine encroachment on the Arab borderlands.
778:
province, like Dulūk or Cyrrhus, were also sometimes included in it. Further north, the relatively isolated fortress towns of Qālīqalā (Gr. Theodosiopolis, modern
2207:
1594:
Byzance et les Arabes, Tome III: Die Ostgrenze des Byzantinischen Reiches von 363 bis 1071 nach griechischen, arabischen, syrischen und armenischen Quellen
2192:
1986:
2222:
894:(summer raid) was as much a part of the symbolic and ritual functions of the Caliph as was organising and providing leadership for the annual
585:) in 786, covering the entire region from the Byzantine border in the north and west to the Euphrates in the east and a line running south of
425:
1941:
1812:
1788:
1646:
1582:
2187:
1979:
669:, although Tarsus and Malatya emerged as the most important towns in Cilicia and the Mesopotamian sector respectively. The towns of the
2182:
1892:
1865:
1739:
1717:
1694:
1670:
1622:
1561:
935:
With the onset of the Abbasid Caliphate's terminal period of crisis after 928, control of the Muslim frontier cities shifted to the
1596:. Corpus Bruxellense Historiae Byzantinae (in German). Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de philologie et d'histoire orientales.
1511:
1749:
1661:
421:) pursued a strategy of destruction within this zone, trying to transform it into an effective barrier between their realms.
300:
1498:
1757:
685:
were often used interchangeably in the sources. In addition, from the early 10th century, with the Byzantine advance into
356:
928:, chiefly Tarsus, Malatya and Qālīqalā, which were left largely to fend on their own against a resurgent Byzantium. The
2197:
1877:"The Arab–Byzantine Frontier in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries: Military Organization and Society in the Borderlands"
443:, "the mouths/openings") and designated the actual borderlands, came to mean "boundaries", employed in phrases like
1528:
677:
or functioned as separate districts; the situation is complicated by the fact that by the 10th century, the terms
163:
1507:
908:
269:
ebbed, and lasted until the mid-10th century, when the Byzantine advance overran it. It comprised the forward
877:
120,000–170,000 dinars each year for the upkeep of the fortifications and the salary of the frontier troops.
977:) captured Cilicia, followed soon after by Antioch, while the Hamdanids of Aleppo became a tributary state.
920:. After 842 and for most of the later 9th century, the decline of Abbasid power meant that control over the
488:
648:
266:
728:
630:
392:
1039:
967:
787:
767:
817:
The caliphs repopulated the area by bringing in colonists and regular soldiers from Syria but also
1876:
1061:
2202:
2014:
929:
724:
429:
but the basic outline of the Arab–Byzantine border remained essentially unaltered. Thus the term
359:, a vast zone unclaimed by either Byzantines or Arabs and virtually deserted (known in Arabic as
1780:
The Places Where Men Pray Together: Cities in Islamic Lands, Seventh Through the Tenth Centuries
947:, the Byzantines broke through and conquered Malatya and most of the Mesopotamian sector of the
474:
2128:
2085:
2047:
1937:
1918:
1888:
1861:
1808:
1784:
1765:
1735:
1727:
1713:
1705:
1690:
1666:
1656:
1642:
1618:
1610:
1597:
1578:
1557:
1538:
966:), managed to stem the Byzantine advance, his success was only temporary: in 964–965, Emperor
834:
751:
339:
270:
262:
159:
109:
85:
1960:
1841:
986:
732:
686:
388:
323:
295:, "cleft, opening"), and the rear or inner regions of the frontier zone, which was known as
239:
135:
1680:
1088:
1077:
887:
826:
818:
530:
503:
299:
proper. On the Byzantine side, the Muslim marches were mirrored by the institution of the
217:
1858:
Aristocratic Violence and Holy War: Studies in the Jihad and the Arab–Byzantine Frontier
2151:
2136:
2113:
2098:
2070:
2055:
2032:
1853:
1829:
1523:
1515:
998:
994:
952:
944:
917:
796:
572:
370:
335:
1951:
Von Sivers, Peter (1982). "Taxes and Trade in the 'Abbāsid Thughūr, 750-962/133-351".
