Title IX - Knowledge

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civil cases in which serious allegations are made (as opposed to the standard of beyond reasonable doubt in criminal cases). On September 22, 2017, US Department of Education Secretary Betsy Devos rescinded the Obama-era guidelines which had prodded colleges and universities to more aggressively investigate campus sexual assaults. On May 7, 2020, the U.S. Department of Education released final regulations governing campus sexual assault under Title IX, the first Title IX guidance published by the Office of Civil Rights to go through a formal notice-and-comment process since 1997. Some of the new regulations made in May 2020 involve defining sexual harassment to include "sexual assault, dating violence, domestic violence, and stalking," as discrimination, as well as require schools to offer attainable options for anyone to report a sexual harassment case. Unlike guidance issued by the Obama administration in 2011 and 2014, they will have the force of law behind them. Colleges and universities will be required to comply with the regulations by Aug. 14. On June 22, 2021, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Doe v. DeVos that schools must provide a fair and impartial grievance process to students who allege sexual harassment. This ruling clarifies that schools are legally obligated to respond promptly and effectively to allegations of sexual harassment. On February 10, 2022, the Department of Education issued guidance on how schools should implement the new Title IX regulations. This guidance includes specific information on how schools should prevent and respond to sexual harassment.

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third prong, which focuses on any differences in the genders' respective levels of interest in participation). Instead, it requires that the genders' athletic participation be substantially proportionate to their enrollment, without regard to interest. Prong two is viewed as only a temporary fix for universities, as universities may only point to the past expansion of opportunities for female students for a limited time before compliance with another prong is necessary. Critics say that prong three likewise fails to consider male athletic interest despite its gender-neutral language, as it requires that the university fully and effectively accommodate the athletic interests of the "underrepresented sex", even though ED regulations expressly require that the OCR consider whether the institution "effectively accommodate the interests and abilities of members of both sexes". As such, with a focus on increasing female athletic opportunities without any counterbalance to consider male athletic interest, critics maintain that the OCR's three-prong test operates to discriminate against men.

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students consistent with their gender identity in academic life. A student who identifies as a transgender boy, for instance, is allowed entry to a boys-only class, and a student who identifies as a transgender girl is allowed entry to a girls-only class. This also applies to academic records if that student is over the age of eighteen at a university. The memo states in part that "ll students, including transgender students, or students who do not conform to sex stereotypes, are protected from sex-based discrimination under Title IX. Under Title IX, a recipient generally must treat transgender, or gender non-conforming, consistent with their gender identity in all aspects of the planning, implementation, enrollment, operation, and evaluation of single-sex classes."

1465:(OCR) has resulted in the dismantling of men's programs, despite strong participation in those sports. Some believe that the increase in athletic opportunity for girls in high school has come at the expense of boys' athletics. Because teams vary widely in size, it is more common to compare the number of total participation opportunities between the sexes. Additionally, the total number of college participation opportunities has increased for both sexes in the Title IX era, though solely for women when increased enrollment is accounted for, as men's participation has remained static relative to university enrollment, and men's opportunities outnumber women's by a wide margin. 1453:

The number of women in high school sports had increased by a factor of nine, while the number of women in college sports had increased by more than 450%. A 2008 study of intercollegiate athletics showed that women's collegiate sports have grown to 9,101 teams, or 8.65 per school. The five most frequently offered college sports for women are in order: (1) Basketball, 98.8% of schools have a team; (2) Volleyball, 95.7%; (3) Soccer, 92.0%; (4) Cross Country; 90.8%, and (5) Softball; 89.2%. The lowest rank for female sports teams is bowling. The exact percentage is not known; however, there are only around 600 students on women's bowling teams in all three divisions in the NCAA.

1099:. The 1964 Act was passed to end discrimination in various fields based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in the areas of employment and public accommodation. The 1964 Act did not prohibit sex discrimination against people employed at educational institutions. A parallel law, Title VI, had also been enacted in 1964 to prohibit discrimination in federally funded private and public entities. It covered race, color, and national origin but excluded sex. Feminists during the early 1970s lobbied Congress to add sex as a protected class category. Title IX was enacted to fill this gap and prohibit discrimination in all federally funded education programs. Congressman 1624:, wrote an explicit, personal account of her alleged sexual assault and the ensuing "appalling treatment" she received when coming forward to seek support from the college's administration. In the narrative, Epifano alleged that she was raped by a fellow Amherst student and described how her life was affected by the experience; she stated that the perpetrator harassed her at the only dining hall, that her academic performance was negatively affected, and that, when she sought support, the administration coerced her into taking the blame for her experience and ultimately institutionalized her and pressured her to drop out. 51: 1217:

operating assumptions." He continued: "While the impact of this amendment would be far-reaching, it is not a panacea. It is, however, an important first step in the effort to provide for the women of America something that is rightfully theirs—an equal chance to attend the schools of their choice, to develop the skills they want, and to apply those skills with the knowledge that they will have a fair chance to secure the jobs of their choice with equal pay for equal work". Title IX became public law on June 23, 1972. When U.S. President Nixon signed the bill, he spoke mostly about

