161:
174:
325:
716:
333:
783:, stopping any tin mining activity in Tuscany and increasing Roman dependence on tin from Brittany, Iberia, and Cornwall. After the Roman conquest of Gaul, Brittany's tin deposits saw intensified exploitation after the first century BC. With the exhaustion of the Iberian tin mines, Cornwall became a major supplier of tin for the Romans after the 3rd century AD.
799:
814:, and with it came the knowledge and technology for tin prospection and extraction. By 2000 to 1500 BC Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan appear to have exploited their sources of tin, carrying the resources east and west along the Silk Road crossing Central Asia. This trade link likely followed an existing trade route of
391:, and its tin (and gold, though not its copper), is shown by tin isotopes to have come from Cornwall. In addition, a rare find of a pure tin ingot in Scandinavia was provenanced to Cornwall. Available evidence, though very limited, thus points to Cornwall as the sole early source of tin in Central and Northern Europe.
653:
Due to the scattered nature of tin deposits around the world and its essential nature for the creation of tin bronze, tin trade played an important role in the development of cultures throughout ancient times. Archaeologists have reconstructed parts of the extensive trade networks of ancient cultures
386:
It has been claimed that tin was first mined in Europe around 2500 BC in the
Erzgebirge, and knowledge of tin bronze and tin extraction techniques spread from there to Brittany and Cornwall around 2000 BC and from northwestern Europe to northwestern Spain and Portugal around the same time. However,
763:
along the extreme borders of the world, suggesting very long-distance trade, likely from
Britain, northwestern Iberia, or Brittany, supplying tin to Greece and other Mediterranean cultures. The idea that the Phoenicians went to Cornwall for its tin and supplied it to the whole of the Mediterranean
424:
A group of 52 bronze artifacts from the late Bronze Age
Balkans has been shown to have tin of multiple origins, based on the correlation of tin isotope differences with the different find locations of the artifacts. While the locations of these separate tin sources are uncertain, the larger Serbian
397:
for Europe and the
Mediterranean throughout ancient times and may have been the earliest sources of tin in Western Europe, with evidence for trade to the Eastern Mediterranean by the Late Bronze Age. Within recorded history, Cornwall and Devon only dominated the European market for tin from late
703:
dated 1300 BC which carried over 300 copper bars weighing 10 tons, and approximately 40 tin bars weighing 1 ton. Evidence of direct tin trade between Europe and the
Eastern Mediterranean has been demonstrated through the analysis of tin ingots dated to the 13th-12th centuries BC from sites in
541:
dynasties. Other cultures of
Southeast Asia exploited the abundant cassiterite resources sometime between the third and second millennia BC, but due to the lack of archaeological work in the region little else is known about tin exploitation during ancient times in that part of the world.
447:
has very little tin ore; the few sources that have recently been found are too insignificant to have played a major role during most of ancient history. However, it is possible that they were exploited at the start of the Bronze Age and are responsible for the development of early bronze
711:
does not appear to have much in terms of significant sources of tin, it does have rich copper and other mineral wealth and served as a centre for metals trade during the Bronze Age and likely actively imported tin from the
Iberian Peninsula for export to the rest of the Mediterranean.
690:
as well as the
Mediterranean with tin. By 2000 BC, the extraction of tin in Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal had begun and tin was traded to the Mediterranean sporadically from all these sources. Evidence of tin trade in the Mediterranean can be seen in a number of Bronze Age
829:
In China, early tin was extracted along the Yellow River in
Erlitou and Shang times between 2500 and 1800 BC. By Han and later times, China imported its tin from what is today Yunnan province. This has remained China's main source of tin throughout history and into modern times.
1576:
Benvenuti, M.; Chiarantini, L.; Norfini, A.; Casini, A.; Guideri, S.; Tanelli, G. (2003), "The "Etruscan tin": a preliminary contribution from researches at Monte
Valerio and Baratti-Populonia (Southern Tuscany, Italy)", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
460:
mine that was used from 3250 to 1800 BC. It contains miles of tunnels, some only large enough for a child. A grave with children who were probably workers has been found. It was abandoned, with crucibles and other tools left at the site.
670:
The earliest sources of tin in the Early Bronze Age in the Near East are still unknown and the subject of much debate in archaeology. Possibilities include minor now-depleted sources in the Near East, trade from Central Asia,
160:
1763:
Kalyanaraman, S. (2010), "The Bronze Age Writing System of Sarasvati Hieroglyphics as Evidenced by Two "Rosetta Stones" - Decoding Indus script as repertoire of the mints/smithy/mine-workers of Meluhha",
480:, that show signs of having been exploited starting around 2000 BC, archaeologists disagree about whether they were significant sources of tin for the earliest Bronze Age cultures of the Middle East.
402:, starting around the 3rd century AD, as many Spanish tin mines were exhausted. Cornwall maintained its importance as a source of tin throughout medieval times and into the modern period.