2176:
2156:
2118:
2093:
2075:
2037:
2006:
1904:"Ααουάσιμ και Θουγούρ: Το στρατιωτικό σύνορο του Χαλιφάτου στην Ανατολική Μικρά Ασία"
1761:
1519:
1503:
956:
845:) from India. The regular troops stationed there were favoured with lower taxes (the
842:
560:
514:
468:
258:
81:
32:
2146:
2108:
2065:
2027:
1798:
1632:
1027:
618:
1832:(1994). "The naming of the frontier: 'Awāṣim, Thughūr, and the Arab geographers".
1056:, Ayas, Tarsus and Adana, Serfendikar and Sis) and three on the Euphrates sector (
720:
1931:
1802:
1778:
1684:
1636:
1615:
E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume VIII: Ṭa'if–Zūrkhāna
1572:
1551:
597:(Gr. Hierapolis). Manbij and later Antioch were the new province's capitals. The
1023:
1019:
614:
542:
319:
36:
28:
1845:
1035:
1011:
1007:
873:
805:
771:
736:
707:
690:
315:
250:
120:
1971:
1922:
1769:
1542:
2161:
2141:
2103:
2060:
2022:
1964:
936:
716:
564:
538:
400:
131:
1764:. Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de philologie et d'histoire orientales.
1601:
1574:
Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman-Mamluk War, 1485–91
1710:
E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume I: A–Bābā Beg
1686:
The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State
665:
mountains. There was no overall governor or administrative centre for the
545:
at the intersections of major roads or at the mouths of important passes.
265:. It was established in the early 8th century, once the first wave of the
1053:
940:
830:
763:
499:
479:
396:
1807:. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press.
1556:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Center for Middle Eastern Studies.
1093:
1057:
1031:
925:
829:, and people from the eastern edges of the Muslim world: settlers from
779:
759:
622:
606:
586:
522:
384:
304:
254:
247:
243:
238:
term used to refer to the Muslim side of the frontier zone between the
77:
17:
997:
states of Asia Minor and the Caucasus, including at a later stage the
1044:
857:
755:
747:
662:
637:, the actual frontier zone, was divided into the Cilician or Syrian (
626:
594:
590:
235:
27:"al-Thughur" redirects here. For the frontiers of Islamic Spain, see
1052:
as follows: eight for the Syrian sector (Malatya, Divriği, Darende,
1756:. Corpus Bruxellense Historiae Byzantinae (in French). French ed.:
782:) and Kamacha formed the northernmost outposts of Muslim rule. The
513:). Thus a line of forts was gradually established, stretching from
1082:
913:
901:
867:
846:
822:
711:
610:
473:
454:
1933:
Saracen Strongholds AD 630–1050: The Middle East and Central Asia
433:, which initially meant "fissures, clefts" (cf. their Greek name
326:
in the 14th century, when the areas traditionally comprising the
2002:
1065:
896:
851:
838:
555:
411:
1975:
605:, stretching across northern Syria and comprising the towns of
1754:
Byzance et les Arabes, Tome I: La dynastie d'Amorium (820–867)
438:
378:
985:
After their conquest of Syria in the late 13th century, the
575:(Gr. Chalkis), until Harun al-Rashid established a separate
1014:
principality fulfilled the same role in the Mesopotamian
559:(one of the military administrative divisions into which
1953:
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
800:
sultan who does not send hither some auxiliary troops."
790:, Sumaisaṭ, Ḥānī, Malikyan, Gamah, Ḥaurān and al-Kilis.
478:
Map of the Byzantine-Arab frontier zone in southeastern
273:, comprising a chain of fortified strongholds, known as
673:
came variously under the administrative control of the
383:, "the extremities") emerged between the two powers in
1834:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
601:
proper served as the second defensive line behind the
2218:
States and territories established in the 8th century
1881:
Recueil des Travaux de l'Institut d'Études Byzantines
1860:. New Haven, Connecticut: American Oriental Society.
2127:
2084:
2046:
2013:
553:The entire frontier zone was initially part of the
195:
190:
169:
155:
147:
142:
105:
100:
92:
47:
1497:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1665:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
1224:
1222:
943:dynasties. In the 930s, under the leadership of
793:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1141:
1139:
924:gradually devolved to semi-independent border
1987:
993:as a defensive zone to shield Syria from the
861:land tax), higher pay and small land grants (
715:than military outposts, were 'Ayn Zarba (Gr.