1355:. In October 2002, less than a month after the death of U.S. Rep. Patsy Mink, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution to rename Title IX the "Patsy Takemoto Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act", which President George W. Bush signed into law. On November 24, 2006, Title IX regulations were amended to provide greater flexibility in the operation of single-sex classes or extracurricular activities at the primary or secondary school level; this was largely to introduce federal abstinence-only programs, which may have been a partial basis for the support of President Bush. 1419:

opportunities is limited to colleges and universities. The American Sports Council argued that "The three-part test and its encouragement of quotas, has no relevance to high schools or high-school sports, and no federal regulation or interpretation has ever said that high schools must abide by the three-part test". On the other hand, the Department of Education insists that Title IX is a "valuable tool" for ensuring a level playing field for all students" and "plays a critical role in ensuring a fundamental level of fairness in America's schools and universities".

1310: 1230: 1245:. Their duty is to oversee that Title IX is not being violated and to answer all questions pertaining to Title IX. Everyone must have access to the Title IX coordinator's name, address, and telephone number. To ensure compliance with Title IX, programs of both male and females must display no discrimination. This applies to opportunities for athletic participation (in proportion to enrollment numbers), scholarships, and how athletes are treated (e.g., equitable locker room facilities, etc.). 1861:

the NCAA Executive Committee, which issued a resolution soon afterward asking Association members not to use the survey – claimed the survey was flawed in part because of the way it counted non-responses. On April 20, 2010, the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights abandoned the 2005 clarification that allowed institutions to use only Internet or e‑mail surveys to meet the interests and abilities (third prong) option of the three-part test for Title IX compliance.

1119:, the original statute made no explicit mention of sports. The United States Supreme Court also issued decisions in the 1980s and 1990s, making clear that sexual harassment and assault is a form of sex discrimination. In 2011, President Barack Obama issued guidance reminding schools of their obligation to redress sexual assaults as civil rights matters under Title IX. Obama also issued guidance clarifying Title IX protections for LGBT students through 1847:

argue that the three-prong test embodies the maxim that "opportunity drives interest", critics argue that the three-prong test goes beyond Title IX original purpose of preventing discrimination, and instead amounts to an exercise in which athletic opportunities are taken away from male students and given to female students, despite the comparatively lower interest levels of those female students. Author and self-described women's rights advocate

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school offers. These tests consist of proportional numbers of males and females participating, whether or not the school is making an effort to increase the number of the unrepresented sex, if the school has a certain history of one specific sex dominating the numbers of athletes in a given sport, and whether or not the school is showing an effort to expand the program to the other sex.

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attempts at change, and sweep sexual assaults under a rug. When politicians cover up affairs or scandals the masses often rise in angry protestations and call for a more transparent government. What is the difference between a government and the Amherst College campus? Why can't we know what is happening on campus? Why should we be quiet about sexual assault?"

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committee met to consider the education legislation to which Tower had attached his amendment, it substituted an amendment sponsored by Senator Jacob Javits (R-N.Y.) specifying that HEW's Title IX regulations 'shall include with respect to intercollegiate athletic activities reasonable provisions considering the nature of particular sports.'

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Defenders of the three-prong test counter that the genders' differing athletic interest levels are merely a product of past discrimination, and that Title IX should be interpreted to maximize female participation in athletics regardless of any existing disparity in interest. Thus while defenders

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obtained a memo issued by the Department of Health and Human Services that would propose a strict definition of gender for Title IX, using the person's sex as determined at birth and could not be changed, effectively limiting recognition of transgender students and potentially others. The memo stated

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required that federally-assisted educational institutions disclose information on roster sizes for men's and women's athletic teams; as well as budgets for recruiting, scholarships, coaches' salaries, and other expenses, annually. In 1992, the Supreme Court decided monetary relief was available under

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In December 2020, the "Protect Women in Sports" Act was introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives. It would block schools from receiving federal funding if transgender girls and nonbinary people are allowed to compete on girls' sports teams at those schools. It was sponsored by Representatives

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Critics of the three-prong test contend that it operates as a "quota" in that it places undue emphasis on the first prong (known as the "proportionality" prong), which fails to take into account any differences in the genders' respective levels of interest in participating in athletics (despite the

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Advocates of Title IX's current interpretation cite increases in female athletic participation, and attribute those increases to Title IX. One study, completed in 2006, pointed to a large increase in the number of women participating in athletics at both the high school and college level.