436:. But Iberian tin deposits were largely forgotten throughout the medieval period, were not rediscovered until the 18th century, and only re-gained importance during the mid-19th century.
1625:, Washington, D.C.: A seminar organized by Theodore A. Wertime and held at the Smithsonian Institution and the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. March 14–15, 1977, pp. 25–32
2107:, Washington, D.C.: A seminar organized by Theodore A. Wertime and held at the Smithsonian Institution and the National Bureau of Standards, Washington D.C. March 14–15, 1977, pp. 14–15
1886:, Washington, D.C.: A seminar organized by Theodore A. Wertime and held at the Smithsonian Institution and the National Bureau of Standards, Washington D.C. March 14–15, 1977, pp. 43–48
1758:, Washington, D.C.: A seminar organized by Theodore A. Wertime and held at the Smithsonian Institution and the National Bureau of Standards, Washington D.C. March 14–15, 1977, pp. 14–15
1929:"Isotope systematics and chemical composition of tin ingots from Mochlos (Crete) and other Late Bronze Age sites in the eastern Mediterranean Sea: An ultimate key to tin provenance?"
301:. These problems are compounded by the difficulty in provenancing tin objects and ores to their geological deposits using isotopic or trace element analyses. Current archaeological
201:
process by producing a more fluid melt that cools to a denser, less spongy metal. This was an important innovation that allowed for the much more complex shapes cast in closed
86:
with 0.005 ppm. Ancient sources of tin were therefore rare, and the metal usually had to be traded over very long distances to meet demand in areas which lacked tin deposits.
1836:
Mason, A.H; Powell, W.G.; Bankoff, H.A.; Mathur, R; Bulatović, A.; Filipović, V.; Ruiz, J. (2016), "Tin isotope characterization of bronze artifacts of the central Balkans",
743:
who traded extensively there, from the Erzgebirge by way of the Baltic Amber Road overland route, or from Brittany and Cornwall through overland routes from their colony at
704:
Israel, Turkey and modern-day Greece; tin ingots from Israel, for example, have been found to share chemical composition with tin from Cornwall and Devon (Great Britain).
213:
were quickly realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tin ores began early in the Bronze Age. This created the demand for rare tin metal and formed a
189:
had different physical properties. The earliest bronze objects had tin or arsenic content of less than 2% and are therefore believed to be the result of unintentional
731:
and the Western Mediterranean appear to have traded their tin from European sources, while the Middle East acquired their tin from Central Asian sources through the
1789:
Ling, Johan; Stos-Gale, Zofia; Grandin, Lena; Hjärthner-Holdar, Eva; Persson, Per-Olof (2014), "Moving metals II provenancing Scandinavian Bronze Age artefacts",
2037:
Rovia, S.; Montero, I. (2003), "Natural tin-bronze alloy in Iberian Peninsula metallurgy: potentiality and reality", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
553:
does have some small scattered deposits of tin, they were not a major source of tin for Indian Bronze Age cultures as shown by their dependence on imported tin.
343:
has very few sources of tin. Therefore, throughout ancient times it was imported long distances from the known tin mining districts of antiquity. These were the
2141:
1718:
Hauptmann, A.; Maddin, R.; Prange, M. (2002), "On the structure and composition of copper and tin ingots excavated from the shipwreck of Uluburun",
1927:
Pernicka, Ernst; Lockhoff, Nicole; Galili, Ehud; BrĂĽgmann, Gerhard; Giumlia-Mair, Alessandra R.; Soles, Jeffrey S.; Berger, Daniel (26 June 2019).
319:
790:
gained popularity. Brittany and Cornwall remained the major producers and exporters of tin throughout the Mediterranean through to modern times.
383:. Even at that time, the Etruscans themselves had to import additional tin from the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, and later from Cornwall.
2006:
Pulak, C. (2001), "The cargo of the Uluburun ship and evidence for trade with the Aegean and beyond", in Bonfante, L.; Karageogrhis, V. (eds.),
561:
While rich veins of tin are known to exist in Central and South Africa, whether these were exploited during ancient times is still debated (
197:, which contains arsenic. The addition of a second metal to copper increases its hardness, lowers the melting temperature, and improves the
1809:
Lo Schiavo, F. (2003), "The problem of early tin from the point of view of Nuragic Sardinia", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
173:
2064:
Valera, R.G.; Valera, P.G. (2003), "Tin in the Mediterranean area: history and geology", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
2024:
Roden, Christoph (1985). "Die montanarchäologischen Quellen des ur- und frühgeschichtlichen Zinnbergbaus in Europa - Ein Überblick".
