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civil cases in which serious allegations are made (as opposed to the standard of beyond reasonable doubt in criminal cases). On
September 22, 2017, US Department of Education Secretary Betsy Devos rescinded the Obama-era guidelines which had prodded colleges and universities to more aggressively investigate campus sexual assaults. On May 7, 2020, the U.S. Department of Education released final regulations governing campus sexual assault under Title IX, the first Title IX guidance published by the Office of Civil Rights to go through a formal notice-and-comment process since 1997. Some of the new regulations made in May 2020 involve defining sexual harassment to include "sexual assault, dating violence, domestic violence, and stalking," as discrimination, as well as require schools to offer attainable options for anyone to report a sexual harassment case. Unlike guidance issued by the Obama administration in 2011 and 2014, they will have the force of law behind them. Colleges and universities will be required to comply with the regulations by Aug. 14. On June 22, 2021, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Doe v. DeVos that schools must provide a fair and impartial grievance process to students who allege sexual harassment. This ruling clarifies that schools are legally obligated to respond promptly and effectively to allegations of sexual harassment. On February 10, 2022, the Department of Education issued guidance on how schools should implement the new Title IX regulations. This guidance includes specific information on how schools should prevent and respond to sexual harassment.
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third prong, which focuses on any differences in the genders' respective levels of interest in participation). Instead, it requires that the genders' athletic participation be substantially proportionate to their enrollment, without regard to interest. Prong two is viewed as only a temporary fix for universities, as universities may only point to the past expansion of opportunities for female students for a limited time before compliance with another prong is necessary. Critics say that prong three likewise fails to consider male athletic interest despite its gender-neutral language, as it requires that the university fully and effectively accommodate the athletic interests of the "underrepresented sex", even though ED regulations expressly require that the OCR consider whether the institution "effectively accommodate the interests and abilities of members of both sexes". As such, with a focus on increasing female athletic opportunities without any counterbalance to consider male athletic interest, critics maintain that the OCR's three-prong test operates to discriminate against men.
1717:
students consistent with their gender identity in academic life. A student who identifies as a transgender boy, for instance, is allowed entry to a boys-only class, and a student who identifies as a transgender girl is allowed entry to a girls-only class. This also applies to academic records if that student is over the age of eighteen at a university. The memo states in part that "ll students, including transgender students, or students who do not conform to sex stereotypes, are protected from sex-based discrimination under Title IX. Under Title IX, a recipient generally must treat transgender, or gender non-conforming, consistent with their gender identity in all aspects of the planning, implementation, enrollment, operation, and evaluation of single-sex classes."
1454:(OCR) has resulted in the dismantling of men's programs, despite strong participation in those sports. Some believe that the increase in athletic opportunity for girls in high school has come at the expense of boys' athletics. Because teams vary widely in size, it is more common to compare the number of total participation opportunities between the sexes. Additionally, the total number of college participation opportunities has increased for both sexes in the Title IX era, though solely for women when increased enrollment is accounted for, as men's participation has remained static relative to university enrollment, and men's opportunities outnumber women's by a wide margin.
1442:
The number of women in high school sports had increased by a factor of nine, while the number of women in college sports had increased by more than 450%. A 2008 study of intercollegiate athletics showed that women's collegiate sports have grown to 9,101 teams, or 8.65 per school. The five most frequently offered college sports for women are in order: (1) Basketball, 98.8% of schools have a team; (2) Volleyball, 95.7%; (3) Soccer, 92.0%; (4) Cross
Country; 90.8%, and (5) Softball; 89.2%. The lowest rank for female sports teams is bowling. The exact percentage is not known; however, there are only around 600 students on women's bowling teams in all three divisions in the NCAA.
1088:. The 1964 Act was passed to end discrimination in various fields based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in the areas of employment and public accommodation. The 1964 Act did not prohibit sex discrimination against people employed at educational institutions. A parallel law, Title VI, had also been enacted in 1964 to prohibit discrimination in federally funded private and public entities. It covered race, color, and national origin but excluded sex. Feminists during the early 1970s lobbied Congress to add sex as a protected class category. Title IX was enacted to fill this gap and prohibit discrimination in all federally funded education programs. Congressman
1613:, wrote an explicit, personal account of her alleged sexual assault and the ensuing "appalling treatment" she received when coming forward to seek support from the college's administration. In the narrative, Epifano alleged that she was raped by a fellow Amherst student and described how her life was affected by the experience; she stated that the perpetrator harassed her at the only dining hall, that her academic performance was negatively affected, and that, when she sought support, the administration coerced her into taking the blame for her experience and ultimately institutionalized her and pressured her to drop out.
40:
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operating assumptions." He continued: "While the impact of this amendment would be far-reaching, it is not a panacea. It is, however, an important first step in the effort to provide for the women of
America something that is rightfully theirs—an equal chance to attend the schools of their choice, to develop the skills they want, and to apply those skills with the knowledge that they will have a fair chance to secure the jobs of their choice with equal pay for equal work". Title IX became public law on June 23, 1972. When U.S. President Nixon signed the bill, he spoke mostly about
1344:. In October 2002, less than a month after the death of U.S. Rep. Patsy Mink, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution to rename Title IX the "Patsy Takemoto Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act", which President George W. Bush signed into law. On November 24, 2006, Title IX regulations were amended to provide greater flexibility in the operation of single-sex classes or extracurricular activities at the primary or secondary school level; this was largely to introduce federal abstinence-only programs, which may have been a partial basis for the support of President Bush.
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opportunities is limited to colleges and universities. The
American Sports Council argued that "The three-part test and its encouragement of quotas, has no relevance to high schools or high-school sports, and no federal regulation or interpretation has ever said that high schools must abide by the three-part test". On the other hand, the Department of Education insists that Title IX is a "valuable tool" for ensuring a level playing field for all students" and "plays a critical role in ensuring a fundamental level of fairness in America's schools and universities".
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1219:
1234:. Their duty is to oversee that Title IX is not being violated and to answer all questions pertaining to Title IX. Everyone must have access to the Title IX coordinator's name, address, and telephone number. To ensure compliance with Title IX, programs of both male and females must display no discrimination. This applies to opportunities for athletic participation (in proportion to enrollment numbers), scholarships, and how athletes are treated (e.g., equitable locker room facilities, etc.).
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the NCAA Executive
Committee, which issued a resolution soon afterward asking Association members not to use the survey – claimed the survey was flawed in part because of the way it counted non-responses. On April 20, 2010, the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights abandoned the 2005 clarification that allowed institutions to use only Internet or e‑mail surveys to meet the interests and abilities (third prong) option of the three-part test for Title IX compliance.
1108:, the original statute made no explicit mention of sports. The United States Supreme Court also issued decisions in the 1980s and 1990s, making clear that sexual harassment and assault is a form of sex discrimination. In 2011, President Barack Obama issued guidance reminding schools of their obligation to redress sexual assaults as civil rights matters under Title IX. Obama also issued guidance clarifying Title IX protections for LGBT students through
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argue that the three-prong test embodies the maxim that "opportunity drives interest", critics argue that the three-prong test goes beyond Title IX original purpose of preventing discrimination, and instead amounts to an exercise in which athletic opportunities are taken away from male students and given to female students, despite the comparatively lower interest levels of those female students. Author and self-described women's rights advocate
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1813:—13988 in January 2021 and 14021 in March 2021—which were supported by the US Department of Education, though their ability to implement their guidance was limited in June 2022 within the states of Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Ohio, Oklahoma, Tennessee, South Carolina, South Dakota, and West Virginia.
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school offers. These tests consist of proportional numbers of males and females participating, whether or not the school is making an effort to increase the number of the unrepresented sex, if the school has a certain history of one specific sex dominating the numbers of athletes in a given sport, and whether or not the school is showing an effort to expand the program to the other sex.
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attempts at change, and sweep sexual assaults under a rug. When politicians cover up affairs or scandals the masses often rise in angry protestations and call for a more transparent government. What is the difference between a government and the
Amherst College campus? Why can't we know what is happening on campus? Why should we be quiet about sexual assault?"
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committee met to consider the education legislation to which Tower had attached his amendment, it substituted an amendment sponsored by
Senator Jacob Javits (R-N.Y.) specifying that HEW's Title IX regulations 'shall include with respect to intercollegiate athletic activities reasonable provisions considering the nature of particular sports.'
1562:, was the first to use Title IX to argue and establish that the sexual harassment of female students can be considered illegal sex discrimination. The plaintiffs in the case alleged rape, fondling, and offers of higher grades for sex by several Yale faculty. Some of the cases were based on a 1977 report authored by plaintiff
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1835:
Defenders of the three-prong test counter that the genders' differing athletic interest levels are merely a product of past discrimination, and that Title IX should be interpreted to maximize female participation in athletics regardless of any existing disparity in interest. Thus while defenders
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obtained a memo issued by the
Department of Health and Human Services that would propose a strict definition of gender for Title IX, using the person's sex as determined at birth and could not be changed, effectively limiting recognition of transgender students and potentially others. The memo stated
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required that federally-assisted educational institutions disclose information on roster sizes for men's and women's athletic teams; as well as budgets for recruiting, scholarships, coaches' salaries, and other expenses, annually. In 1992, the
Supreme Court decided monetary relief was available under
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In
December 2020, the "Protect Women in Sports" Act was introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives. It would block schools from receiving federal funding if transgender girls and nonbinary people are allowed to compete on girls' sports teams at those schools. It was sponsored by Representatives
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Critics of the three-prong test contend that it operates as a "quota" in that it places undue emphasis on the first prong (known as the "proportionality" prong), which fails to take into account any differences in the genders' respective levels of interest in participating in athletics (despite the
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Advocates of Title IX's current interpretation cite increases in female athletic participation, and attribute those increases to Title IX. One study, completed in 2006, pointed to a large increase in the number of women participating in athletics at both the high school and college level.