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issued a Notice of Interpretation explaining that it will "enforce Title IX's prohibition on discrimination on the basis of sex to include: (1) discrimination based on sexual orientation; and (2) discrimination based on gender identity." The review set out in E.O. 14021 is still ongoing as of April

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On March 17, 2005, OCR announced a clarification of prong three of the three-part test of Title IX compliance. The guidance concerned the use of web-based surveys to determine the level of interest in varsity athletics among the underrepresented sex. Opponents of the clarification – including

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Title IX has been a source of controversy in part due to claims that the OCR's current interpretation of Title IX, and specifically its three-prong test of compliance, is no longer faithful to the anti-discrimination language in Title IX's text, and instead discriminates against men

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The letter, referred to as the "Dear Colleague Letter", states that it is the responsibility of institutions of higher education "to take immediate and effective steps to end sexual harassment and sexual violence." The letter illustrates multiple examples of Title IX requirements as they relate to

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The introduction of Title IX was followed by a considerable increase in the number of female students participating in organized sports within American academic institutions followed by growing interest in initiating and developing programs which would pursue feminist principles in relationship to

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through a Department of Education program. The Department of Education's stance was that because some of its students were receiving federal grants, the school was thus receiving federal assistance and Title IX applied to it. The Court decided that since Grove City College was only receiving

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was on the Senate Floor for re-authorization; and on February 28, 1972, Bayh re-introduced a provision found in the original/revised ERA bill as an amendment which would become Title IX. In his remarks on the Senate Floor, Bayh stated, "we are all familiar with the stereotype women pretty things

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After Title IX was implemented, there was controversy about the amount of athletic integration, especially among female education leaders who worried about girls being injured or bullied by rough boys in coeducational activities. While there were always some parents and administrators who did not

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students are protected from sex-based discrimination under Title IX. In particular, Title IX of its Education Amendments of 1972 bars schools that receive financial aid assistance from sex-based discrimination in education programs and activities. It instructed public schools to treat transgender

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The Trump administration made changes to guidelines that were implemented during the Obama administration. These changes shifted the standard of evidence used in Title IX investigations from "preponderance of the evidence" to a "clear and convincing" evidence standard, which is typically used for

1444:(AIAW) run female championships, decided to offer female championships themselves, leading to the eventual demise of the AIAW. The NCAA later tried to claim that Congress had not intended to include athletics under Title IX's coverage, but the record lacks any sustained discussion of the matter. 1362:

which allows transgender girls to compete in high school sports as girls was a violation of the civil rights of female student-athletes and a violation of Title IX. It stated that Connecticut's policy "denied female student-athletes athletic benefits and opportunities, including advancing to the

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weighed in on the OCR's three-prong test, offering several recommendations on Title IX policy to address what it termed "unnecessary reduction of men's athletic opportunities". The commission advocated use of surveys to measure interest, and specifically recommended that the Department of

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In regards to coaching roles, in spite of the fact that the legislation has helped create more and better opportunities for women, the number of women coaches has surprisingly decreased while the number of male coaches have subsequently increased. Men have also gained a larger role in directing

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Athletic equality requirements were later set by the U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights, first in 1979 and later followed by several clarifications and amendments. To meet the requirements, schools must pass at least one of three tests measuring sex equality among athletics the

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The fact that such a prestigious institution could have such a noxious interior fills me with intense remorse mixed with sour distaste. I am sickened by the Administration's attempts to cover up survivors' stories, cook their books to discount rapes, pretend that withdrawals never occur, quell

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teams. While some teams—both men's and women's—have been eliminated in the Title IX era, both sexes have seen a net increase in the number of athletic teams over that same period. When total enrollment (which had likewise increased) is controlled for however, only women had an increase in

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because they want a more interesting husband, and finally marry, have children, and never work again. The desire of many schools not to waste a 'man's place' on a woman stems from such stereotyped notions. But the facts contradict these myths about the 'weaker sex' and it is time to change our

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While HEW was working on its regulation, the NCAA and other football boosters came close to passing an amendment sponsored by Senator John Tower (R-Tex.) that would exempt 'revenue-generating' sports from Title IX regulation. That legislative strategy ultimately backfired. When the conference

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An Act to amend the Higher Education Act of 1965, the Vocational Education Act of 1963, the General Education Provisions Act (creating a National Foundation for Postsecondary Education and a National Institute of Education), the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Public Law 874,

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reported that over 150,000 female athletic opportunities would need to be added to reach participation levels proportional to the female undergraduate population. The same study found that men's athletics also receives the lion's share of athletic department budgets for operating expenses,

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There have been different interpretations regarding Title IX's application to high school athletics. The American Sports Council sued the Department of Education in 2011 seeking a declaratory judgment that its policy interpreting Title IX's requirement for equity in participation

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was the subject of a lawsuit that alleged violations of rights guaranteed by Title IX: the university expelled a football player for multiple instances of severe sexual harassment, but readmitted him; he went on to rape a fellow student in her dorm room. Despite its claim that it bore no

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acted with "deliberate indifference" toward students Lisa Simpson and Anne Gilmore, who were sexually assaulted by student football players. The university settled the case by promising to change its policies and to pay $ 2.5 million in damages. In 2008,

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undergraduate student and alleged sexual violence survivor Alexandra Brodsky filed a Title IX complaint along with fifteen fellow students alleging Yale "has a sexually hostile environment and has failed to adequately respond to sexual harassment concerns."