2091:
2073:
2046:
2015:
1997:
1918:
1882:
Muhly, J.D. (1979), "The evidence for sources of and trade in Bronze Age tin", in Franklin, A.D.; Olin, J.S.; Wertime, T.A. (eds.),
1873:
1818:
1709:
1691:
1673:
1639:
1608:
1590:
2103:(1979), "The search for ancient tin: the geographic and historic boundaries", in Franklin, A.D.; Olin, J.S.; Wertime, T.A. (eds.),
525:, stretching from Yunnan in China to the Malay Peninsula. The deposits in Yunnan were not mined until around 700 BC, but by the
844:
2126:
1630:
Cierny, J.; Weisgerber, G. (2003), "The "Bronze Age tin mines in Central Asia", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
283:
studies. However, a number of problems have plagued the study of ancient tin such as the limited archaeological remains of
1617:
Charles, J.A. (1979), "The development of the usage of tin and tin-bronze: some problems", in Franklin, A.D.; Olin, J.S.;
231:), oxidized tin, most likely was the original source of tin in ancient times. Other forms of tin ores are less abundant
891:
449:
394:
279:
offers a glimpse into that time period's trade and cultural interactions, and has therefore been the focus of intense
1664:
Dayton, J.E. (2003), "The problem of tin in the ancient world (part 2)", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
2121:
1988:
Primas, M. (2003), "The use of tin and lead in Bronze Age metallurgy", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
263:. It is likely that the earliest deposits were alluvial and perhaps exploited by the same methods used for panning
530:
209:
objects appear first in the Middle East where arsenic is commonly found in association with copper ore, but the
496:
432:
Iberian tin was widely traded across the Mediterranean during the Bronze Age, and extensively exploited during
1754:
Hedge, K.T.M. (1979), "Sources of ancient tin in India", in Franklin, A.D.; Olin, J.S.; Wertime, T.A. (eds.),
848:
259:, because cassiterite is usually black or purple or otherwise dark, a feature exploited by early Bronze Age
164:
Map of bronze-age tin finds: major and minor tin deposits from Europe to Central Asia, and selected objects.
1866:
Copper and Tin: the Distribution of Mineral Resources and the Nature of the Metals Trade in the Bronze Age
1700:
Giumlia-Mair, A. (2003), "Iron Age tin in the Oriental Alps", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
1911:
Tin in Antiquity: its Mining and Trade Throughout the Ancient World with Particular Reference to Cornwall
886:
719:
Map of Europe based on Strabo's geography, showing the Cassiterides just off the northwest tip of Iberia
429:), while the smaller group, largely from western Romania, is inferred to have western Romanian origins.
376:
1734:
Haustein, M.; Gillis, C.; Pernicka, E. (2010), "Tin isotopy: a new method for solving old questions",
715:
17:
1940:
1845:
202:
387:
the only Bronze Age object from Central Europe whose tin has been scientifically provenanced is the
181:
Tin extraction and use can be dated to the beginning of the Bronze Age around 3000 BC, during which
2136:
2131:
896:
546:
487:
the only tin deposits considered exploitable by ancient peoples occur in the far eastern region of
380:
368:
324:
1723:
672:
573:
are known to have actively mined, smelted and traded tin between the 11th and 15th centuries AD.
59:
328:
Giant, ceremonial dirk of the Plougrescant-Ommerschans type, Plougrescant, France, 1500–1300 BC.
1773:
Lechtman, H. (1996), "Arsenic bronze: dirty copper or chosen alloy? A view from the Americas",
2087:
2069:
2042:
2011:
1993:
1976:
1958:
1914:
1869:
1814:
1705:
1687:
1669:
1635:
1604:
1586:
837:
was widely traded around the world in ancient times as the area was only opened up to Indian,
826:
from Central Asia that have been found as far west as Egypt and that date to the same period.
780:
756:
522:
521:(2500 to 1800 BC). However, the richest deposits for the region, and indeed the world, lie in
409:– has significant sources of tin which show evidence of being extensively exploited after the
348:
210:
157:
have been suggested as minor sources of tin, but the archaeological evidence is inconclusive.
2055:
Stech, T.; Pigott, V.C. (1986), "Metals trade in Southwest Asia in the third millennium BC",
2100:
1966:
1948:
1853:
1798:
1778:
1743:
1653:
1618:
659:
654:
from the Bronze Age to modern times using historical texts, archaeological excavations, and
500:
417:
during the 50s BC and onwards. Brittany remained a significant source of tin throughout the
206:
305:
is concerned with the origins of tin in the earliest Bronze Age cultures of the Near East.
811:
776:
492:
418:
248:
146:
98:
55:
39:
1944:
1849:
854:(book VI, 26), and tin is mentioned as one of the resources being exported from Rome to
605:. These deposits were exploited as early as 1000 AD in the manufacture of tin bronze by
2146:
1971:
1928:
810:
Near Eastern development of bronze technology spread across Central Asia by way of the
724:
426:
388:
280:
142:
126:
89:
Known sources of tin in ancient times include the southeastern tin belt that runs from
1902:
The Ancient Bronze Metallurgy of Yunnan and its Environs: Development and Implications
425:
group of artifacts is inferred to be derived from tin sources in western Serbia (e.g.