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issued a Notice of Interpretation explaining that it will "enforce Title IX's prohibition on discrimination on the basis of sex to include: (1) discrimination based on sexual orientation; and (2) discrimination based on gender identity." The review set out in E.O. 14021 is still ongoing as of April
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On March 17, 2005, OCR announced a clarification of prong three of the three-part test of Title IX compliance. The guidance concerned the use of web-based surveys to determine the level of interest in varsity athletics among the underrepresented sex. Opponents of the clarification – including
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Title IX has been a source of controversy in part due to claims that the OCR's current interpretation of Title IX, and specifically its three-prong test of compliance, is no longer faithful to the anti-discrimination language in Title IX's text, and instead discriminates against men
1588:
The letter, referred to as the "Dear Colleague Letter", states that it is the responsibility of institutions of higher education "to take immediate and effective steps to end sexual harassment and sexual violence." The letter illustrates multiple examples of Title IX requirements as they relate to
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The introduction of Title IX was followed by a considerable increase in the number of female students participating in organized sports within American academic institutions followed by growing interest in initiating and developing programs which would pursue feminist principles in relationship to
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through a Department of Education program. The Department of Education's stance was that because some of its students were receiving federal grants, the school was thus receiving federal assistance and Title IX applied to it. The Court decided that since Grove City College was only receiving
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was on the Senate Floor for re-authorization; and on February 28, 1972, Bayh re-introduced a provision found in the original/revised ERA bill as an amendment which would become Title IX. In his remarks on the Senate Floor, Bayh stated, "we are all familiar with the stereotype women pretty things
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After Title IX was implemented, there was controversy about the amount of athletic integration, especially among female education leaders who worried about girls being injured or bullied by rough boys in coeducational activities. While there were always some parents and administrators who did not
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students are protected from sex-based discrimination under Title IX. In particular, Title IX of its Education Amendments of 1972 bars schools that receive financial aid assistance from sex-based discrimination in education programs and activities. It instructed public schools to treat transgender
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The Trump administration made changes to guidelines that were implemented during the Obama administration. These changes shifted the standard of evidence used in Title IX investigations from "preponderance of the evidence" to a "clear and convincing" evidence standard, which is typically used for
1433:(AIAW) run female championships, decided to offer female championships themselves, leading to the eventual demise of the AIAW. The NCAA later tried to claim that Congress had not intended to include athletics under Title IX's coverage, but the record lacks any sustained discussion of the matter.
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which allows transgender girls to compete in high school sports as girls was a violation of the civil rights of female student-athletes and a violation of Title IX. It stated that Connecticut's policy "denied female student-athletes athletic benefits and opportunities, including advancing to the
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weighed in on the OCR's three-prong test, offering several recommendations on Title IX policy to address what it termed "unnecessary reduction of men's athletic opportunities". The commission advocated use of surveys to measure interest, and specifically recommended that the Department of
1424:
In regards to coaching roles, in spite of the fact that the legislation has helped create more and better opportunities for women, the number of women coaches has surprisingly decreased while the number of male coaches have subsequently increased. Men have also gained a larger role in directing
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Athletic equality requirements were later set by the U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights, first in 1979 and later followed by several clarifications and amendments. To meet the requirements, schools must pass at least one of three tests measuring sex equality among athletics the
1617:
The fact that such a prestigious institution could have such a noxious interior fills me with intense remorse mixed with sour distaste. I am sickened by the Administration's attempts to cover up survivors' stories, cook their books to discount rapes, pretend that withdrawals never occur, quell
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teams. While some teams—both men's and women's—have been eliminated in the Title IX era, both sexes have seen a net increase in the number of athletic teams over that same period. When total enrollment (which had likewise increased) is controlled for however, only women had an increase in
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because they want a more interesting husband, and finally marry, have children, and never work again. The desire of many schools not to waste a 'man's place' on a woman stems from such stereotyped notions. But the facts contradict these myths about the 'weaker sex' and it is time to change our
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While HEW was working on its regulation, the NCAA and other football boosters came close to passing an amendment sponsored by Senator John Tower (R-Tex.) that would exempt 'revenue-generating' sports from Title IX regulation. That legislative strategy ultimately backfired. When the conference
50:
An Act to amend the Higher Education Act of 1965, the Vocational Education Act of 1963, the General Education Provisions Act (creating a National Foundation for Postsecondary Education and a National Institute of Education), the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Public Law 874,
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reported that over 150,000 female athletic opportunities would need to be added to reach participation levels proportional to the female undergraduate population. The same study found that men's athletics also receives the lion's share of athletic department budgets for operating expenses,
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There have been different interpretations regarding Title IX's application to high school athletics. The American Sports Council sued the Department of Education in 2011 seeking a declaratory judgment that its policy interpreting Title IX's requirement for equity in participation
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was the subject of a lawsuit that alleged violations of rights guaranteed by Title IX: the university expelled a football player for multiple instances of severe sexual harassment, but readmitted him; he went on to rape a fellow student in her dorm room. Despite its claim that it bore no
4943:
1666:(on May 22). These complaints, the resulting campaigns against sexual violence on college campuses, and the organizing of Bolger, Brodsky, Clark, Pino and other activists led to the formation of an informal national network of activists. Bolger and Brodsky also started
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acted with "deliberate indifference" toward students Lisa Simpson and Anne Gilmore, who were sexually assaulted by student football players. The university settled the case by promising to change its policies and to pay $ 2.5 million in damages. In 2008,
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undergraduate student and alleged sexual violence survivor Alexandra Brodsky filed a Title IX complaint along with fifteen fellow students alleging Yale "has a sexually hostile environment and has failed to adequately respond to sexual harassment concerns."
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of Indiana in 1971, who then was its chief Senate sponsor for congressional debate. At the time, Bayh was working on numerous constitutional issues related to women's employment and sex discrimination—including, but not limited to, the revised draft of the
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that the government needed to define gender "on a biological basis that is clear, grounded in science, objective and administrable". The news brought immediate protests in several locations as well as online social media under the "#WontBeErased" hashtag.
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has consistently increased at the high school level since 1990, scores of colleges have dropped their wrestling programs during that same period. The OCR's three-prong test for compliance with Title IX often is cited as the reason for these cuts.
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directing HEW to include "reasonable provisions considering the nature of particular sports" adopted in its place. In June 1975, HEW published the final regulations detailing how Title IX would be enforced. These regulations were codified in the
1196:. The ERA attempted to build "a powerful constitutional base from which to move forward in abolishing discriminatory differential treatment based on sex". As Bayh was having partisan difficulty in later getting the ERA Amendment out of committee, the
1416:
Although Title IX has helped increase the participation rate of female student athletes, several challenges remain for girls and women, including for females who aspire to become involved in professional roles within sport. The growing exposure of
1162:, and observed corresponding congressional hearings relating to women's issues on employment and equal opportunity. In these hearings, Green and Sandler initially proposed the idea of Title IX. An early legislative draft aimed at amending the
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federal funding through the grant program that only this program had to comply. This ruling was a major victory for those opposed to Title IX as it then made many athletic programs outside the purview of Title IX, and thus reduced its scope.
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can impose a fine and potentially deny further institutional access to federal funds. However, critics and later the Department of Education noted that this change was adopted without a rulemaking process to provide public notice and comment.
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wrote the 37 opening words of Title IX. Bayh first introduced an amendment to the Higher Education Act to ban discrimination on the basis of sex on August 6, 1971, and again on February 28, 1972, when it passed the Senate. Representative
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and who was in its LGBTQ affinity group, had unsuccessfully asked DeVos not to withdraw the Obama administration guidance. Two years later, in the summer of 2019, Bensing discovered that the Education Department was fast-tracking the
1748:'s complaint against transgender student-athletes, even though the department's attorneys did not understand the legal basis for doing so and the department had to pressure other employees. Bensing leaked this information to the
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was then authored by Representative Green. At the hearing, there were mentions of athletics. The idea behind the draft was a progressive one in instituting an affirmative action for women in all aspects of American education.
1051:
No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial
4339:
3085:"Federal Register Notice of Interpretation: Enforcement of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 with Respect to Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in Light of Bostock v. Clayton County"
4825:"Department of Education 34 CFR Chapter I Enforcement of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 With Respect to Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in Light of Bostock v. Clayton County"
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disagreed with the Department of Education's assertion that it was required to comply with Title IX. Grove City College was not a federally funded institution; however, they did accept students who were receiving
724:
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to "review all existing regulations, orders, guidance documents, policies, and any other similar agency actions (collectively, agency actions) that are or may be inconsistent with the policy set forth" in the order.
1024:, chair of the Subcommittee on Education, had held hearings on discrimination against women, and introduced legislation in the House on May 11, 1972. The full Congress passed Title IX on June 8, 1972. Representative
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was rejected, but it led to widespread misunderstanding of Title IX as a sports-equity law, rather than an anti-discrimination, civil rights law. While Title IX is best known for its impact on high school and
1732:, respectively) withdrew the guidance on gender identity. The Education Department announced on February 12, 2018, that Title IX did not allow transgender students to use the bathroom of their gender identities.
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Following the national prominence of the UNC Chapel Hill case, organizers Pino and Clark went on to coordinate with students at other schools; in 2013, complaints citing violations of Title IX were filed against
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issued Executive Order 14021 entitled "Guaranteeing an Educational Environment Free From Discrimination on the Basis of Sex, Including Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity", reversing changes made by the
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Education's regulations on interest and abilities be revised "to explicitly take into account the interest of both sexes rather than just the interest of the underrepresented sex", almost always females.
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women's Final Four. In its announcement, the NCAA explicitly called the joint championship event "a 50th-year celebration of Title IX" (as that particular basketball season will begin in calendar 2022).
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1577:(ACLU) likewise maintain that "when students suffer sexual assault and harassment, they are deprived of equal and free access to an education." Further, according to an April 2011 letter issued by the
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Grove City's court victory, however, was short-lived. The Civil Rights Restoration Act passed in 1988, which extended Title IX coverage to all programs of any educational institution that receives
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929:
533:
1585:, "The sexual harassment of students, including sexual violence, interferes with students' right to receive an education free from discrimination and, in the case of sexual violence, is a crime."
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historically was the most frequently dropped sport, but other men's sports later overtook the lead. According to the NCAA, the most-dropped men's sports between 1987 and 2002 were as follows:
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In 1972, 58 percent of college students were male and only 42 percent female. By 2010 those numbers had flipped: 57 percent of college students were women, and that number keeps creeping up.