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of Indiana in 1971, who then was its chief Senate sponsor for congressional debate. At the time, Bayh was working on numerous constitutional issues related to women's employment and sex discrimination—including, but not limited to, the revised draft of the

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that the government needed to define gender "on a biological basis that is clear, grounded in science, objective and administrable". The news brought immediate protests in several locations as well as online social media under the "#WontBeErased" hashtag.

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has consistently increased at the high school level since 1990, scores of colleges have dropped their wrestling programs during that same period. The OCR's three-prong test for compliance with Title IX often is cited as the reason for these cuts.

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directing HEW to include "reasonable provisions considering the nature of particular sports" adopted in its place. In June 1975, HEW published the final regulations detailing how Title IX would be enforced. These regulations were codified in the

1207:. The ERA attempted to build "a powerful constitutional base from which to move forward in abolishing discriminatory differential treatment based on sex". As Bayh was having partisan difficulty in later getting the ERA Amendment out of committee, the 1427:

Although Title IX has helped increase the participation rate of female student athletes, several challenges remain for girls and women, including for females who aspire to become involved in professional roles within sport. The growing exposure of

1173:, and observed corresponding congressional hearings relating to women's issues on employment and equal opportunity. In these hearings, Green and Sandler initially proposed the idea of Title IX. An early legislative draft aimed at amending the 1338:

federal funding through the grant program that only this program had to comply. This ruling was a major victory for those opposed to Title IX as it then made many athletic programs outside the purview of Title IX, and thus reduced its scope.

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can impose a fine and potentially deny further institutional access to federal funds. However, critics and later the Department of Education noted that this change was adopted without a rulemaking process to provide public notice and comment.

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wrote the 37 opening words of Title IX. Bayh first introduced an amendment to the Higher Education Act to ban discrimination on the basis of sex on August 6, 1971, and again on February 28, 1972, when it passed the Senate. Representative

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and who was in its LGBTQ affinity group, had unsuccessfully asked DeVos not to withdraw the Obama administration guidance. Two years later, in the summer of 2019, Bensing discovered that the Education Department was fast-tracking the

1759:'s complaint against transgender student-athletes, even though the department's attorneys did not understand the legal basis for doing so and the department had to pressure other employees. Bensing leaked this information to the 1177:

was then authored by Representative Green. At the hearing, there were mentions of athletics. The idea behind the draft was a progressive one in instituting an affirmative action for women in all aspects of American education.

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No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial

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disagreed with the Department of Education's assertion that it was required to comply with Title IX. Grove City College was not a federally funded institution; however, they did accept students who were receiving

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to "review all existing regulations, orders, guidance documents, policies, and any other similar agency actions (collectively, agency actions) that are or may be inconsistent with the policy set forth" in the order.

1035:, chair of the Subcommittee on Education, had held hearings on discrimination against women, and introduced legislation in the House on May 11, 1972. The full Congress passed Title IX on June 8, 1972. Representative 4962: 4758: 1114:

was rejected, but it led to widespread misunderstanding of Title IX as a sports-equity law, rather than an anti-discrimination, civil rights law. While Title IX is best known for its impact on high school and

1743:, respectively) withdrew the guidance on gender identity. The Education Department announced on February 12, 2018, that Title IX did not allow transgender students to use the bathroom of their gender identities. 1664:

Following the national prominence of the UNC Chapel Hill case, organizers Pino and Clark went on to coordinate with students at other schools; in 2013, complaints citing violations of Title IX were filed against

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issued Executive Order 14021 entitled "Guaranteeing an Educational Environment Free From Discrimination on the Basis of Sex, Including Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity", reversing changes made by the

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Education's regulations on interest and abilities be revised "to explicitly take into account the interest of both sexes rather than just the interest of the underrepresented sex", almost always females.

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women's Final Four. In its announcement, the NCAA explicitly called the joint championship event "a 50th-year celebration of Title IX" (as that particular basketball season will begin in calendar 2022).