2115:
1747:
679:
655:
614:
582:
566:
529:
had become the main source of tin in China according to historical texts of the Han,
518:
484:
399:
379:
miners around 800 BC, but it was not a significant source of tin for the rest of the
344:
284:
110:
332:
275:
The importance of tin to the success of Bronze Age cultures and the scarcity of the
1582:
871:
855:
815:
760:
538:
534:
510:
506:
465:
444:
410:
251:
due to the fact that it is harder, heavier, and more chemically resistant than the
1657:
617:, the only known exploitable source of tin during ancient times is located in the
2084:
Early Metallurgy of the Persian Gulf: Technology, Trade, and the Bronze Age World
1953:
767:
The early Roman world was mainly supplied with tin from its Iberian provinces of
347:(Erzgebirge) along the modern border between Germany and the Czech Republic, the
1722:, vol. 328, no. 328, American Schools of Oriental Research, pp. 1-30,
740:
687:
610:
526:
477:
457:
260:
256:
224:
47:
1782:
1891:
Muhly, J.D. (1985), "Sources of tin and the beginnings of bronze metallurgy",
1857:
1802:
859:
748:
692:
683:
473:
469:
406:
194:
43:
1962:
1176:
1174:
834:
823:
772:
768:
752:
744:
732:
638:
625:
which supplied west Mexican cultures with enough tin for bronze production.
618:
598:
217:
network that linked the distant sources of tin to the markets of Bronze Age
1980:
798:
881:
876:
819:
736:
708:
696:
634:
590:
570:
433:
363:
in southwestern Britain. There are several smaller sources of tin in the
356:
352:
297:
276:
244:
240:
236:
232:
218:
190:
134:
114:
102:
1727:
602:
514:
488:
372:
364:
252:
198:
122:
75:
51:
838:
787:
779:
mentions that in 80 BC, a senatorial decree halted all mining on the
728:
700:
642:
622:
594:
453:
340:
302:
288:
182:
118:
90:
79:
67:
35:
1165:
513:
which were exploited by the earliest Chinese Bronze Age culture of
797:
606:
550:
360:
331:
323:
255:
in which it typically forms. These deposits can be easily seen in
214:
172:
159:
154:
150:
138:
130:
106:
94:
31:
1276:
1274:
1117:
1078:
291:
operations, and the poor preservation of pure tin objects due to
2010:, Nicosia: The Costakis and Leto Severis Foundation, pp. 12–61,
1648:
Dayton, J.E. (1971), "The problem of tin in the ancient world",
1220:
1218:
956:
954:
586:
414:
264:
83:
71:
63:
1180:
764:
has no archaeological basis and is largely considered a myth.
186:
27:
1089:
1087:
786:
Throughout the medieval period, demand for tin increased as
601:, and major deposits of exploitable cassiterite in northern
633:
The tin belt of Southeast Asia extends all the way down to
491:. This source of tin appears to have been exploited by the
336:
Wheelpit at a medieval tin mine in Dartmoor, United Kingdom
1325:
1323:
1011:
1009:
1007:
1005:
662:
to determine the origins of tin objects around the world.
1340:
1338:
1236:
1105:
54:
around 3000 BC. Tin is a relatively rare element in the
613:, which considered tin bronze the "imperial alloy". In
1205:
1203:
1201:
1153:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1038:
1036:
509:
has a number of small cassiterite deposits along the
367:
and another minor source of tin is known to exist at
1720:
Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research
1261:
1259:
1257:
682:
had begun exporting tin, using the well established
941:
939:
937:
935:
739:Greece had access to tin from Iberia by way of the
193:due to trace metal content in copper ores such as
1392:
1280:
1027:
960:
751:) established in the 6th century BC. In 450 BC,
464:While there are a few sources of cassiterite in
395:Cornwall and Devon were important sources of tin
38:, and its acquisition was an important part of
1777:, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 477–514,
727:times, the tin sources were well established.
499:culture around 2000 BC as well as by northern
847:are well known from historical texts such as
833:It is unlikely that Southeast Asian tin from
678:It is possible that as early as 2500 BC, the
287:, the destruction of ancient mines by modern
8:
1560:
1548:
1524:
1512:
1464:
1452:
1440:
1428:
1404:
1356:
1248:
1224:
1141:
1129:
1093:
1054:
1015:
984:
972:
914:
375:, Italy. The Tuscan source was exploited by
1329:
2008:Italy and Cyprus in Antiquity: 1500–450 BC
1536:
1488:
1368:
243:process. Cassiterite often accumulates in
1970:
1952:
1831:, Matsue: Proceedings of BUMA IV, pp. 1–4
549:starting between 1500 and 1000 BC. While
1416:
714:
1895:, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 275–291
1209:
1192:
996:
926:
907:
320:Mining archaeology in the British Isles
1652:, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 49–70,
1601:Copper and its alloys in ancient India
1599:Chakrabarti, D.K.; Lahiri, N. (1996),
1344:
1314:
1297:
1042:
841:, and European traders around 800 AD.