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which would have exempted revenue-producing sports from Title IX compliance. Later that year, Congress rejected the Tower Amendment and passed an amendment proposed by U.S. Senator
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1135:. She used university statistics to show how female employment at the university had plummeted as qualified women were replaced by men. Sandler then brought her complaints to the
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responsibility, the school settled the lawsuit, agreeing to revise and improve its official response to sexual misconduct and to pay the plaintiff $ 850,000 in damages and fees.
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On June 23, 2022, the Biden administration issued a proposed rule to reverse the changes made by the final rule and to expand coverage regarding gender identity and pregnancy.
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2043:(New York: Metropolitan Books, 2010), and others have argued that Title IX regulations have empowered investigators who routinely endanger academic freedom and fair process,
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women are infringed upon by transgender women. The Education Department started to withhold federal funding to schools which affirm the identities of transgender athletes.
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quota to enforce Title IX in high school sports would put those young athletes at risk of losing their opportunity to play." High school participation rates from the
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2007:
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1530:(formerly called the College Sports Council) stated, "Nationwide, there are currently 1.3 million more boys participating in high school sports than girls. Using a
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2023:
4800:"U.S. Department of Education Confirms Title IX Protects Students from Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity | U.S. Department of Education"
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3055:"U.S. Department of Education Confirms Title IX Protects Students from Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity | U.S. Department of Education"
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projected a digital mosaic featuring the largest-ever collection of women and girls' sports images (all of which were submitted by the athletes themselves) onto the
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required all entities receiving federal contracts to end discrimination on the basis of sex in hiring and employment. In 1969, a notable example of its success was
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Title IX applies to all educational programs and all aspects of a school's educational system. In the late 1970s, a group of students and one faculty member sued
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1150:(WEAL). Sandler later filed 269 complaints against colleges and universities, which led to the events of 1970. In 1970, Sandler joined U.S. House Representative
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that discrimination on the basis of gender identity is discrimination "on the basis of sex" and is prohibited under Title IX (federal civil rights law) and the
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column that on this topic, women's advocates were being "purely vindictive" in insisting that the current OCR interpretation of Title IX be maintained.
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709:
4774:"Executive Order on Guaranteeing an Educational Environment Free from Discrimination on the Basis of Sex, Including Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity"
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3025:"Executive Order on Guaranteeing an Educational Environment Free from Discrimination on the Basis of Sex, Including Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity"
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The Court held that Title IX applied only to those programs receiving direct federal aid. This case was initially reached by the Supreme Court when
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finals in events, higher-level competitions, awards, medals, recognition, and the possibility of greater visibility to colleges and other benefits."
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took steps to reinstate some of the protections for transgender students that had been rescinded under the Trump administration. These included two
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to limit the scope of Title IX to sex only, excluding gender identity and sexual orientation. The executive order also provided a timeline for the
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has criticized the Title IX process for being unfair to the accused, based on faulty science, and racially biased against students of color.
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following Mink's death in 2002. When Title IX was passed in 1972, only 42 percent of the students enrolled in American colleges were female.
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Concern has been expressed that colleges have been overly aggressive in enforcing Title IX regulations, particularly about sexual matters.
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1724:, several of these policies have been rolled back. In February 2017, the Departments of Justice and Education (headed by Attorney General
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Title IX has been interpreted as allowing private lawsuits against educational institutions as well as formal complaints submitted to the
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has led to an increasingly dominant representation of males in coaching positions and roles involving the governance of female athletics.
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Shelton, Donald E. (2001). "Equally Bad is Not Good: Allowing Title IX "Compliance" by the Elimination of Men's Collegiate Sports".
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of suspects, assign the man full responsibility for the outcome of any social interaction, and minutely regulate personal relationships.
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5318:
1009:
749:
658:
599:
273:
169:
156:
2998:
2440:
6439:
6345:
6280:
5803:
2750:
2542:
1136:
24:
2826:
2870:
1310:
The Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1988 is tied to Title IX which was passed in response to the U.S. Supreme Court's 1984 ruling
6331:
6266:
3994:
3629:
3564:
2069:
1906:
882:
567:
557:
197:
2679:
2560:
6562:
6368:
6052:
5967:
5951:
5909:
5766:
5575:
5568:
5561:
5554:
5547:
4980:
4263:
2403:
1147:
1120:
619:
552:
437:
285:
106:
98:
6405:
6398:
6002:
2729:
1703:
1574:
1369:
1143:, where she was encouraged to file a formal complaint; later citing inequalities in pay, rank, and admissions, among others.
966:
513:
5738:
4511:
4087:
3219:
2773:
1867:
1146:
Sandler soon began to file complaints against the University of Maryland and other colleges while working with NOW and the
6594:
6296:
6223:
5974:
5759:
4446:
4365:"Secretary DeVos Takes Historic Action to Strengthen Title IX Protections for All Students | U.S. Department of Education"
4188:
3286:
2517:
1335:
federal assistance, both direct and indirect. In 1994, the Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act, sponsored by Congresswoman
1039:, which banned several forms of discrimination in employment, but did not address or mention discrimination in education.
589:
3646:
1567:
6384:
6377:
5916:
5858:
5176:
4984:
4917:
3788:
3619:"Intercollegiate Athletics: Recent Trends in Teams and Participants in National Collegiate Athletic Association Sports."
3605:
2561:"Document 4: "'Too Strong for a Woman'--The Five Words that Created Title IX," Spring 1997 | Alexander Street Documents"
1930:
1871:
1647:
1542:
1197:
1001:
128:
2510:"Lyndon B. Johnson: Executive Order 11375—Amending Executive Order No. 11246, Relating to Equal Employment Opportunity"
1290:). Since 1975, the federal government has issued guidance clarifying how it interprets and enforces those regulations.
6361:
6119:
5646:
5483:
5229:"ESPN Networks Offer Extensive Lineup of Women in Sports Programming on Title IX Anniversary Weekend – ESPN MediaZone"
3844:
3760:
3391:
3255:
2840:
1275:
342:
138:
133:
68:
5281:
4663:
4118:
3621:
3569:
1589:
sexual violence and makes clear that, should an institution fail to fulfill its responsibilities under Title IX, the
1028:
emerged in the House to lead efforts to protect Title IX against attempts to weaken it, and it was later renamed the
3307:"College Sports Council Urges High Schools to Fight Use of Gender Quotas to Comply with Title IX in Athletics."
1004:. It prohibits sex-based discrimination in any school or any other education program that receives funding from the
304:
6103:
5881:
5198:
5106:
1992:
1745:
1523:
schools in 2020 than in 1990, despite the D-I membership having increased by nearly 60 schools during that period.
1361:
1312:
361:
4748:"Executive Order on Preventing and Combating Discrimination on the Basis of Gender Identity or Sexual Orientation"
4415:"Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Sex in Education Programs or Activities Receiving Federal Financial Assistance"
4289:
4210:
3845:
To Break the Silence or Be Broken by It: A Genealogy of Women Who Have Refused to Shut Up About Harassment at Yale
3732:
3309:
2965:"Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Sex in Education Programs or Activities Receiving Federal Financial Assistance"
1047:
The following is the opening of the text of Title IX, which is followed by several exceptions and clarifications:
6571:
6412:
6031:
5828:
5787:
2799:
853:
685:
5699:
5228:
3132:
39:
6619:
6195:
5773:
3696:
3671:
2044:
2015:
1683:
1163:
1085:
4913:
3924:
1538:
report that in 2010–11, there were 4,494,406 boys and 3,173,549 girls participating in high school athletics.
3713:
3354:
1527:
6546:
6506:
6490:
6460:
6202:
6172:
4652:
https://www.stamfordadvocate.com/sports/article/Connecticut-transgender-policy-found-to-violate-15300275.php
3855:
3814:
1875:
1822:
1806:
1783:
1674:
1590:
1582:
1578:
1451:
1377:
4392:
6514:
6165:
5821:
5729:
3898:
3872:
3834:, edited by Catharine A. MacKinnon and Reva B. Siegel (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), pp. 51–59.
3801:
2366:
2168:
1736:
1678:
1231:
1193:
1132:
4824:
3084:
6073:
4625:
3960:
2976:
1885:
There were several events praising the 40th anniversary of Title IX in June 2012. For example, the
1124:
739:
729:
484:
465:
446:
427:
408:
389:
370:
351:
332:
313:
294:
5415:
3777:
1670:, an organization of student activists focused on legal education and federal and state policy change.
1298:
1230:
Each institution or organization that receives federal funding must designate at least one employee as
5419:
4853:
3462:
3420:
2934:
6634:
6476:
5752:
1987:
1948:
in Washington, D.C. The mosaic also included photos of espnW's Top 40 Athletes of the Past 40 Years.
1721:
1709:
1487:
1482:
1458:
1347:
On May 15, 2020, the Department of Education issued a letter stating that the policy of the state of
1207:
956:
791:
781:
734:
5013:
4481:"Department Of Education Issues Guidelines To Protect Transgender Students In Single-Sex Classrooms"
91:
6629:
6446:
6181:
5674:
5036:
1996:
1218:
756:
4690:
2256:
Section 703(a)(1), Civil Rights Act of 1964, Pub. L. No. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241, 255 (July 2, 1964).
2169:"H.J. Res. 113 – 107th Congress (2001–2002): Recognizing the contributions of Patsy Takemoto Mink"
6453:
4858:
4630:
4602:
2313:
2210:
1759:
1659:
1655:
1639:
1318:
163:
4236:
3443:
Women in Intercollegiate Sport: A Longitudinal National Study Twenty-Nine Year Update 1977–2006
1558:
for its failure to curtail sexual harassment on campus, especially by male faculty. This case,
6430:
6338:
5937:
5516:
5314:
4320:
3530:
3526:
2479:
2303:
2266:
2200:
1952:
1559:
1418:
1246:
1105:
4626:"#WontBeErased: Transgender People and Allies Mobilize Against Trump Administration Proposal"
4414:
1882:
like the idea of coed gym classes, that has in fact become the norm as a result of Title IX.