4044: 1588:(ACLU) likewise maintain that "when students suffer sexual assault and harassment, they are deprived of equal and free access to an education." Further, according to an April 2011 letter issued by the 1341:

Grove City's court victory, however, was short-lived. The Civil Rights Restoration Act passed in 1988, which extended Title IX coverage to all programs of any educational institution that receives

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historically was the most frequently dropped sport, but other men's sports later overtook the lead. According to the NCAA, the most-dropped men's sports between 1987 and 2002 were as follows:

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In 1972, 58 percent of college students were male and only 42 percent female. By 2010 those numbers had flipped: 57 percent of college students were women, and that number keeps creeping up.

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which would have exempted revenue-producing sports from Title IX compliance. Later that year, Congress rejected the Tower Amendment and passed an amendment proposed by U.S. Senator

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responsibility, the school settled the lawsuit, agreeing to revise and improve its official response to sexual misconduct and to pay the plaintiff $ 850,000 in damages and fees.

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On June 23, 2022, the Biden administration issued a proposed rule to reverse the changes made by the final rule and to expand coverage regarding gender identity and pregnancy.

4555: 6321: 6220: 5969: 4326: 2054:(New York: Metropolitan Books, 2010), and others have argued that Title IX regulations have empowered investigators who routinely endanger academic freedom and fair process, 1441: 898: 844: 706: 1782:

women are infringed upon by transgender women. The Education Department started to withhold federal funding to schools which affirm the identities of transgender athletes.

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quota to enforce Title IX in high school sports would put those young athletes at risk of losing their opportunity to play." High school participation rates from the

888: 553: 2425: 5607: 5593: 2018: 1952: 1541:(formerly called the College Sports Council) stated, "Nationwide, there are currently 1.3 million more boys participating in high school sports than girls. Using a 797: 5121: 5621: 4532: 3222: 876: 410: 5551: 4106: 2034: 4811:"U.S. Department of Education Confirms Title IX Protects Students from Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity | U.S. Department of Education" 4191: 3066:"U.S. Department of Education Confirms Title IX Protects Students from Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity | U.S. Department of Education" 1951:

projected a digital mosaic featuring the largest-ever collection of women and girls' sports images (all of which were submitted by the athletes themselves) onto the

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required all entities receiving federal contracts to end discrimination on the basis of sex in hiring and employment. In 1969, a notable example of its success was

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Title IX applies to all educational programs and all aspects of a school's educational system. In the late 1970s, a group of students and one faculty member sued

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that discrimination on the basis of gender identity is discrimination "on the basis of sex" and is prohibited under Title IX (federal civil rights law) and the

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column that on this topic, women's advocates were being "purely vindictive" in insisting that the current OCR interpretation of Title IX be maintained.

730: 654: 6610: 5630: 4375: 4225: 3605: 2802: 5992: 5934: 5899: 5247: 3135: 1642: 1294: 1289: 787: 777: 720: 4785:"Executive Order on Guaranteeing an Educational Environment Free from Discrimination on the Basis of Sex, Including Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity" 3703: 3686: 3036:"Executive Order on Guaranteeing an Educational Environment Free from Discrimination on the Basis of Sex, Including Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity" 6167: 5791: 5438: 5372: 4932: 4160: 3939: 1352: 1328:

The Court held that Title IX applied only to those programs receiving direct federal aid. This case was initially reached by the Supreme Court when

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finals in events, higher-level competitions, awards, medals, recognition, and the possibility of greater visibility to colleges and other benefits."

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took steps to reinstate some of the protections for transgender students that had been rescinded under the Trump administration. These included two

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to limit the scope of Title IX to sex only, excluding gender identity and sexual orientation. The executive order also provided a timeline for the

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has criticized the Title IX process for being unfair to the accused, based on faulty science, and racially biased against students of color.

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following Mink's death in 2002. When Title IX was passed in 1972, only 42 percent of the students enrolled in American colleges were female.

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Concern has been expressed that colleges have been overly aggressive in enforcing Title IX regulations, particularly about sexual matters.

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Title IX has been interpreted as allowing private lawsuits against educational institutions as well as formal complaints submitted to the

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has led to an increasingly dominant representation of males in coaching positions and roles involving the governance of female athletics.

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Shelton, Donald E. (2001). "Equally Bad is Not Good: Allowing Title IX "Compliance" by the Elimination of Men's Collegiate Sports".

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of suspects, assign the man full responsibility for the outcome of any social interaction, and minutely regulate personal relationships.