822:, and chlorite vessels decorated with
562:
18:Tin sources and trade in ancient times
2086:, Boston: Brill Academic Publishers,
1813:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 121–132,
1668:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 165–170,
1500:
1476:
1380:
1265:
1066:
945:
818:, a highly prized semi-precious blue
7:
1704:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 93–108,
1154:Haustein, Gillis & Pernicka 2010
581:Tin deposits exist in many parts of
405:Brittany – opposite Cornwall on the
2041:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 15–22,
1992:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 87–92,
1913:, London: The Institute of Metals,
1634:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 23–31,
1603:, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal,
637:, but metals were not exploited in
2068:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 3–14,
695:containing tin ingots such as the
585:, with minor deposits in southern
25:
1838:Journal of Archaeological Science
1829:Early Metallurgy: The Tin Mystery
1791:Journal of Archaeological Science
185:objects formed from polymetallic
1748:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2010.00515.x
775:and to a lesser extent Tuscany.
2142:Ancient international relations
1893:American Journal of Archaeology
503:cultures around the same time.
177:Cassiterite and quartz crystals
1766:Journal of Indo-Judaic Studies
1684:The Early British Tin Industry
621:tin province of north central
609:cultures, including the later
1:
1686:, Stroud: Tempus Publishing,
1658:10.1080/00438243.1971.9979491
1393:Chakrabarti & Lahiri 1996
755:described tin as coming from
565:, p. 165). However, the
239:that require a more involved
46:onward. Its use began in the
1954:10.1371/journal.pone.0218326
1775:Journal of Field Archaeology
1281:Cierny & Weisgerber 2003
1028:Cierny & Weisgerber 2003
961:Cierny & Weisgerber 2003
892:Mining in Cornwall and Devon
456:, is the site of an ancient
1909:Penhallurick, R.D. (1986),
2163:
2105:The Search for Ancient Tin
1884:The Search for Ancient Tin
1783:10.1179/009346996791973774
1756:The Search for Ancient Tin
1623:The Search for Ancient Tin
845:Indo–Roman trade relations
448:manufacturing technology.
317:
2059:, vol. 48, pp. 39–64
1900:Murowchick, R.E. (1991),
1858:10.1016/j.jas.2016.04.012
1803:10.1016/j.jas.2013.07.018
1768:, vol. 11, pp. 47–74
271:Archaeological importance
2066:The Problem of Early Tin
2039:The Problem of Early Tin
1990:The Problem of Early Tin
1868:, Hamden: Archon Books,
1811:The Problem of Early Tin
1702:The Problem of Early Tin
1666:The Problem of Early Tin
1632:The Problem of Early Tin
1579:The Problem of Early Tin
1441:Rovia & Montero 2003
1429:Valera & Valera 2003
1094:Valera & Valera 2003
915:Valera & Valera 2003
684:Baltic amber trade route
675:, Europe, or elsewhere.
1330:Stech & Pigott 1986
802:A Shang dynasty bronze
34:in the creation of tin-
1904:, Michigan: Ann Arbour
807:
720:
355:in modern France, and
337:
329:
178:
165:
2127:History of metallurgy
1118:Benvenuti et al. 2003
1079:Benvenuti et al. 2003
887:Tin mining in Britain
801:
718:
660:lead isotope analysis
641:until the arrival of
335:
327:
176:
163:
121:; the border between
2082:Weeks, L.R. (2004),
1864:Muhly, J.D. (1973),
1682:Gerrard, S. (2000),
1181:Pernicka et al. 2019
545:Tin was used in the
495:people known as the
267:in placer deposits.
1945:2019PLoSO..1418326B
1850:2016JArSc..69..110M
1827:Maddin, R. (1998),
1251:, pp. 100–101.
897:Dartmoor tin mining
597:, and northwestern
547:Indian subcontinent
205:of the Bronze Age.
62:(ppm), compared to
1742:(5), pp. 816-832,
808:
759:islands named the
721:
673:Sub-Saharan Africa
338:
330:
179:
166:
82:with 0.1 ppm, and
2122:History of mining
1650:World Archaeology
1561:Penhallurick 1986
1549:Penhallurick 1986
1525:Giumlia-Mair 2003
1513:Penhallurick 1986
1467:, pp. 75–77.
1465:Penhallurick 1986
1453:Kalyanaraman 2010
1405:Penhallurick 1986
1371:, pp. 76–77.