1767:
In May 2020, the Trump administration's Department of Education contended that the rights of
6024:
5706:
5682:
4914:"Additional Clarification of Intercollegiate Athletics Policy: Three-Part Test – Part Three"
4880:
Gavora, Jessica (2003). "Tilting the Playing Field: Schools, Sports, Sex and Title IX".
2886:
2677:
The Art of Leadership; A Companion to an Exhibition from the Senatorial Papers of Birch Bayh
1890:
1799:
1750:
1474:
1450:
There have been concerns and claims that the current interpretation of Title IX by the
1271:
1057:
Cornell Law School's Legal Information Institute (20 U.S. Code § 1681 – (men and women) Sex)
945:
4316:"Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos rescinds Obama-era guidelines on campus sexual assault"
3557:"Intercollegiate Athletics: Four-Year Colleges' Experiences Adding and Discontinuing Teams"
6483:
6303:
5796:
5715:
5533:
5452:
4572:"Education Department Whistleblower Forced Out After Exposing Push Against Trans Athletes"
3851:
3784:
3764:
3625:
3601:
3313:
2893:
2874:
2746:
2733:
2683:
2546:
1635:
1606:
1555:
1520:
1470:
1336:
1262:
1202:
1128:
1100:
1093:
2539:
2091:"Sen. Birch Bayh, in tears: 'I had no idea that Title IX would have this kind of impact'"
1646:
complaints against the university in January 2013, both leading to investigations by the
1390:
concerns surrounding issues dealing with girls and women's equality and equity in sport.
1642:
to address the parallel concerns of hostility at their institution, filing Title IX and
173:
5690:
5667:
5653:
2000:
1894:
1842:
1623:
1119:, forbidding discrimination in federal contracts. Before these orders were issued, the
1116:
487:
468:
449:
430:
411:
373:
335:
316:
297:
3283:
392:
354:
252:
244:
230:
220:
6588:
5902:
5437:
4088:"College Sexual Assault Survivors Form Underground Network To Reform Campus Policies"
3290:
2676:
2568:
1902:
1795:
1725:
1610:
1563:
1257:(HEW) to publish regulations clarifying the law's application. In 1974, U.S. Senator
997:
796:
418:
262:
4723:"Tulsi Gabbard Introduces Anti-Transgender Bill After Claiming To Be LGBTQ-Friendly"
2591:"How Bernice Sandler, 'Godmother Of Title IX,' Achieved Landmark Discrimination Ban"
2317:
2297:
2214:
2194:
1253:
Title IX's statutory language is brief. U.S. President Nixon therefore directed the
1210:, and did not mention the expansion of educational access for women he had enacted.
5944:
5423:
4668:
4516:
2867:
2823:
2052:
2036:
1965:
1957:
1913:
1667:
1266:
5308:
2999:"Policy allowing transgender athletes to compete as girls found to violate US law"
2726:
2231:
1889:
hosted a panel to discuss the life-altering nature of sports. Panelists included
1286:
6059:
5660:
5589:
2057:
1981:
1837:
1729:
1713:
1627:
1348:
1223:
1151:
1096:
to Title IX that would have exempted "revenue-generating" sports from Title IX.
1077:
1021:
2509:
1956:
produced its first "Women in Sports" issue in June 2012, and in the same month
6015:
5745:
4545:"Education Department no longer investigating transgender bathroom complaints"
4512:"Trump administration rescinds Obama-era protections for transgender students"
3733:"A Collegiate Model in Crisis: The Crippling Impact of Schools Cutting Sports"
2267:"The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission"
1976:
1466:
1303:
1258:
1242:
1188:
1180:
1115:
The precursor to Title IX was an executive order, issued in 1967 by President
1089:
1025:
1016:
193:
4973:
2483:
1677:. In 2006, a federal court found that there was sufficient evidence that the
4598:"'Transgender' Could Be Defined Out of Existence Under Trump Administration"
3728:
3556:
3244:
1768:
1643:
1570:." Several of the plaintiffs and lawyers have written accounts of the case.
1356:
1035:
The purpose of Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 was to update
5014:"Commission: Title IX interpretation unnecessarily hurts men's sports"
3757:
3384:
1905:, the first double-amputee sprinter to compete in NCAA track and field for
1568:
A report to the Yale Corporation from the Yale Undergraduate Women's Caucus
1008:. This is Public Law No. 92‑318, 86 Stat. 235 (June 23, 1972), codified at
907:
3643:"USA Wrestling response to quotes by Donna Lopiano – Women's Sports Found"
3618:
2365:
Office for Civil Rights, U.S. Department of Education (October 26, 2010).
1237:
940:
2909:
2829:
September 14, 2011, at Wikiwix Gender Equity in Sport. February 23, 2006.
2472:"In Shift, Justice Dept. Says Law Doesn't Bar Transgender Discrimination"
1922:
1519:
Additionally, eight NCAA sports—all men's sports—were sponsored by fewer
19:
For intervention of the U.S. attorney general in civil rights cases, see
5206:
2772:
Richard Nixon (June 23, 1972). Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T (eds.).
4454:
3830:
Anne E. Simon, "Alexander v. Yale University: An Informal History," in
3672:"Title IX has hurt the college sport, but it is now fighting back"
2299:
The Transformation of Title IX: Regulating Gender Equality in Education
2296:
Melnick, R. Shep (2018). "SIX Regulation in Fits and Starts, 1972–95".
2196:
The Transformation of Title IX: Regulating Gender Equality in Education
1945:
1175:
1072:
201:
110:
3949:
Notice of Proposed Rule, Docket ID ED-2018-OCR-0064, November 28, 2018
2402:
Office for Civil Rights, U.S. Department of Education (May 13, 2016).
5430:
3961:"Yale Under Federal Investigation For 'Sexually Hostile Environment'"
3245:"A Report of the National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education"
2019:
1531:
1462:
1457:
Between 1981 and 1999, university athletic departments cut 171 men's
2022:, which had previously been announced as the site for that season's
1828:
and has contributed to the reduction of programs for male athletes.
3767:, National Federation of High School Associations, August 24, 2011,
1541:
In a 2007 study of athletic opportunities at NCAA institutions the
1306:
of Hawaii, Title IX co-author, for whom the law was renamed in 2002
1131:, who used the executive order to retain her job and tenure at the
3927:. Office of the Assistant Secretary, the Department of Education.
3901:. Office of the Assistant Secretary, the Department of Education.
3854:," excerpted from her 2009 Yale senior thesis, and Nicole Allan, "
3306:
1937:
1917:
1297:
1236:
1217:
1174:
1071:
23:. For the section of the US Code that deals with arbitration, see
1712:, the U.S. Department of Education-issued guidance asserted that
1566:, now a feminist attorney known for fighting sexual harassment, "
5141:"espnW To Unveil Historic Title IX Mosaic in Washington June 21"
3666:
3664:
3589:
3587:
3190:"Cheerleading in the Context of Title IX and Gendering in Sport"
1598:
51:
Eighty-first Congress, and related Acts, and for other purposes.
5456:
4119:"Complaints filed against USC, UC Berkeley over rape reporting"
3456:"Women in Intercollegiate Sport, a Longitudinal National Study"
4596:
Green, Erica; Benner, Katie; Pear, Robert (October 21, 2018).
2441:"Sessions memo reversing gender identity civil rights policy"
2006:
The NCAA announced in April 2019 that it would hold its 2023
4181:"UNC-CH women wage national campaign against sexual assault"
2646:
2116:
4974:"Title IX Athletics: Accommodating Interests and Abilities"
3416:
1970:
On the Basis of Sex: The Battle for Title IX in Sports
1429:(NCAA), which had been content to let the female-dominated
5362:"The Bad Science Behind Campus Response to Sexual Assault"
5107:"Obama marks 1972 law lifting education barriers to girls"
3758:"High School Sports Participation Continues Upward Climb."
1123:(NOW) had persuaded him to include the addition of women.
1084:
Title IX was enacted as a follow-up to the passage of the
6325:
National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
4340:"U.S. Publishes New Regulations on Campus Sexual Assault"
3714:"Bucknell to drop wrestling for Title IX compliance"
2899:. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. November 19, 2009
1630:, two women who were allegedly sexually assaulted at the
6392:
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972
6189:
Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974
4691:"Adams v. The School Board of St. Johns County, Florida"
4664:"Adams v. The School Board of St. Johns County, Florida"
3284:"Group Sues Over Title IX High School Enforcement."
1187:
Title IX was formally introduced in Congress by Senator
5061:(Game, Set, Match| author=Susan Ware| Date= April 2011)
4699:
United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit
3487:
2839:
Office for Civil Rights, U.S. Department of Education.
2774:"Statement on Signing the Education Amendments of 1972"
1776:
United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit
6238:
Emergency Daylight Saving Time Energy Conservation Act
3390:. National Coalition of Women and Girls in Education.
1780:
Adams v. The School Board of St. Johns County, Florida
6090:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
5388:"The Question of Race in Campus Sexual-Assault Cases"
4333:
4331:
3156:"Title IX and the Rise of Female Athletes in America"
1376:
On June 16, 2021, the U.S. Department of Education's
5259:"Combined championships for NCAA basketball planned"
5069:
5067:
3687:
3685:
1962:
Sporting Chance: The Lasting Legacy of Title IX
6429:
6254:
6210:
Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act of 1972
6014:
5866:
Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants
5813:
5636:
5491:
5134:
5132:
5130:
5128:
4393:"Explaining Quid Pro Quo Harassment Under Title IX"
4264:"How Have Obama's K-12 Policies Fared Under Trump?"
4057:"Students Initiate Inquiry Into Harassment Reports"
3344:(Game, Set, Match | Author: Susan Ware| Date= 2011)
2041:
How to Become a Scandal: Adventures in Bad Behavior
1985:, a series of documentaries about women in sports.
1972:, and other programming related to women's sports.
1431:
Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women
1171:
Steps from a draft to legislative act to public law
272:
180:
162:
152:
121:
116:
97:
87:
82:
74:
63:
55:
46:
5336:"The Uncomfortable Truth About Campus Rape Policy"
5310:Unwanted Advances: Sexual Paranoia Comes to Campus
5199:"Sporting Chance – The Lasting Legacy of Title IX"
2367:"Dear Colleague Letter on Harassment and Bullying"
2193:Melnick, R. Shep (2018). "ONE Rights Regulation".