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The Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1988 is tied to Title IX which was passed in response to the U.S. Supreme Court's 1984 ruling

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Sandler soon began to file complaints against the University of Maryland and other colleges while working with NOW and the

6605: 6307: 6234: 5985: 5770: 4457: 4376:"Secretary DeVos Takes Historic Action to Strengthen Title IX Protections for All Students | U.S. Department of Education" 4199: 3297: 2528: 1346:

federal assistance, both direct and indirect. In 1994, the Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act, sponsored by Congresswoman

1050:, which banned several forms of discrimination in employment, but did not address or mention discrimination in education. 600: 3657: 1578: 6395: 6388: 5927: 5869: 5187: 4995: 4928: 3799: 3630:"Intercollegiate Athletics: Recent Trends in Teams and Participants in National Collegiate Athletic Association Sports." 3616: 2572:"Document 4: "'Too Strong for a Woman'--The Five Words that Created Title IX," Spring 1997 | Alexander Street Documents" 1941: 1882: 1658: 1553: 1208: 1012: 139: 2521:"Lyndon B. Johnson: Executive Order 11375—Amending Executive Order No. 11246, Relating to Equal Employment Opportunity" 1301:). Since 1975, the federal government has issued guidance clarifying how it interprets and enforces those regulations. 6372: 6130: 5657: 5494: 5240:"ESPN Networks Offer Extensive Lineup of Women in Sports Programming on Title IX Anniversary Weekend – ESPN MediaZone" 3855: 3771: 3402: 3266: 2851: 1286: 353: 149: 144: 79: 5292: 4674: 4129: 3632: 3580: 1600:

sexual violence and makes clear that, should an institution fail to fulfill its responsibilities under Title IX, the

1039:

emerged in the House to lead efforts to protect Title IX against attempts to weaken it, and it was later renamed the

3318:"College Sports Council Urges High Schools to Fight Use of Gender Quotas to Comply with Title IX in Athletics." 1015:. It prohibits sex-based discrimination in any school or any other education program that receives funding from the 315: 6114: 5892: 5209: 5117: 2003: 1756: 1534:

schools in 2020 than in 1990, despite the D-I membership having increased by nearly 60 schools during that period.

1372: 1323: 372: 4759:"Executive Order on Preventing and Combating Discrimination on the Basis of Gender Identity or Sexual Orientation" 4426:"Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Sex in Education Programs or Activities Receiving Federal Financial Assistance" 4300: 4221: 3856:

To Break the Silence or Be Broken by It: A Genealogy of Women Who Have Refused to Shut Up About Harassment at Yale

3743: 3320: 2976:"Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Sex in Education Programs or Activities Receiving Federal Financial Assistance" 1058:

The following is the opening of the text of Title IX, which is followed by several exceptions and clarifications:

6582: 6423: 6042: 5839: 5798: 2810: 864: 696: 5710: 5239: 3143: 50: 6630: 6206: 5784: 3707: 3682: 2055: 2026: 1694: 1174: 1096: 4924: 3935: 1549:

report that in 2010–11, there were 4,494,406 boys and 3,173,549 girls participating in high school athletics.

3724: 3365: 1538: 6557: 6517: 6501: 6471: 6213: 6183: 4663:

https://www.stamfordadvocate.com/sports/article/Connecticut-transgender-policy-found-to-violate-15300275.php

3866: 3825: 1886: 1833: 1817: 1794: 1685: 1601: 1593: 1589: 1462: 1388: 17: 4403: 6525: 6176: 5832: 5740: 3909: 3883: 3845:, edited by Catharine A. MacKinnon and Reva B. Siegel (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), pp. 51–59. 3812: 2377: 2179: 1747: 1689: 1242: 1204: 1143: 4835: 3095: 6084: 4636: 3971: 2987: 1896:

There were several events praising the 40th anniversary of Title IX in June 2012. For example, the

1135: 750: 740: 495: 476: 457: 438: 419: 400: 381: 362: 343: 324: 305: 5426: 3788: 1681:, an organization of student activists focused on legal education and federal and state policy change. 1309: 1241:

Each institution or organization that receives federal funding must designate at least one employee as

5430: 4864: 3473: 3431: 2945: 6645: 6487: 5763: 1998: 1959:

in Washington, D.C. The mosaic also included photos of espnW's Top 40 Athletes of the Past 40 Years.

1732: 1720: 1498: 1493: 1469: 1358:

On May 15, 2020, the Department of Education issued a letter stating that the policy of the state of

1218: 967: 802: 792: 745: 5024: 4492:"Department Of Education Issues Guidelines To Protect Transgender Students In Single-Sex Classrooms" 102: 6640: 6457: 6192: 5685: 5047: 2007: 1229: 767: 4701: 2267:

Section 703(a)(1), Civil Rights Act of 1964, Pub. L. No. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241, 255 (July 2, 1964).