1357:Penhallurick 1986
1249:Penhallurick 1986
1237:Mason et al. 2016
1227:, pp. 86–91.
1225:Penhallurick 1986
1142:Penhallurick 1986
1130:Penhallurick 1986
1106:Mason et al. 2016
1055:Giumlia-Mair 2003
1016:Penhallurick 1986
985:Penhallurick 1986
973:Penhallurick 1986
781:Italian Peninsula
757:Northern European
699:off the coast of
523:Southeastern Asia
349:Iberian Peninsula
66:with 50,000 ppm,
60:parts per million
58:, with about two
16:(Redirected from
2154:
2108:
2096:
2078:
2060:
2051:
2033:
2020:
2002:
1984:
1974:
1956:
1923:
1905:
1896:
1887:
1878:
1860:
1832:
1823:
1805:
1785:
1769:
1759:
1750:
1730:
1714:
1696:
1678:
1660:
1644:
1626:
1613:
1595:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1456:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1432:
1426:
1420:
1414:
1408:
1402:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1360:
1354:
1348:
1342:
1333:
1327:
1318:
1312:
1301:
1295:
1284:
1278:
1269:
1263:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1234:
1228:
1222:
1213:
1207:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1178:
1169:
1166:Ling et al. 2014
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1139:
1133:
1127:
1121:
1115:
1109:
1103:
1097:
1091:
1082:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1052:
1046:
1040:
1031:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1000:
994:
988:
982:
976:
970:
964:
958:
949:
943:
930:
924:
918:
912:
812:Eurasian Steppes
735:. For example,
207:Arsenical bronze
40:ancient cultures
30:is an essential
21:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2152:
2151:
2112:
2111:
2099:
2094:
2081:
2076:
2063:
2054:
2049:
2036:
2023:
2018:
2005:
2000:
1987:
1939:(6): e0218326.
1926:
1921:
1908:
1899:
1890:
1881:
1876:
1863:
1844:, pp. 110-117,
1835:
1826:
1821:
1808:
1788:
1772:
1762:
1753:
1733:
1717:
1712:
1699:
1694:
1681:
1676:
1663:
1647:
1642:
1629:
1616:
1611:
1598:
1593:
1575:
1572:
1567:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1543:
1537:Murowchick 1991
1535:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1511:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1489:Lo Schiavo 2003
1487:
1483:
1475:
1471:
1463:
1459:
1451:
1447:
1439:
1435:
1427:
1423:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1391:
1387:
1379:
1375:
1369:Murowchick 1991
1367:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1343:
1336:
1328:
1321:
1313:
1304:
1296:
1287:
1279:
1272:
1264:
1255:
1247:
1243:
1235:
1231:
1223:
1216:
1208:
1199:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1172:
1164:
1160:
1152:
1148:
1140:
1136:
1128:
1124:
1116:
1112:
1104:
1100:
1092:
1085:
1077:
1073:
1065:
1061:
1053:
1049:
1041:
1034:
1026:
1022:
1014:
1003:
995:
991:
987:, pp. 4–5.
983:
979:
971:
967:
959:
952:
944:
933:
925:
921:
913:
909:
905:
868:
851:Natural History
796:
725:classical Greek
668:
651:
631:
579:
559:
493:Eurasian Steppe
442:
419:medieval period
322:
316:
311:
309:Ancient sources
273:
249:placer deposits
230:
171:
99:Malay Peninsula
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2160:
2158:
2150:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2114:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2097:
2092:
2079:
2074:
2061:
2052:
2047:
2034:
2021:
2016:
2003:
1998:
1985:
1924:
1919:
1906:
1897:
1888:
1879:
1874:
1861:
1833:
1824:
1819:
1806:
1786:
1770:
1760:
1751:
1731:
1715:
1710:
1697:
1692:
1679:
1674:
1661:
1645:
1640:
1627:
1614:
1609:
1596:
1591:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1565:
1553:
1541:
1529:
1517:
1515:, p. 123.
1505:
1493:
1481:
1469:
1457:
1445:
1433:
1421:
1419:, p. 478.
1409:
1397:
1385:
1373:
1361:
1349:
1347:, p. 165.
1334:
1319:
1302:
1285:
1270:
1253:
1241:
1239:, p. 116.
1229:
1214:
1197:
1185:
1170:
1158:
1146:
1134:
1122:
1110:
1108:, p. 110.
1098:
1083:
1071:
1059:
1047:
1032:
1020:
1001:
989:
977:
965:
950:
931:
919:
906:
904:
901:
900:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
867:
864:
795:
792:
667:
664:
650:
647:
645:in the 1780s.
630:
627:
578:
575:
558:
555:
452:, in Southern
441:
438:
389:Nebra sky disk
315:
312:
310:
307:
281:archaeological
272:
269:
228:
170:
167:
127:Czech Republic
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2159:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2117:
2106:
2102:
2101:Wertime, T.A.