1622:When the Amherst case reached national attention,
1425:female athletics. For example, the male-dominated
4474:
4472:
3995:"An Account of Sexual Assault at Amherst College"
2355:Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 2005.
4387:
4385:
4150:"College Groups Connect to Fight Sexual Assault"
3693:"Wrestling programs threatened by Title IX"
1866:On the twenty-fifth anniversary of Title IX the
1546:recruiting, scholarships, and coaches salaries.
1030:Patsy T. Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act
400:Gebser v. Lago Vista Independent School District
6355:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
6217:Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973
4944:"OCR rescinds 2005 Title IX clarification"
4875:
4873:
4847:
4845:
4510:David Smith; Molly Redden (February 23, 2017).
3708:
3706:
3512:
3510:
3508:
2736:National Organization for Women. June 27, 2007.
2404:"Dear Colleague Letter on Transgender Students"
1536:National Federation of High School associations
1201:who go to college to find a husband, go on to
1049:
6645:United States federal civil rights legislation
6039:National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
5007:
5005:
3125:"How Title IX changed the landscape of sports"
2868:"The Oyez Project, Grove City College v. Bell"
2747:"Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972"
2687:. (Indiana University Libraries, 2007), p. 43.
996:is a landmark federal civil rights law in the
144:Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
6097:Occupational Safety and Health Administration
5468:
5076:"As Title IX turns 40, women pay homage"
974:
16:US federal law prohibiting sex discrimination
8:
6610:Anti-discrimination law in the United States
3519:University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform
2910:"Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools"
2549:Women's Equity Resource Center. August 1997.
2148:. U.S. Department of Justice. August 6, 2015
1816:
1141:Office for Federal Fair Contracts Compliance
32:
6650:United States federal education legislation
6311:Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act
5924:Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973
5889:Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974
3441:Linda Jean Carpenter and R. Vivian Acosta,
3385:"Title IX at 35: Beyond the Headlines"
3316:, College Sports Council, February 8, 2011.
3301:
3299:
2935:"Bush signs resolution honoring Patsy Mink"
2780:. University of California – Santa Barbara.
2749:. The United States Department of Justice.
2302:. Brookings Institution Press. p. 94.
1754:and was forced to resign in December 2019.
1632:University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
1255:Department of Health, Education and Welfare
1080:of Oregon laid the foundation for Title IX.
1000:that was enacted as part (Title IX) of the
6157:Securities Investor Protection Corporation
5475:
5461:
5453:
5167:"News Title IX documentary debuts June 23"
4721:Mosbergen, Dominique (December 10, 2020).
3988:
3986:
3843:See the quotes by Price in Nicole Allan, "
3488:"NCAA.org – The Official Site of the NCAA"
3278:
3276:
2199:. Brookings Institution Press. p. 3.
1342:Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools
981:
967:
498:
381:Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools
237:Reported by the joint conference committee
6127:Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act
4892:"Smith professor speaks on Title IX"
4026:"Student's Account Has Rape in Spotlight"
3873:"Title IX and Sexual Violence in Schools"
2841:"Reading Room: Sex Discrimination Policy"
2824:"Landmark Title IX Cases in History"
2089:Hunsinger Benbow, Dana (March 14, 2019).
2014:women's basketball championship games at
1037:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
548:History of education in the United States
476:Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee
438:Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education
324:Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan
5896:Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972
5446:) is being considered for deletion. See
4948:National Collegiate Athletic Association
4024:Richard, Perez-Pena (October 26, 2012).
3359:American Association of University Women
2819:
2817:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2331:
1855:United States Commission on Civil Rights
1427:National Collegiate Athletic Association
457:Jackson v. Birmingham Board of Education
21:Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
6420:Water Resources Development Act of 1974
6245:Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act
6134:Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970
6113:U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
4314:Rosenblatt, Lauren (October 24, 2017).
3397:from the original on September 19, 2009
2975:(206). October 25, 2006. Archived from
2863:
2861:
2670:
2668:
2115:Arvidson, Cheryl (September 20, 1975).
2081:
2003:are executive producers of the series.
1870:lodged twenty-five complaints with the
898:
672:
580:
525:
512:
6318:National Ambient Air Quality Standards
5996:Legislative Reorganization Act of 1970
4990:from the original on December 14, 2010
4543:Balingit, Moriah (February 12, 2018).
4524:from the original on February 22, 2017
4491:from the original on November 21, 2017
4148:Perez-Pena, Richard (March 19, 2013).
3678:from the original on January 13, 2010.
3572:from the original on December 11, 2008
3330:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHult (
3154:Olmstead, Maegan (September 2, 2016).
2727:"Legislative History of Title IX"
2722:
2720:
2383:from the original on December 21, 2010
2117:"Senate ERA author fights sports bill"
1887:White House Council on Women and Girls
1778:affirmed a 2018 lower court ruling in
212:House Subcommittee on Higher Education
31:
6625:June 1972 events in the United States
6274:Environmental Quality Improvement Act
6046:Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1970
5931:Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act
5261:(Press release). NCAA. April 24, 2019
5239:from the original on November 8, 2017
4924:from the original on October 18, 2009
4055:Perez-Pena, Richard (March 7, 2013).
4005:from the original on October 19, 2012
3959:John Christofferson (April 1, 2011).
3551:
3549:
3365:from the original on October 16, 2009
3239:
3237:
3183:
3181:
3096:United States Department of Education
2945:from the original on October 18, 2013
2792:"Title IX Frequently Asked Questions"
2753:from the original on November 4, 2013
2622:"Women Seek Equality in Universities"
2520:from the original on October 21, 2017
2490:from the original on October 19, 2017
2451:from the original on October 20, 2017
2420:from the original on October 17, 2017
2277:from the original on October 20, 2017
1788:14th Amendment to the US Constitution
1741:United States Department of Education
1664:the University of Southern California
1634:connected with Epifano, Brodsky, and
1550:Sexual harassment and sexual violence
573:History of education in New York City
563:History of education in Massachusetts
7:
6640:Transgender law in the United States
5836:Minority Business Development Agency
5147:from the original on January 2, 2013
4866:from the original on March 11, 2016.
4036:from the original on January 4, 2013
3971:from the original on August 25, 2013
2626:The Washington Post And Times-Herald
1324:Basic Educational Opportunity Grants
1245:exercises with Title IX athletes at
6615:College sports in the United States
6378:Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement
6143:Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act
5850:Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act
5781:Prevention of Nuclear War Agreement
5386:Yoffe, Emily (September 11, 2017).
5024:from the original on March 5, 2012.
4624:Mervosh, Sarah (October 22, 2018).
4570:Klein, Rebecca (January 31, 2020).
4559:– via www.washingtonpost.com.
4551:from the original on March 22, 2018
4243:from the original on April 14, 2013
4217:from the original on April 14, 2013
4211:"Simpson v. University of Colorado"
4117:Dalina Castellanos (May 22, 2010).
3993:Epifano, Angie (October 17, 2012).
3931:from the original on April 23, 2013
3832:Directions in Sexual Harassment Law
3355:"Title IX Athletic Statistics"
3261:from the original on March 16, 2008
3065:from the original on April 13, 2022
3035:from the original on April 13, 2022
2470:Savage, Charlie (October 5, 2017).
2167:Miller, George (October 29, 2002).
1720:However, starting in 2017 with the
1226:of Alaska, the "Father of Title IX"
6231:Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act
6150:Securities Investor Protection Act
6083:Occupational Safety and Health Act
6067:Economic Stabilization Act of 1970
5989:District of Columbia Home Rule Act
5360:Yoffe, Emily (September 8, 2017).
5334:Yoffe, Emily (September 6, 2017).
5280:Bagenstos, Samuel (October 2015).
5139:Margolis, Rachel (June 18, 2012).
5113:from the original on June 23, 2012
5086:from the original on June 24, 2012
5043:from the original on July 14, 2014
4838:(117): 32637–32640. June 22, 2021.
4447:"Civil Rights Division | Title IX"
4427:from the original on June 23, 2022
4237:"J.K. v. Arizona Board of Regents"
3875:. American Civil Liberties Union.
3423:from the original on June 21, 2009
3293:, Associated Press, July 21, 2011.
3105:from the original on April 6, 2022
2647:"Panel rewriting bill on sex bias"
2597:. January 10, 2019. Archived from
2459:– via www.documentcloud.org.
1817:OCR's test for Title IX compliance
14:
6346:Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970
6281:National Environmental Policy Act
5450:to help reach a consensus. ›
4852:Irving, John (January 28, 2003).
4160:from the original on May 24, 2013
4129:from the original on May 23, 2013
4086:Tyler Kingkade (March 21, 2013).
4067:from the original on May 27, 2013
2620:Wentworth, Eric (June 22, 1970).
2540:"Title IX: A Brief History."
2236:LII / Legal Information Institute
1968:. It also showed the documentary
1933:honored over 40 female athletes.
1735:Dwayne Bensing, a lawyer for the
25:Title 9 of the United States Code
6332:New Source Performance Standards
6267:Council on Environmental Quality
5282:"What Went Wrong With Title IX?"
4479:Dominic Holden (December 2014).
4453:. August 6, 2015. Archived from
4098:from the original on May 8, 2013
3905:from the original on May 9, 2013
3879:from the original on May 2, 2013
3630:Government Accountability Office
3565:Government Accountability Office
3325:
3218:. March 28, 2023. Archived from
3005:. Associated Press. May 28, 2020
2070:North Haven Bd. of Educ. v. Bell
1893:, All‑American NCAA point guard
1481:Though interest in the sport of
1156:Subcommittee on Higher Education
950:
939:
568:History of education in Missouri
558:History of education in Kentucky
343:Iron Arrow Honor Soc. v. Heckler
192:in the Senate as S. 659 by
139:General Education Provisions Act
134:Vocational Education Act of 1963
38:
6600:1972 in American women's sports
6369:Coastal Zone Management Program
6290:Environmental Protection Agency
6053:Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1973
5968:Federal Contested Elections Act
5952:Drug Enforcement Administration
5910:End Stage Renal Disease Program
5431:Statute Compilations collection
5175:. June 11, 2012. Archived from
5105:Bull, Alister (June 23, 2012).