8:
1416:
1414:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1180:
1178:
698:
656:
642:
580:
462:
448:
364:
290:
280:
229:
62:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
549:Administrative organization and settlements
1994:
1980:
1972:
1529:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
44:
2213:Military history of the Abbasid Caliphate
1732:Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World
1641:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1638:Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests
1537:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 761–762.
1332:
1330:
808:'s description of Tarsus as a centre for
774:. Some of the northern fortresses of the
735:(Gr. Germanikeia), rebuilt already under
1930:Nicolle, David; Adam Hook (2008-06-17).
355:Already from late 630s, after the rapid
224:, "the defences, fortifications"; sing.
1875:Haldon, John F.; Kennedy, Hugh (1980).
1104:
567:. After 680 it formed part of the new
387:, along the southern approaches of the
1708:. In Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (ed.).
1613:. In Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (ed.).
1245:
1243:
1085:, early fortified sites used by ghazis
2208:Subdivisions of the Abbasid Caliphate
1840:. Cambridge University Press: 17–24.
1408:Wheatley (2000), pp. 116–117, 262–263
7:
1465:Whittow (1996), pp. 317–318, 326–329
1429:Toynbee (1973), pp. 110–111, 113–114
661:) sectors, roughly separated by the
1712:. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 515–516.
1617:. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 738–739.
746:) and again under Harun al-Rashid,
699:
657:
643:
581:
463:
449:
365:
291:
281:
230:
221:
63:
1689:. London and New York: Routledge.
1662:The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
658:اَلـثُّـغُـوْر الْـجَـزِيْـرِيَّـة
541:. These were located at strategic
25:
2193:Syria under the Abbasid Caliphate
1804:The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025
1345:Wheatley (2000), pp. 116–117, 261
399:in Byzantine hands. Both Emperor
644:اَلـثُّـغُـوْر الـشَّـأْمِـيَّـة
521:) on the Mediterranean coast to
502:, especially during the rule of
314:was also used in the marches of
1783:. University of Chicago Press.
1550:El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (2004).
972:
961:
741:
508:
493:
416:
405:
369:, "of the Outer Lands") and in
64:اَلـثُّـغُـوْر وَالْـعَـوَاصِـم
1001:. Like the earlier model, the
723:, founded by Harun al-Rashid,
700:الـثُّـغُـوْر الـبَـكْـرِيَّـة
426:717–18 Siege of Constantinople
1:
2223:Marches (country subdivision)
1553:Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs
1456:Wheatley (2000), pp. 116, 261
1276:Wheatley (2000), pp. 116, 260
1267:Honigmann (1987), pp. 738–739
916:with northern Syria and even
593:(Ar. Ḥalab, Gr. Berroia) and
537:) on the upper course of the
357:Muslim conquest of the Levant
351:Creation of the frontier zone
200:
180:
173:
124:
113:
1704:Streck, Maximilian (1987) .
1228:Wheatley (2000), pp. 260–261
981:Mamluk–Turkmen frontier zone
346:Arab–Byzantine frontier zone
1734:. Oxford University Press.
1438:Whittow (1996), pp. 310–311
1390:Whittow (1996), pp. 212–213
1324:Toynbee (1973), pp. 114–115
1292:Honigmann (1935), pp. 42–43
1172:Toynbee (1973), pp. 108–109
482:, with the major fortresses
2239:
1372:Vasiliev (1935), pp. 96–97
1336:Streck (1987), pp. 515–516
1306:Kennedy (2001), pp. 82, 98
1237:Vasiliev (1935), pp. 94–96
617:(Gr. Doliche or Telouch),
439:
379:
342:came under their control.
26:
1846:10.1017/S0041977X0002807X
1592:Honigmann, Ernst (1935).
1163:Kaegi (1995), pp. 246–247
1154:Kaegi (1995), pp. 236–244
1111:Kennedy (2001), pp. 97–98
322:, and was revived by the
234:, "protectress") was the
164:Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt
75:
58:
2183:Arabic words and phrases
1474:Har-El (1995), pp. 43–47
1202:Honigmann (1987), p. 738
1145:Honigmann (1987), p. 739
1042:gives the subdivisions (
951:. Although the Hamdanid
706:In the Cilician sector,
1965:10.1163/156852082X00085
1777:Wheatley, Paul (2000).
1609:Honigmann, E. (1987) .