2180:"H.J. Res. 113 – 107th Congress (2001–2002): Recognizing the contributions of Patsy Takemoto Mink" 6464: 4869: 4641: 4613: 2324: 2221: 1770: 1670: 1666: 1650: 1329: 174: 4247: 3454:

Women in Intercollegiate Sport: A Longitudinal National Study Twenty-Nine Year Update 1977–2006

1569:

for its failure to curtail sexual harassment on campus, especially by male faculty. This case,

6441: 6349: 5948: 5527: 5325: 4331: 3541: 3537: 2490: 2314: 2277: 2211: 1963: 1570: 1429: 1257: 1116: 4637:"#WontBeErased: Transgender People and Allies Mobilize Against Trump Administration Proposal" 4425: 1893:

like the idea of coed gym classes, that has in fact become the norm as a result of Title IX.

1778:

In May 2020, the Trump administration's Department of Education contended that the rights of

6035: 5717: 5693: 4925:"Additional Clarification of Intercollegiate Athletics Policy: Three-Part Test – Part Three" 4891:

Gavora, Jessica (2003). "Tilting the Playing Field: Schools, Sports, Sex and Title IX".

2897: 2688:

The Art of Leadership; A Companion to an Exhibition from the Senatorial Papers of Birch Bayh

1901: 1810: 1761: 1485: 1461:

There have been concerns and claims that the current interpretation of Title IX by the

1282: 1068:

Cornell Law School's Legal Information Institute (20 U.S. Code § 1681 – (men and women) Sex)

956: 4327:"Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos rescinds Obama-era guidelines on campus sexual assault" 3568:"Intercollegiate Athletics: Four-Year Colleges' Experiences Adding and Discontinuing Teams" 6494: 6314: 5807: 5726: 5544: 5463: 4583:"Education Department Whistleblower Forced Out After Exposing Push Against Trans Athletes" 3862: 3795: 3775: 3636: 3612: 3324: 2904: 2885: 2757: 2744: 2694: 2557: 1646: 1617: 1566: 1531: 1481: 1347: 1273: 1213: 1139: 1111: 1104: 2550: 2102:"Sen. Birch Bayh, in tears: 'I had no idea that Title IX would have this kind of impact'" 1657:

complaints against the university in January 2013, both leading to investigations by the

1401:

concerns surrounding issues dealing with girls and women's equality and equity in sport.

1653:

to address the parallel concerns of hostility at their institution, filing Title IX and

184: 5701: 5678: 5664: 2011: 1905: 1853: 1634: 1130:, forbidding discrimination in federal contracts. Before these orders were issued, the 1127: 498: 479: 460: 441: 422: 384: 346: 327: 308: 3294: 403: 365: 263: 255: 241: 231: 6599: 5913: 5448: 4099:"College Sexual Assault Survivors Form Underground Network To Reform Campus Policies" 3301: 2687: 2579: 1913: 1806: 1736: 1621: 1574: 1268:(HEW) to publish regulations clarifying the law's application. In 1974, U.S. Senator 1008: 807: 429: 273: 4734:"Tulsi Gabbard Introduces Anti-Transgender Bill After Claiming To Be LGBTQ-Friendly" 2602:"How Bernice Sandler, 'Godmother Of Title IX,' Achieved Landmark Discrimination Ban" 2328: 2308: 2225: 2205: 1264:

Title IX's statutory language is brief. U.S. President Nixon therefore directed the

1221:, and did not mention the expansion of educational access for women he had enacted. 5955: 5434: 4679: 4527: 2878: 2834: 2063: 2047: 1976: 1968: 1924: 1678: 1277: 5319: 3010:"Policy allowing transgender athletes to compete as girls found to violate US law" 2737: 2242: 1900:

hosted a panel to discuss the life-altering nature of sports. Panelists included

1297: 6070: 5671: 5600: 2068: 1992: 1848: 1740: 1724: 1638: 1359: 1234: 1162: 1107:

to Title IX that would have exempted "revenue-generating" sports from Title IX.

1088: 1032: 2520: 1967:

produced its first "Women in Sports" issue in June 2012, and in the same month

6026: 5756: 4556:"Education Department no longer investigating transgender bathroom complaints" 4523:"Trump administration rescinds Obama-era protections for transgender students" 3744:"A Collegiate Model in Crisis: The Crippling Impact of Schools Cutting Sports" 2278:"The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission" 1987: 1477: 1314: 1269: 1253: 1199: 1191: 1126:

The precursor to Title IX was an executive order, issued in 1967 by President

1100: 1036: 1027: 204: 4984: 2494: 1688:. In 2006, a federal court found that there was sufficient evidence that the 4609:"'Transgender' Could Be Defined Out of Existence Under Trump Administration" 3739: 3567: 3255: 1779: 1654: 1581:." Several of the plaintiffs and lawyers have written accounts of the case. 1367: 1046:

The purpose of Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 was to update

5025:"Commission: Title IX interpretation unnecessarily hurts men's sports" 3768: 3395: 1916:, the first double-amputee sprinter to compete in NCAA track and field for 1579:

A report to the Yale Corporation from the Yale Undergraduate Women's Caucus

1019:. This is Public Law No. 92‑318, 86 Stat. 235 (June 23, 1972), codified at 918: 3654:"USA Wrestling response to quotes by Donna Lopiano – Women's Sports Found" 3629: 2376:

Office for Civil Rights, U.S. Department of Education (October 26, 2010).