5035:Michael W. Lynch (April 2002).
4981:U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
4338:Anderson, Greta (May 7, 2020).
4179:Stancill, Jane (June 1, 2013).
3778:"Who's Playing College Sports."
2778:The American Presidency Project
2696:118 Cong. Record 5802-3 (1972).
2142:"Title IX: Legislative History"
1121:National Organization for Women
553:History of education in Chicago
286:Cannon v. University of Chicago
6406:Endangered Species Act of 1973
6399:Endangered Species Act of 1969
6003:Congressional Research Service
5583:VP confirmation of Gerald Ford
5074:Groer, Annie (June 23, 2012).
4854:"Wrestling With Title IX"
3815:Title IX: Taking Yale to Court
1704:Gender identity under Title IX
1575:American Civil Liberties Union
888:Full-service community schools
305:North Haven Bd. of Ed. v. Bell
1:
6224:Federal Energy Administration
5975:Federal Election Campaign Act
5760:Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
5203:www.SportingChanceTitleIX.com
5012:Brady, Erik (April 2, 2010).
3568:. GAO-01-297. March 8, 2001.
3419:. The MARGARET Fund of NWLC.
2714:118 Cong. Record 5808 (1972).
2705:118 Cong. Record 5804 (1972).
2565:documents.alexanderstreet.com
1960:first showed the documentary
1160:Education and Labor Committee
6385:Marine Mammal Protection Act
6297:Clean Air Amendments of 1970
5917:Supplemental Security Income
5859:Education Amendments of 1972
5416:Education Amendments of 1972
5037:"Title IX's Pyrrhic Victory"
4918:U.S. Department of Education
3595:"Gender Equity Report Card."
3188:Boyce, Rebecca (Fall 2008).
2845:U.S. Department of Education
2411:U.S. Department of Education
2374:U.S. Department of Education
1872:U.S. Department of Education
1648:U.S. Department of Education
1355:On March 8, 2021, President
1198:Higher Education Act of 1965
1148:Women's Equity Action League
1002:Education Amendments of 1972
129:Higher Education Act of 1965
59:Education Amendments of 1972
6605:92nd United States Congress
6362:Coastal Zone Management Act
6120:Consumer Product Safety Act
5903:National Cancer Act of 1971
5541:1970 Lincoln Memorial visit
5484:Presidency of Richard Nixon
5443:Presidency of Richard Nixon
3624:September 25, 2012, at the
3593:Women's Sports Foundation.
2545:September 21, 2015, at the
2232:"20 U.S. Code § 1681 – Sex"
1868:National Women's Law Center
1412:Coaching and administration
1276:Code of Federal Regulations
866:For-profit higher education
274:United States Supreme Court
69:92nd United States Congress
6666:
6524:Senate Watergate Committee
6104:Permissible exposure limit
5882:Rehabilitation Act of 1973
5627:Presidential Proclamations
2873:September 5, 2015, at the
2682:December 28, 2012, at the
1916:wrote a pro–Title IX
1820:
1746:Alliance Defending Freedom
1701:
1394:Institutional requirements
1385:Impact on American schools
1313:Grove City College v. Bell
819:School corporal punishment
362:Grove City College v. Bell
18:
6556:
6413:Oil Pollution Act of 1973
6032:Fair Credit Reporting Act
5829:Revised Philadelphia Plan
5788:Threshold Test Ban Treaty
4896:The Smith College Sophian
3789:Women's Sports Foundation
3606:Women's Sports Foundation
3160:Women's Sports Foundation
2559:Fitzgerald, Sara (2013).
1931:Women's Sports Foundation
1543:Women's Sports Foundation
854:School-to-work transition
280:
185:
37:
6563:← Johnson administration
6196:Agricultural Act of 1970
5739:1973 Chilean coup d'état
5448:templates for discussion
5288:. September/October 2015
3763:August 15, 2012, at the
3600:January 7, 2013, at the
2016:American Airlines Center
1899:University of Louisville
1728:and Education Secretary
1684:Arizona State University
1446:Impact on men's programs
1445:
1437:Increasing participation
1164:Civil Rights Act of 1964
1086:Civil Rights Act of 1964
1068:Foundations and hearings
957:United States portal
503:This article is part of
6461:Saturday Night Massacre
6203:Farm Credit Act of 1971
6173:Alternative minimum tax
5313:. Harper. p. 256.
4185:The News & Observer
3925:"Dear Colleague letter"
3899:"Dear Colleague letter"
3821:Vol. 42, No. 55 (2020).
2897:Encyclopædia Britannica
2514:www.presidency.ucsb.edu
1876:Office for Civil Rights
1823:Office for Civil Rights
1784:Equal Protection Clause
1675:Department of Education
1591:Department of Education
1583:Office for Civil Rights
1579:Department of Education
1528:American Sports Council
1452:Office for Civil Rights
1378:Office for Civil Rights
675:Education policy issues
644:Environmental education
241:agreed to by the Senate
219:on March 1, 1972 (
208:Committee consideration
6515:United States v. Nixon
6166:Tax Reform Act of 1969
5843:Native American policy
5822:Family Assistance Plan
5307:Kipnis, Laura (2017).
4898:. 2008. Archived from
3817:," 2011, published in
3695:. 1997. Archived from
3645:. 2000. Archived from
3461:. 2008. Archived from
3282:Frederick J. Frommer.
2732:June 24, 2010, at the
1862:Legacy and recognition
1853:In February 2010, the
1737:Office of Civil Rights
1679:University of Colorado
1620:
1573:Advocates such as the
1366:Secretary of Education
1307:
1250:
1227:
1194:Equal Rights Amendment
1184:
1133:University of Maryland
1081:
1060:
812:Standards-based reform
787:Gender achievement gap
777:Racial achievement gap
710:Educational attainment
251:on June 8, 1973 (
243:on May 24, 1972 (
229:on May 11, 1972 (
204:) on February 28, 1972
6572:Ford administration →
6074:Smithsonian Agreement
5597:Judicial appointments
5143:. Espnmediazone.com.
3856:Confusion and Silence
3850:June 3, 2020, at the
3783:July 2, 2010, at the
3312:May 28, 2016, at the
3289:January 24, 2013, at
2892:June 4, 2015, at the
2877:, 465 U.S. 555 (1984)
2661:– via ProQuest.
2635:– via ProQuest.
2595:Colorado Public Radio
2146:Civil Rights Division
2130:– via ProQuest.
1907:Georgetown University
1615:
1340:Title IX in the case
1301:
1240:
1221:
1178:
1125:Executive Order 11375
1075:
1063:Historical background
878:Research universities
745:Student financial aid
740:Graduate unemployment
715:Post-secondary issues
691:Primary and secondary
654:Mathematics education
6595:1972 in American law
6477:White House Plumbers
5426:) as amended in the
4902:on December 7, 2008.
3860:Yale Alumni Magazine
2941:. October 31, 2002.
2653:. UPI. July 11, 1970
2353:A Place on the Team.
2318:10.7864/j.ctt1vw0rgc
2238:. Cornell Law School
2215:10.7864/j.ctt1vw0rgc
1988:Good Morning America
1807:Biden administration
1774:In August 2020, the
1722:Trump administration
1710:Obama administration
1698:Transgender students
1605:In October 2012, an
1473:teams, and 25 men's
1459:collegiate wrestling
1362:Trump administration
1232:Title IX coordinator
1208:desegregation busing
1106:collegiate athletics
946:Education portal
782:Desegregation busing
735:Elite overproduction
664:Vocational education
157:20 U.S.C.: Education
6531:impeachment process
6447:Operation Sandwedge
6182:Revenue Act of 1971
5982:1970 VRA Amendments
5730:Shanghai Communiqué
5723:1972 visit to China
5675:Paris Peace Accords
5647:International trips
5527:Second inauguration
5080:The Washington Post
4092:The Huffington Post
3999:The Amherst Student
3965:The Huffington Post
3862:, July/August 2011.
3800:Alexander v. Yale,
3699:on January 5, 2003.
2939:Honolulu Advertiser
2273:. August 15, 2016.
1997:Tribeca Productions
1597:On March 15, 2011,
1509:outdoor track (126)
1494:cross country (183)
1294:Further legislation
1137:Department of Labor
899:Levels of education
871:For-profit colleges
839:Foreign involvement
181:Legislative history
34:
6454:Operation Gemstone
5753:1972 Moscow Summit
5509:First inauguration
5286:Washington Monthly
5209:on October 6, 2017
4859:The New York Times
4754:. January 21, 2021
4631:The New York Times
4603:The New York Times
4457:on January 6, 2024
4395:. October 12, 2023
4290:"Title IX Defense"
4154:The New York Times
4061:The New York Times
4030:The New York Times
3737:Sports Illustrated
3222:on January 5, 2024
3166:on January 5, 2024
3135:on January 5, 2024
2802:on January 6, 2024
2674:Cruikshank, Kate.
2601:on January 6, 2024
2571:on January 6, 2024
2476:The New York Times
2445:The New York Times
1936:On June 21, 2012,
1798:, a Democrat, and
1760:The New York Times
1660:Swarthmore College
1656:Occidental College
1497:indoor track (180)
1319:Grove City College
1308:
1251:
1228:
1185:
1082:
1006:federal government
861:Community colleges
807:School segregation
725:Cost and financing
649:Language education
6582:
6581:
6507:White House tapes
6498:list of opponents
6339:Noise Control Act
5938:Shafer Commission
5804:Space exploration
5774:Washington Summit
5668:Cambodian bombing
5576:1974 SOTU Address
5569:1973 SOTU Address
5562:1972 SOTU Address
5555:1971 SOTU Address
5548:1970 SOTU Address
5517:Bring Us Together
5233:ESPNMediaZone.com
4954:on April 16, 2011
4321:Los Angeles Times
4262:Ujifusa, Andrew.
4123:Los Angeles Times
3731:(June 11, 2020).
3727:Dellenger, Ross;
3061:. June 16, 2021.