1447:Kazhdan (1991), p. 1479
1354:Wheatley (2000), p. 262
1315:Wheatley (2000), p. 261
1258:Wheatley (2000), p. 116
1216:El-Cheikh (2004), p. 83
1193:El-Cheikh (2004), p. 84
991:al-thughūr wa-l-ʿawāṣim
786:included, according to
693:became a third sector,
489:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
69:al-thughūr wa-l-ʿawāṣim
2188:Abbasid–Byzantine wars
1902:Miotto, Marco (2015).
1750:Vasiliev, Alexander A.
1399:Kennedy (2001), p. 106
1381:Toynbee (1973), p. 115
1363:Toynbee (1973), p. 113
1249:Kazhdan (1991), p. 238
1184:Whittow (1996), p. 212
907:The frontier zone was
802:
797:warriors for the Faith
689:, the frontier around
653:al-Thughūr al-Jazīrīya
639:al-Thughūr al-Sha'mīya
582:جُـنْـد الْـعَـوَاصِـم
483:
464:الثُّغُور الرُّومِيَّة
450:ثُـغُـوْر الْإِسْـلَام
1936:. Osprey Publishing.
1571:Har-El, Shai (1995).
1420:Streck (1987), p. 516
1133:Streck (1987), p. 515
695:al-Thughūr al-Bakrīya
477:
96:Fortified border zone
42:Muslim fortifications
2129:Later Abbasid Period
2086:Early Abbasid Period
1887:. Belgrade: 79–116.
1483:Har-El (1995), p. 44
1040:Ahmad al-Qalqashandi
968:Nikephoros II Phokas
758:, Ḥiṣn Zibaṭra (Gr.
529:, Gr. Melitene) and
191:Garrison information
1496:Canard, M. (1960).
989:re-established the
881:Military operations
729:al-Kanīsat al-Sawdā
621:(Ar. Iskandarīya),
467:, "Boundary of the
186:, 14th century–1514
138:(14th century–1516)
2198:Byzantine Anatolia
1657:Kazhdan, Alexander
1633:Kaegi, Walter Emil
1512:Lévi-Provençal, E.
930:Battle of Lalakaon
909:fiercely contested
784:Thughūr al-Bakrīya
484:
459:Thughūr al-Rūmiyya
410:) and the Caliph ʿ
106:Controlled by
2170:
2169:
1943:978-1-84603-115-1
1814:978-0-520-20496-6
1790:978-0-226-89428-7
1648:978-0-521-48455-8
1584:978-90-04-10180-7
812:against Byzantium
788:Qudama ibn Ja'far
762:), Sumaisaṭ (Gr.
760:Zapetra/Sozopetra
651:or Mesopotamian (
340:Upper Mesopotamia
307:(border guards).
263:Upper Mesopotamia
209:
208:
160:Abbasid Caliphate
110:Abbasid Caliphate
86:Upper Mesopotamia
16:(Redirected from
2230:
1996:
1989:
1982:
1973:
1968:
1947:
1926:
1908:
1898:
1871:
1849:
1818:
1794:
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1652:
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1200:
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1164:
1161:
1155:
1152:
1146:
1143:
1134:
1131:
1112:
1109:
1048:) of the Mamluk
987:Egyptian Mamluks
976:
974:
965:
963:
813:
745:
743:
702:
701:
660:
659:
646:
645:
589:(Ar. Anṭākiya),
584:
583:
563:was divided) of
512:
510:
497:
495:
466:
465:
452:
451:
445:Thughūr al-Islām
442:
441:
420:
418:
409:
407:
395:ranges, leaving
382:
381:
368:
367:
334:in the northern
324:Mamluk Sultanate
294:
293:
284:
283:
267:Muslim conquests
240:Byzantine Empire
233:
232:
231:اَلْـعَـاصِـمَـة
223:
205:
202:
185:
182:
178:
175:
136:Mamluks of Egypt
129:
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118:
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101:Site information
88:
67:
66:
65:
45:
21:
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2166:
2162:Jund ash-Sharah
2123:
2094:Jund al-'Awasim
2080:
2042:
2015:Rashidun Period
2009:
2000:
1950:
1944:
1929:
1906:
1901:
1895:
1874:
1868:
1854:Bonner, Michael
1852:
1830:Bonner, Michael
1828:
1825:
1823:Further reading
1815:
1797:
1791:
1776:
1748:
1742:
1728:Toynbee, Arnold
1726:
1720:
1703:
1697:
1679:
1673:
1655:
1649:
1631:
1625:
1608:
1591:
1585:
1570:
1564:
1549:
1495:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1473:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1367:
1362:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1328:
1323:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1305:
1296:
1291:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1248:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1220:
1215:
1206:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1183:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1137:
1132:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1089:Digenes Akritas
1078:Ghazi (warrior)
1074:
983:
971:
960:
888:Hugh N. Kennedy
883:
855:instead of the
827:Arab Christians
815:
804:
768:Ḥiṣn Qalawdhiya
740:
675:jund al-ʿAwāṣim
577:jund al-ʿAwāṣim
551:
507:
504:Harun al-Rashid
492:
453:, "Boundary of
415:
404:
353:
348:
203:
183:
176:
127:
116:
76:
71:
68:
61:
43:
40:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2236:
2234:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2175:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2152:Jund al-Urdunn
2149:
2144:
2139:
2137:Jund Qinnasrin
2133:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2122:
2121:
2116:
2114:Jund al-Urdunn
2111:
2106:
2101:
2099:Jund Qinnasrin
2096:
2090:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2071:Jund al-Urdunn
2068:
2063:
2058:
2056:Jund Qinnasrin
2052:
2050:
2048:Umayyad Period
2044:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2035:
2033:Jund al-Urdunn
2030:
2025:
2019:
2017:
2011:
2010:
2001:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1984:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1948:
1942:
1927:
1899:
1893:
1872:
1866:
1850:
1824:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1813:
1795:
1789:
1774:
1758:Henri Grégoire
1746:
1740:
1724:
1718:
1701:
1695:
1677:
1671:
1659:, ed. (1991).
1653:
1647:
1629:
1623:
1606:
1589:
1583:
1568:
1562:
1547:
1508:Kramers, J. H.
1504:Gibb, H. A. R.
1491:
1488:
1486:
1485:
1476:
1467:
1458:
1449:
1440:
1431:
1422:
1410:
1401:
1392:
1383:
1374:
1365:
1356:
1347:
1338:
1326:
1317:
1308:
1294:
1278:
1269:
1260:
1251:
1239:
1230:
1218:
1204:
1195:
1186:
1174:
1165:
1156:
1147:
1135:
1113:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1091:
1086:
1080:
1073:
1070:
1034:, Malatya and
999:Ottoman Empire
982:
979:
975: 963–969
964: 946–967
953:emir of Aleppo
945:John Kourkouas
918:Constantinople
882:
879:
792:
744: 661–680
550:
547:
511: 786–809
496: 685–705
419: 634–644
408: 610–641
352:
349:
347:
344:
282:اَلـثُّـغُـوْر
207:
206:
197:
193:
192:
188:
187:
171:
167:
166:
157:
153:
152:
149:
145:
144:
140:
139:
107:
103:
102:
98:
97:
94:
90:
89:
73:
72:
59:
56:
55:
41:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2235:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2157:Jund Filastin
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2120:
2119:Jund Filastin
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2076:Jund Filastin
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2039:
2038:Jund Filastin
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2007:Bilad al-Sham
2004:
1997:
1992:
1990:
1985:
1983:
1978:
1977:
1974:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1939:
1935:
1934:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1900:
1896:
1894:9780754659099
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1867:0-940490-11-0
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1816:
1810:
1806:
1805:
1800:
1799:Whittow, Mark
1796:
1792:
1786:
1782:
1781:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1762:Marius Canard
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1741:0-19-215253-X
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1719:90-04-08265-4
1715:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1696:0-415-25093-5
1692:
1688:
1687:
1682:
1681:Kennedy, Hugh
1678:
1674:
1672:0-19-504652-8
1668:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1644:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1624:90-04-08265-4
1620:
1616:
1612:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1580:
1576:
1575:
1569:
1565:
1563:0-932885-30-6
1559:
1555:
1554:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1489:
1480:
1477:
1471:
1468:
1462:
1459:
1453:
1450:
1444:
1441:
1435:
1432:
1426:
1423:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1405:
1402:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1384:
1378:
1375:
1369:
1366:
1360:
1357:
1351:
1348:
1342:
1339:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1321:
1318:
1312:
1309:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1295:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1273:
1270:
1264:
1261:
1255:
1252:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1234:
1231:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1190:
1187:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1169:
1166:
1160:
1157:
1151:
1148:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1108:
1105:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1062:Qal'at Ja'bar
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
980:
978:
969:
958:
957:Sayf al-Dawla
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
933:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
910:
905:
903:
899:
898:
893:
889:
880:
878:
875:
870:
869:
864:
860:
859:
854:
853:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
814:
811:
807:
801:
798:
791:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
713:
709:
704:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
654:
650:
640:
636:
632:
628:
625:(Ar. Qūrus),
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
557:
548:
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
505:
501:
490:
481:
476:
472:
470:
460:
456:
446:
436:
432:
427:
422:
413:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
376:
372:
366:اَلـدَّوَاحِي
362:
358:
350:
345:
343:
341:
337:
336:Syrian region
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
308:
306:
302:
298:
288:
278:
277:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
249:
245:
241:
237:
227:
219:
215:
214:
198:
194:
189:
172:
168:
165:
161:
158:
156:Built by
154:
150:
146:
141:
137:
134:(940s–962s),
133:
122:
111:
108:
104:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
74:
70:
57:
54:
50:
46:
38:
34:
33:Central March
30:
19:
2147:Jund Dimashq
2109:Jund Dimashq
2066:Jund Dimashq
2028:Jund Dimashq
1959:(1): 71–99.
1956:
1952:
1932:
1914:
1913:(in Greek).
1910:
1884:
1880:
1857:
1837:
1833:
1803:
1779:
1753:
1731:
1709:
1706:"AL-ʿAWĀṢIM"
1685:
1660:
1637:
1614:
1611:"AL-THUGHŪR"
1593:
1573:
1552:
1534:
1527:
1499:"al-ʿAwāṣim"
1479:
1470:
1461:
1452:
1443:
1434:
1425:
1404:
1395:
1386:
1377:
1368:
1359:
1350:
1341:
1320:
1311:
1272:
1263:
1254:
1233:
1198:
1189:
1168:
1159:
1150:
1107:
1049:
1043:
1015:
1010:, while the
1002:
990:
984:
948:
934:
921:
906:
895:
891:
884:
866:
862:
856:
850:
816:
809:
803:
794:
783:
775:
705:
694:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
652:
638:
634:
619:Alexandretta
602:
598:
576:
568:
561:Muslim Syria
554:
552:
543:choke points
534:
526:
518:
485:
458:
444:
434:
430:
423:
374:
360:
354:
331:
327:
311:
309:
296:
292:اَلـثَّـغْـر
286:
275:
274:
225:
212:
211:
210:
143:Site history
60:
52:
48:
1917:: 133–156.
1524:Pellat, Ch.
1516:Schacht, J.
1024:Serfendikar
874:gold dinars
725:Tall Gubair
721:al-Hārūniya
393:Anti-Taurus
320:Transoxiana
257:, northern
184: 962s
177: 750s
170:In use
151:8th century
80:, northern
37:Lower March
29:Upper March
2177:Categories
1911:Vyzantiaka
1100:References
1012:Dulkadirid
1008:Ramadanids
806:Ibn Hawqal
776:al-ʿAwāṣim
772:Ḥiṣn Ziyad
737:Muawiyah I
708:Mopsuestia
691:Diyār Bakr
683:al-ʿAwāṣim
647:) and the
599:al-ʿAwāṣim
535:Ḥiṣn Kamkh
431:al-thughūr
316:al-Andalus
301:kleisourai
297:al-ʿawāṣim
276:al-thughūr
251:Caliphates
226:al-ʿāṣimah
213:Al-ʿAwāṣim
204: 780
199:25,000 in
128: 935
121:Ikhshidids
117: 930
2203:Al-Awasim
2142:Jund Hims
2104:Jund Hims
2061:Jund Hims
2023:Jund Hims
2003:Districts
1923:1012-0513
1770:181731396
1577:. BRILL.
1543:495469456
1533:Volume I:
1520:Lewis, B.
937:Ikhshidid
837:tribe or
748:al-Ḥadath
717:Anazarbus
573:Qinnasrin
539:Euphrates
440:τὰ Στόμια
435:ta Stomia
401:Heraclius
361:al-Ḍawāḥī
310:The term
287:al-thaghr
132:Hamdanids
1856:(1996).