2098:
2095:
2093:0-391-04213-0
2089:
2085:
2080:
2077:
2075:1-84171-564-6
2071:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2050:
2048:1-84171-564-6
2044:
2040:
2035:
2032:(2/3): 50–80.
2031:
2027:
2026:Der Anschnitt
2022:
2019:
2017:9963-8102-3-3
2013:
2009:
2004:
2001:
1999:1-84171-564-6
1995:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1922:
1920:0-904357-81-3
1916:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1877:
1875:0-208-01217-6
1871:
1867:
1862:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1822:
1820:1-84171-564-6
1816:
1812:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1716:
1713:
1711:1-84171-564-6
1707:
1703:
1698:
1695:
1693:0-7524-1452-6
1689:
1685:
1680:
1677:
1675:1-84171-564-6
1671:
1667:
1662:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1643:
1641:1-84171-564-6
1637:
1633:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1619:Wertime, T.A.
1615:
1612:
1610:81-215-0707-3
1606:
1602:
1597:
1594:
1592:1-84171-564-6
1588:
1585:, pp. 55–66,
1584:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1563:, p. 53.
1562:
1557:
1554:
1551:, p. 51.
1550:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1530:
1527:, p. 93.
1526:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1506:
1503:, p. 45.
1502:
1497:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1482:
1478:
1473:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1458:
1454:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1425:
1422:
1418:
1417:Lechtman 1996
1413:
1410:
1407:, p. 11.
1406:
1401:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1386:
1383:, p. 39.
1382:
1377:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1362:
1359:, p. 35.
1358:
1353:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1326:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1283:, p. 28.
1282:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1195:, p. 21.
1194:
1189:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1147:
1144:, p. 93.
1143:
1138:
1135:
1132:, p. 80.
1131:
1126:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1099:
1096:, p. 11.
1095:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1081:, p. 56.
1080:
1075:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1002:
999:, p. 30.
998:
993:
990:
986:
981:
978:
974:
969:
966:
963:, p. 23.
962:
957:
955:
951:
947:
942:
940:
938:
936:
932:
928:
923:
920:
917:, p. 10.
916:
911:
908:
902:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
869:
865:
863:
862:, and India.
861:
857:
853:
852:
846:
842:
840:
836:
831:
827:
825:
821:
817:
813:
805:
800:
793:
791:
789:
784:
782:
778:
774:
770:
765:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
717:
713:
710:
705:
702:
698:
694:
689:
685:
681:
680:Ore Mountains
676:
674:
666:Mediterranean
665:
663:
661:
657:
656:trace element
648:
646:
644:
640:
636:
628:
626:
624:
620:
616:
615:North America
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
583:South America
576:
574:
572:
568:
564:
556:
554:
552:
548:
543:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
519:Shang dynasty
516:
512:
508:
504:
502:
498:
497:Seima-Turbino
494:
490:
486:
485:Northern Asia
481:
479:
475:
471:
467:
462:
459:
455:
451:
446:
439:
437:
435:
430:
428:
422:
420:
416:
412:
408:
403:
401:
396:
392:
390:
384:
382:
381:Mediterranean
378:
374:
370:
369:Monte Valerio
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
345:Ore Mountains
342:
334:
326:
321:
313:
308:
306:
304:
300:
299:
294:
290:
286:
285:placer mining
282:
278:
270:
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
226:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
175:
168:
162:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
87:
85:
81:
77:
74:with 16 ppm,
73:
70:with 70 ppm,
69:
65:
61:
57:
56:Earth's crust
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
19:
2104:
2083:
2065:
2056:
2038:
2029:
2025:
2007:
1989:
1936:
1932:
1910:
1901:
1892:
1883:
1865:
1841:
1837:
1828:
1810:
1794:
1790:
1774:
1765:
1755:
1739:
1736:Archaeometry
1735:
1719:
1701:
1683:
1665:
1649:
1631:
1622:
1600:
1583:Archaeopress
1578:
1556:
1544:
1532:
1520:
1508:
1496:
1484:
1472:
1460:
1448:
1436:
1424:
1412:
1400:
1388:
1376:
1364:
1352:
1244:
1232:
1210:Gerrard 2000
1193:Gerrard 2000
1188:
1161:
1149:
1137:
1125:
1113:
1101:
1074:
1062:
1050:
1023:
997:Charles 1979
992:
980:
975:, p. 4.
968:
929:, p. 1.