3031:. March 8, 2021.
2439:Savage, Charles.
2309:978-0-8157-3222-8
2271:National Archives
2206:978-0-8157-3222-8
2045:presume the guilt
1953:ESPN The Magazine
1757:In October 2018,
1560:Alexander v. Yale
1247:Purdue University
991:
990:
844:Special education
834:Sexual harassment
627:Medical education
581:Curriculum topics
517:
497:
496:
239:on May 24, 1972;
217:Passed the Senate
100:Statutes at Large
6657:
6575:
6566:
6549:
6542:
6533:
6526:
6519:
6509:
6500:
6493:
6486:
6479:
6472:
6463:
6456:
6449:
6442:
6422:
6415:
6408:
6401:
6394:
6387:
6380:
6371:
6364:
6357:
6348:
6341:
6334:
6327:
6320:
6313:
6306:
6299:
6292:
6283:
6276:
6269:
6247:
6240:
6233:
6226:
6219:
6212:
6205:
6198:
6191:
6184:
6175:
6168:
6159:
6152:
6145:
6136:
6129:
6122:
6115:
6106:
6099:
6092:
6085:
6076:
6069:
6062:
6055:
6048:
6041:
6034:
6027:
6025:Bank Secrecy Act
6005:
5998:
5991:
5984:
5977:
5970:
5961:
5954:
5947:
5940:
5933:
5926:
5919:
5912:
5905:
5898:
5891:
5884:
5875:
5868:
5861:
5852:
5845:
5838:
5831:
5824:
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5799:
5790:
5783:
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5769:
5762:
5755:
5748:
5741:
5732:
5725:
5718:
5709:
5702:
5693:
5686:
5683:Peace with Honor
5677:
5670:
5663:
5656:
5649:
5629:
5622:
5620:Executive Orders
5613:
5606:
5599:
5592:
5585:
5578:
5571:
5564:
5557:
5550:
5543:
5536:
5529:
5520:
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5504:
5477:
5470:
5463:
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5403:
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5400:
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5383:
5377:
5376:
5374:
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5351:
5350:
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5325:
5324:
5304:
5298:
5297:
5295:
5293:
5277:
5271:
5270:
5268:
5266:
5255:
5249:
5248:
5246:
5244:
5225:
5219:
5218:
5216:
5214:
5205:. Archived from
5195:
5189:
5188:
5186:
5184:
5179:on June 13, 2012
5163:
5157:
5156:
5154:
5152:
5136:
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5096:
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5009:
5000:
4999:
4997:
4995:
4989:
4978:
4970:
4964:
4963:
4961:
4959:
4950:. Archived from
4940:
4934:
4933:
4931:
4929:
4910:
4904:
4903:
4888:
4882:
4881:
4877:
4868:
4867:
4849:
4840:
4839:
4832:Federal Register
4829:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4812:
4810:
4796:
4790:
4789:
4787:
4785:
4770:
4764:
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4761:
4759:
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4709:
4707:
4702:. August 7, 2020
4695:
4687:
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4676:
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4643:
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4507:
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4467:
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4464:
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4443:
4437:
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4400:
4389:
4380:
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4377:
4375:
4361:
4355:
4354:
4352:
4350:
4344:Inside Higher Ed
4335:
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4302:
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4278:
4276:
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4250:
4248:
4233:
4227:
4226:
4224:
4222:
4207:
4201:
4200:
4198:
4196:
4187:. Archived from
4176:
4170:
4169:
4167:
4165:
4145:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4114:
4108:
4107:
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3869:
3863:
3841:
3835:
3828:
3822:
3813:Ann Olivarius, "
3811:
3805:
3798:
3792:
3776:Cheslock, John.
3774:
3768:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3710:
3701:
3700:
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3679:
3668:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3654:
3649:on July 10, 2012
3639:
3633:
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3609:
3591:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3577:
3561:
3553:
3544:
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3535:
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3478:
3477:
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3467:
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3439:
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3430:
3428:
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3381:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3370:
3351:
3345:
3342:
3336:
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3323:
3317:
3305:McErlain, Eric.
3303:
3294:
3280:
3271:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3260:
3249:
3241:
3232:
3231:
3229:
3227:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3185:
3176:
3175:
3173:
3171:
3162:. Archived from
3151:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3131:. Archived from
3121:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3110:
3104:
3089:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3070:
3051:
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3042:
3040:
3021:
3015:
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3012:
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2995:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2979:on June 20, 2012
2969:Federal Register
2961:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2950:
2931:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2920:
2906:
2900:
2887:"Title IX."
2884:
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2865:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2836:
2830:
2821:
2812:
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2809:
2807:
2798:. Archived from
2788:
2782:
2781:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2743:
2737:
2724:
2715:
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2632:
2617:
2611:
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2608:
2606:
2587:
2581:
2580:
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2576:
2567:. Archived from
2556:
2550:
2538:Valentin, Iram.
2536:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2525:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2497:
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2183:
2181:
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2173:www.congress.gov
2164:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2121:Chicago Defender
2112:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2086:
1891:Billie Jean King
1811:executive orders
1802:, a Republican.
1800:Markwayne Mullin
1751:Washington Blade
1469:teams, 27 men's
1465:teams, 56 men's
1461:teams, 84 men's
1370:Attorney General
1289:
1272:Federal Register
1058:
983:
976:
969:
955:
954:
953:
944:
943:
883:Community school
802:Racial diversity
772:Achievement gaps
676:
538:in insular areas
520:
516:Education in the
515:
499:
265:on June 23, 1972
227:Passed the House
166:sections created
101:
42:
35:
6665:
6664:
6660:
6659:
6658:
6656:
6655:
6654:
6620:Gender equality
6585:
6584:
6583:
6578:
6569:
6560:
6552:
6545:
6538:
6529:
6522:
6512:
6505:
6496:
6489:
6484:Watergate Seven
6482:
6475:
6468:
6459:
6452:
6445:
6438:
6425:
6418:
6411:
6404:
6397:
6390:
6383:
6376:
6367:
6360:
6353:
6344:
6337:
6330:
6323:
6316:
6309:
6304:Clean Water Act
6302:
6295:
6288:
6279:
6272:
6265:
6257:
6250:
6243:
6236:
6229:
6222:
6215:
6208:
6201:
6194:
6187:
6180:
6171:
6164:
6155:
6148:
6141:
6132:
6125:
6118:
6111:
6102:
6095:
6088:
6081:
6072:
6065:
6058:
6051:
6044:
6037:
6030:
6023:
6016:Economic policy
6010:
6001:
5994:
5987:
5980:
5973:
5966:
5959:Cannabis policy
5957:
5950:
5943:
5936:
5929:
5922:
5915:
5908:
5901:
5894:
5887:
5880:
5871:
5864:
5857:
5848:
5841:
5834:
5827:
5820:
5814:Domestic policy
5809:
5802:
5797:Operation CHAOS
5795:
5786:
5779:
5772:
5765:
5758:
5751:
5744:
5737:
5728:
5721:
5716:Tar Baby option
5714:
5705:
5700:Cold War period
5698:
5689:
5680:
5673:
5666:
5659:
5652:
5645:
5632:
5625:
5618:
5609:
5602:
5595:
5588:
5581:
5574:
5567:
5560:
5553:
5546:
5539:
5534:Silent majority
5532:
5525:
5514:
5507:
5500:
5487:
5481:
5451:
5412:
5407:
5406:
5396:
5394:
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5384:
5380:
5370:
5368:
5359:
5358:
5354:
5344:
5342:
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5332:
5328:
5321:
5306:
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5301:
5291:
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5279:
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5264:
5262:
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5212:
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5126:
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5011:
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4987:
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4972:
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4957:
4955:
4942:
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4907:
4890:
4889:
4885:
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4871:
4851:
4850:
4843:
4827:
4823:
4822:
4818:
4808:
4806:
4798:
4797:
4793:
4783:
4781:
4780:. March 8, 2021
4778:The White House
4772:
4771:
4767:
4757:
4755:
4752:The White House
4746:
4745:
4741:
4731:
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4720:
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4703:
4693:
4689:
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4674:
4672:
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4661:
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4646:
4636:
4634:
4623:
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4618:
4608:
4606:
4595:
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4580:
4578:
4569:
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4554:
4552:
4542:
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4537:
4527:
4525:
4509:
4508:
4504:
4494:
4492:
4478:
4477:
4470:
4460:
4458:
4451:www.justice.gov
4445:
4444:
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4428:
4424:
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4408:
4398:
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4348:
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4313:
4312:
4308:
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4286:
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4244:
4235:
4234:
4230:
4220:
4218:
4209:
4208:
4204:
4194:
4192:
4191:on June 9, 2013
4178:
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3897:
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3870:
3866:
3852:Wayback Machine
3842:
3838:
3829:
3825:
3819:The New Journal
3812:
3808:
3804:(2d Cir. 1980).
3799:
3795:
3785:Wayback Machine
3775:
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3765:Wayback Machine
3755:
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3640:
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3626:Wayback Machine
3616:
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3602:Wayback Machine
3592:
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3542:
3538:
3516:
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3506:
3496:
3494:
3486:
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3481:
3471:
3469:
3468:on July 4, 2008
3465:
3458:
3454:
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3449:
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3436:
3426:
3424:
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3348:
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3320:
3314:Wayback Machine
3304:
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3108:
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3087:
3083:
3082:
3078:
3068:
3066:
3053:
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3048:
3038:
3036:
3029:The White House
3023:
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3018:
3008:
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2894:Wayback Machine
2885:
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2875:Wayback Machine
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2790:
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2734:Wayback Machine
2725:
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2695:
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2684:Wayback Machine
2673:
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2109:
2099:
2097:
2088:
2087:
2083:
2078:
2066:
2033:
1942:First Amendment
1864:
1825:
1819:
1706:
1700:
1658:(on April 18),
1636:Yale Law School
1607:Amherst College
1556:Yale University
1552:
1515:wrestling (121)
1478:participation.