1801:(1996).
1752:(1935).
1730:(1973).
1683:(2001).
1635:(1995).
1526:(eds.).
1072:See also
1054:Elbistan
995:Turkoman
941:Hamdanid
926:emirates
835:Sayābija
831:Khurasan
819:Persians
764:Samosata
752:Salaghus
533:(Arabic
527:Malaṭiyā
500:Abbasids
480:Anatolia
397:Anatolia
303:and the
285:; sing.
242:and the
196:Garrison
130:–940s),
1602:6934222
1490:Sources
1094:Karbeas
1066:al-Ruha
1058:al-Bira
1050:thughūr
1045:niyābāt
1036:Divriği
1032:Darende
1016:thughūr
1003:thughūr
949:Thughūr
922:Thughūr
890:: "the
780:Erzurum
733:Mar'ash
687:Armenia
679:Thughūr
671:Thughūr
667:Thughūr
649:Jaziran
635:Thughūr
623:Cyrrhus
607:Baghras
603:Thughūr
587:Antioch
523:Malatya
385:Cilicia
380:τὰ ἄκρα
375:ta akra
332:thughūr
328:ʿawāṣim
312:thughūr
305:akritai
271:marches
255:Cilicia
248:Abbasid
244:Umayyad
222:العواصم
78:Cilicia
49:Thughur
18:Thughur
1940:
1921:
1891:
1864:
1811:
1787:
1768:
1738:
1716:
1693:
1669:
1645:
1621:
1600:
1581:
1560:
1541:
1522:&
1083:Ribāṭs
892:ṣāʿifa
863:qaṭā'i
858:kharāj
833:, the
756:Kaisum
663:Amanus
633:. The
627:Ra'bān
595:Manbij
591:Aleppo
519:Ṭarsūs
515:Tarsus
457:") or
389:Taurus
236:Arabic
218:Arabic
112:(750s–
53:Awasim
35:, and
1907:(PDF)
1502:. In
914:Basra
902:Mecca
868:jihad
852:ʿushr
847:tithe
841:(Ar.
839:Jatts
823:Slavs
810:jihad
712:Adana
631:Tīzīn
615:Dulūk
611:Bayās
531:Kemah
525:(Ar.
517:(Ar.
455:Islam
371:Greek
259:Syria
148:Built
82:Syria
1938:ISBN
1919:ISSN
1889:ISBN
1862:ISBN
1809:ISBN
1785:ISBN
1766:OCLC
1736:ISBN
1714:ISBN
1691:ISBN
1667:ISBN
1643:ISBN
1619:ISBN
1598:OCLC
1579:ISBN
1558:ISBN
1539:OCLC
1064:and
1020:Ayas
939:and
897:hajj
843:Zuṭṭ
770:and
727:and
681:and
629:and
569:jund
565:Homs
556:jund
471:").
412:Umar
391:and
338:and
330:and
318:and
261:and
246:and
93:Type
84:and
51:and
2005:of
1961:doi
1842:doi
1535:A–B
1068:).
1028:Sis
904:".
900:to
849:or
766:),
719:),
703:).
571:of
469:Rūm
373:as
253:in
119:),
2179::
1957:25
1955:.
1915:32
1909:.
1885:19
1883:.
1879:.
1838:57
1836:.
1760:,
1531:.
1518:;
1514:;
1510:;
1506:;
1413:^
1329:^
1297:^
1281:^
1242:^
1221:^
1207:^
1177:^
1138:^
1116:^
1060:,
1038:.
1030:,
1026:,
1022:,
973:r.
962:r.
955:,
825:,
821:,
754:,
742:r.
655:,
641:,
613:,
609:,
509:r.
494:r.
437:,
417:r.
406:r.
289:,
228:,
220::
201:c.
181:c.
174:c.
162:,
125:c.
114:c.
31:,
1995:e
1988:t
1981:v
1967:.
1963::
1946:.
1925:.
1897:.
1870:.
1848:.
1844::
1817:.
1793:.
1772:.
1744:.
1722:.
1699:.
1675:.
1651:.
1627:.
1604:.
1587:.
1566:.
1545:.
970:(
959:(
739:(
697:(
579:(
506:(
491:(
461:(
447:(
414:(
403:(
377:(
363:(
279:(
216:(
179:–
123:(
39:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.