927:Wertime 1979
922:
910:
872:Cassiterides
856:South Arabia
850:
843:
832:
828:
816:lapis lazuli
809:
804:gefuding gui
803:
785:
766:
761:Cassiterides
747:(modern day
722:
706:
677:
669:
652:
632:
580:
560:
544:
511:Yellow River
507:Eastern Asia
505:
482:
468:, namely in
466:Central Asia
463:
445:Western Asia
443:
431:
423:
413:conquest of
404:
393:
385:
339:
296:
292:
274:
247:channels as
223:
211:health risks
180:
147:South Africa
88:
78:with 5 ppm,
26:
1797:: 106–132,
1570:Cited works
1345:Dayton 2003
1315:Maddin 1998
1298:Dayton 2003
1043:Dayton 1971
741:Phoenicians
688:Scandinavia
611:Inca Empire
569:culture of
563:Dayton 2003
527:Han dynasty
478:Afghanistan
458:cassiterite
434:Roman times
400:Roman times
293:tin disease
261:prospectors
257:river banks
225:Cassiterite
48:Middle East
2137:Bronze Age
2132:Tin mining
2116:Categories
1581:, Oxford:
1501:Muhly 1979
1477:Pulak 2001
1381:Hedge 1979
1266:Muhly 1973
1067:Muhly 1985
946:Muhly 1979
903:References
860:Somaliland
749:Marseilles
693:shipwrecks
686:to supply
474:Tajikistan
470:Uzbekistan
407:Celtic Sea
318:See also:
195:tennantite
44:Bronze Age
1963:1932-6203
835:Indochina
824:turquoise
773:Lusitania
769:Gallaecia
753:Herodotus
733:Silk Road
643:Europeans
639:Australia
629:Australia
619:Zacatecas
599:Argentina
427:Mount Cer
169:Early use
42:from the
1981:31242218
1933:PLOS ONE
1621:(eds.),
882:Tin pest
877:Stannary
866:See also
849:Pliny's
820:gemstone
745:Massalia
737:Iron Age
709:Sardinia
697:Uluburun
635:Tasmania
591:Colombia
577:Americas
571:Zimbabwe
517:and the
377:Etruscan
357:Cornwall
353:Brittany
298:tin pest
277:resource
245:alluvial
241:smelting
237:stannite
235:such as
233:sulfides
219:cultures
191:alloying
135:Portugal
125:and the
115:Brittany
103:Cornwall
50:and the
1972:6594607
1941:Bibcode
1846:Bibcode
1728:1357777
603:Bolivia
515:Erlitou
501:Chinese
489:Siberia
373:Tuscany
365:Balkans
253:granite
199:casting
143:central
123:Germany
111:Britain
97:to the
76:arsenic
52:Balkans
36:bronzes
2090:
2072:
2045:
2014:
1996:
1979:
1969:
1961:
1917:
1872:
1817:
1726:
1708:
1690:
1672:
1638:
1607:
1589:
839:Muslim
806:vessel
788:pewter
729:Greece
707:While
701:Turkey
623:Mexico
607:Andean
595:Brazil
557:Africa
537:, and
476:, and
454:Turkey
450:Kestel
341:Europe
314:Europe
303:debate
289:mining
183:copper
141:; and
119:France
91:Yunnan
80:silver
68:copper
2147:Trade
1724:JSTOR
777:Pliny
649:Trade
567:Bantu
551:India
411:Roman
361:Devon
215:trade
203:molds
155:Egypt
151:Syria
139:Italy
131:Spain
107:Devon
95:China
32:metal
2088:ISBN
2070:ISBN
2057:Iraq
2043:ISBN
2012:ISBN
1994:ISBN
1977:PMID
1959:ISSN
1915:ISBN
1870:ISBN
1815:ISBN
1706:ISBN
1688:ISBN
1670:ISBN
1636:ISBN
1605:ISBN
1587:ISBN
794:Asia
771:and
658:and
587:Peru
539:Song
535:Tang
440:Asia
415:Gaul
359:and
265:gold
227:(SnO
187:ores
153:and
145:and
105:and
84:gold
72:lead
64:iron
1967:PMC
1949:doi
1854:doi
1799:doi
1779:doi
1744:doi
1654:doi
723:By
531:Jin
483:In
371:in
295:or
149:.
117:in
109:in
93:in
28:Tin
2118::
2030:37
2028:.
1975:.
1965:.
1957:.
1947:.
1937:14
1935:.
1931:.
1852:,
1842:69
1840:,
1795:41
1793:,
1740:52
1738:,
1337:^
1322:^
1305:^
1288:^
1273:^
1256:^
1217:^
1200:^
1173:^
1086:^
1035:^
1004:^
953:^
934:^
858:,
593:,
589:,
533:,
472:,
421:.
351:,
221:.
137:;
133:;
129:;
113:;
101:;
1983:.
1951::
1943::
1856::
1848::
1801::
1781::
1746::
1656::
1539:.
1491:.
1479:.
1455:.
1443:.
1431:.
1395:.
1332:.
1317:.
1300:.
1268:.
1212:.
1183:.
1168:.
1156:.
1120:.
1069:.
1057:.
1045:.
1030:.
1018:.
948:.
229:2
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.