1448:
1439:
1414:
1405:
1396:
1387:
1337:Cardiss Collins
1302:Representative
1296:
1282:
1263:Tower Amendment
1261:introduced the
1216:
1203:graduate school
1173:
1129:Bernice Sandler
1101:Tower Amendment
1070:
1065:
1059:
1056:
1045:
987:
951:
949:
948:
938:
912:Early childhood
894:
829:School violence
762:Charter schools
674:
668:
637:Nursing degrees
615:Legal education
610:Music education
605:Civic education
543:By subject area
518:
514:
493:
268:
259:Signed into law
148:
99:
64:Enacted by
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6663:
6661:
6653:
6652:
6647:
6642:
6637:
6632:
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6018:
6012:
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5992:
5985:
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5964:
5963:
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5955:
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5770:
5763:
5756:
5742:
5735:
5734:
5733:
5719:
5712:
5711:
5710:
5707:Linkage policy
5696:
5695:
5694:
5691:Vietnamization
5687:
5678:
5671:
5657:
5654:Nixon Doctrine
5650:
5642:
5640:
5638:Foreign policy
5634:
5633:
5631:
5630:
5623:
5616:
5615:
5614:
5607:
5593:
5586:
5579:
5572:
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5488:
5482:
5480:
5479:
5472:
5465:
5457:
5435:
5434:
5433:
5411:
5410:External links
5408:
5405:
5404:
5378:
5352:
5326:
5320:978-0062657862
5319:
5299:
5272:
5250:
5220:
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4502:
4468:
4438:
4406:
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4356:
4327:
4306:
4288:King, Robert.
4280:
4268:Education Week
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4109:
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3447:
3434:
3417:"TitleIX.info"
3408:
3376:
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3337:
3318:
3295:
3272:
3252:Title IX at 35
3233:
3203:
3177:
3146:
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3016:
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2901:
2879:
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2431:
2394:
2357:
2351:Suggs, Welch.
2327:
2308:
2288:
2258:
2249:
2223:
2205:
2185:
2159:
2133:
2107:
2080:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2065:
2062:
2032:
2029:
2001:Jane Rosenthal
1964:, narrated by
1944:tablet of the
1895:Shoni Schimmel
1863:
1860:
1843:New York Times
1821:Main article:
1818:
1815:
1702:Main article:
1699:
1696:
1624:Annie E. Clark
1551:
1548:
1517:
1516:
1513:
1512:swimming (125)
1510:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1498:
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1410:
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1392:
1386:
1383:
1295:
1292:
1215:
1214:Implementation
1212:
1172:
1169:
1117:Lyndon Johnson
1110:Dear Colleague
1092:then proposed
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1054:
1044:
1041:
1012:§§ 1681–1688.
989:
988:
986:
985:
978:
971:
963:
960:
959:
935:
934:
933:
932:
927:
924:Post-secondary
901:
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849:Apprenticeship
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696:Post-secondary
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679:
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669:
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641:
640:
639:
634:
632:Medical school
624:
623:
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612:
607:
602:
597:
595:Normal schools
592:
586:
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186:
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176:§ 1681 et seq.
167:
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154:
153:Titles amended
150:
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136:
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125:
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6261:
6259:
6256:Environmental
6253:
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6228:
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6221:
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5805:
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5767:SALT I Treaty
5764:
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5611:controversies
5608:
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5604:Supreme Court
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5330:
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5312:
5311:
5303:
5300:
5287:
5283:
5276:
5273:
5260:
5254:
5251:
5238:
5235:. June 2012.
5234:
5230:
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4299:September 15,
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3356:
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3347:
3341:
3338:
3333:
3328:, p. 240
3327:
3322:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3308:
3302:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3291:archive.today
3288:
3285:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3257:
3253:
3246:
3240:
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3234:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3207:
3204:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3184:
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3178:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3150:
3147:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3120:
3117:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3086:
3080:
3077:
3064:
3060:
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3050:
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3017:
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2994:
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2693:
2690:
2686:
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2678:
2671:
2669:
2665:
2652:
2651:Afro-American
2648:
2642:
2639:
2627:
2623:
2616:
2613:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2586:
2583:
2570:
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2336:
2334:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2305:
2301:
2300:
2292:
2289:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2237:
2233:
2227:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2202:
2198:
2197:
2189:
2186:
2174:
2170:
2163:
2160:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2122:
2118:
2111:
2108:
2096:
2092:
2085:
2082:
2075:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2054:
2048:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1993:Robin Roberts
1990:
1989:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1954:
1949:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1932:
1927:
1925:
1924:
1920:published in
1919:
1915:
1910:
1908:
1904:
1903:Aimee Mullins
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1883:
1879:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1814:
1812:
1808:
1805:In 2021, the
1803:
1801:
1797:
1796:Tulsi Gabbard
1791:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1770:
1765:
1762:
1761:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1726:Jeff Sessions
1723:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1705:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1619:
1614:
1612:
1611:Angie Epifano
1608:
1603:
1600:
1595:
1592:
1586:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1564:Ann Olivarius
1561:
1557:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1539:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1526:In 2011, the
1524:
1522:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1453:
1443:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1422:
1420:
1419:female sports
1411:
1409:
1402:
1400:
1393:
1391:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1374:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1350:
1345:
1343:
1338:
1334:
1328:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1314:
1305:
1300:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1280:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1249:in the 1970s.
1248:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1233:
1225:
1220:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1190:
1182:
1177:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1079:
1074:
1067:
1062:
1053:
1048:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
998:United States
995:
994:Title IX
984:
979:
977:
972:
970:
965:
964:
962:
961:
958:
947:
942:
937:
936:
931:
930:Organizations
928:
926:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
904:
903:
902:
897:
889:
886:
885:
884:
881:
879:
876:
872:
869:
868:
867:
864:
862:
859:
855:
852:
851:
850:
847:
845:
842:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
798:
797:School choice
795:
793:
790:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
759:
758:
755:
751:
750:Student loans
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
736:
733:
731:
730:Credentialism
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
717:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
705:
701:
697:
694:
692:
689:
688:
687:
686:Accreditation
684:
683:
681:
680:
677:
671:
665:
662:
660:
659:Sex education
657:
655:
652:
650:
647:
645:
642:
638:
635:
633:
630:
629:
628:
625:
621:
618:
617:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
600:Art education
598:
596:
593:
591:
588:
587:
585:
584:
579:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
535:
532:
531:
530:
529:
524:
521:
519:United States
511:
508:
506:
501:
500:
489:
486:
482:
478:
477:
473:
470:
467:
463:
459:
458:
454:
451:
448:
444:
440:
439:
435:
432:
429:
425:
421:
420:
419:NCAA v. Smith
416:
413:
410:
406:
402:
401:
397:
394:
391:
387:
383:
382:
378:
375:
372:
368:
364:
363:
359:
356:
353:
349:
345:
344:
340:
337:
334:
330:
326:
325:
321:
318:
315:
311:
307:
306:
302:
299:
296:
292:
288:
287:
283:
282:
279:
275:
271:
264:
263:Richard Nixon
261:by President
260:
257:
254:
250:
247:) and by the
246:
242:
238:
235:
232:
228:
225:
222:
218:
215:
213:
209:
206:
203:
199:
195:
191:
188:
187:
184:
179:
175:
171:
168:
165:
161:
158:
155:
151:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
126:
124:
120:
115:
112:
108:
104:
102:
96:
93:
90:
86:
81:
78:June 23, 1972
77:
73:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
49:
45:
41:
36:
30:
26:
22:
6570:
6561:
6513:
6491:Enemies List
5945:War on drugs
5872:
5441:
5397:November 27,
5395:. Retrieved
5392:The Atlantic
5391:
5381:
5371:November 27,
5369:. Retrieved
5366:The Atlantic
5365:
5355:
5345:November 27,
5343:. Retrieved
5340:The Atlantic
5339:
5329:
5309:
5302:
5290:. Retrieved
5285:
5275:
5263:. Retrieved
5253:
5243:December 18,
5241:. Retrieved
5232:
5223:
5213:December 18,
5211:. Retrieved
5207:the original
5202:
5193:
5181:. Retrieved
5177:the original
5170:
5161:
5149:. Retrieved
5115:. Retrieved
5100:
5088:. Retrieved
5079:
5057:
5045:. Retrieved
5030:
5017:
4992:. Retrieved
4968:
4956:. Retrieved
4952:the original
4938:
4926:. Retrieved
4908:
4900:the original
4895:
4886:
4857:
4835:
4831:
4819:
4807:. Retrieved
4803:
4794:
4782:. Retrieved
4777:
4768:
4756:. Retrieved
4751:
4742:
4732:December 11,
4730:. Retrieved
4726:
4716:
4704:. Retrieved
4697:
4685:
4673:. Retrieved
4669:Lambda Legal
4667:
4658:
4647:
4635:. Retrieved
4629:
4619:
4607:. Retrieved
4601:
4591:
4579:. Retrieved
4575:
4565:
4553:. Retrieved
4538:
4528:February 23,
4526:. Retrieved
4517:The Guardian
4515:
4505:
4493:. Retrieved
4484:
4459:. Retrieved
4455:the original
4450:
4441:
4429:. Retrieved
4409:
4397:. Retrieved
4374:December 20,
4372:. Retrieved
4368:
4359:
4347:. Retrieved
4343:
4319:
4309:
4297:. Retrieved
4293:
4283:
4271:. Retrieved
4267:
4257:
4245:. Retrieved
4239:. ACLU.org.
4231:
4219:. Retrieved
4213:. ACLU.org.
4205:
4193:. Retrieved
4189:the original
4184:
4174:
4162:. Retrieved
4153:
4143:
4131:. Retrieved
4122:
4112:
4100:. Retrieved
4091:
4081:
4069:. Retrieved
4060:
4050:
4038:. Retrieved
4029:
4019:
4007:. Retrieved
3998:
3973:. Retrieved
3964:
3954:
3945:
3933:. Retrieved
3919:
3907:. Retrieved
3893:
3881:. Retrieved
3867:
3859:
3839:
3831:
3826:
3818:
3809:
3802:631 F.2d 178
3796:
3772:
3752:
3740:. Retrieved
3736:
3722:
3697:the original
3651:. Retrieved
3647:the original
3637:
3613:
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