1248: 951: 2920: 2840:

September 14, 2011, at Wikiwix Gender Equity in Sport. February 23, 2006.

2483:"In Shift, Justice Dept. Says Law Doesn't Bar Transgender Discrimination" 1933: 1530:

Additionally, eight NCAA sports—all men's sports—were sponsored by fewer

30:

For intervention of the U.S. attorney general in civil rights cases, see

5217: 2783:

Richard Nixon (June 23, 1972). Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T (eds.).

4465: 3841:

Anne E. Simon, "Alexander v. Yale University: An Informal History," in

3683:"Title IX has hurt the college sport, but it is now fighting back" 2310:

The Transformation of Title IX: Regulating Gender Equality in Education

2307:

Melnick, R. Shep (2018). "SIX Regulation in Fits and Starts, 1972–95".

2207:

The Transformation of Title IX: Regulating Gender Equality in Education

1956: 1186: 1083: 212: 121: 3960:

Notice of Proposed Rule, Docket ID ED-2018-OCR-0064, November 28, 2018

2413:

Office for Civil Rights, U.S. Department of Education (May 13, 2016).

5441: 3972:"Yale Under Federal Investigation For 'Sexually Hostile Environment'" 3256:"A Report of the National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education" 2030: 1542: 1473: 1468:

Between 1981 and 1999, university athletic departments cut 171 men's

2033:, which had previously been announced as the site for that season's 1839:

and has contributed to the reduction of programs for male athletes.

3778:, National Federation of High School Associations, August 24, 2011, 1552:

In a 2007 study of athletic opportunities at NCAA institutions the

1317:

of Hawaii, Title IX co-author, for whom the law was renamed in 2002

1142:, who used the executive order to retain her job and tenure at the 3938:. Office of the Assistant Secretary, the Department of Education. 3912:. Office of the Assistant Secretary, the Department of Education. 3865:," excerpted from her 2009 Yale senior thesis, and Nicole Allan, " 3317: 1948: 1928: 1308: 1247: 1228: 1185: 1082: 34:. For the section of the US Code that deals with arbitration, see 1723:, the U.S. Department of Education-issued guidance asserted that 1577:, now a feminist attorney known for fighting sexual harassment, " 5152:"espnW To Unveil Historic Title IX Mosaic in Washington June 21" 3677: 3675: 3600: 3598: 3201:"Cheerleading in the Context of Title IX and Gendering in Sport" 1609: 62:

Eighty-first Congress, and related Acts, and for other purposes.

5467: 4130:"Complaints filed against USC, UC Berkeley over rape reporting" 3467:"Women in Intercollegiate Sport, a Longitudinal National Study" 4607:

Green, Erica; Benner, Katie; Pear, Robert (October 21, 2018).

2452:"Sessions memo reversing gender identity civil rights policy" 2017:

The NCAA announced in April 2019 that it would hold its 2023

4192:"UNC-CH women wage national campaign against sexual assault" 2657: 2127: 4985:"Title IX Athletics: Accommodating Interests and Abilities" 3427: 1981:

On the Basis of Sex: The Battle for Title IX in Sports

1440:(NCAA), which had been content to let the female-dominated 5373:"The Bad Science Behind Campus Response to Sexual Assault" 5118:"Obama marks 1972 law lifting education barriers to girls" 3769:"High School Sports Participation Continues Upward Climb." 1134:(NOW) had persuaded him to include the addition of women. 1095:

Title IX was enacted as a follow-up to the passage of the

6336:

National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants

4351:"U.S. Publishes New Regulations on Campus Sexual Assault" 3725:"Bucknell to drop wrestling for Title IX compliance" 2910:. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. November 19, 2009 1641:, two women who were allegedly sexually assaulted at the 6403:

Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972

6200:

Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974

4702:"Adams v. The School Board of St. Johns County, Florida" 4675:"Adams v. The School Board of St. Johns County, Florida" 3295:"Group Sues Over Title IX High School Enforcement." 1198:

Title IX was formally introduced in Congress by Senator

5072:(Game, Set, Match| author=Susan Ware| Date= April 2011) 4710:

United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit

3498: 2850:

Office for Civil Rights, U.S. Department of Education.

2785:"Statement on Signing the Education Amendments of 1972" 1787:

United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit

6249:

Emergency Daylight Saving Time Energy Conservation Act

3401:. National Coalition of Women and Girls in Education. 1791:

Adams v. The School Board of St. Johns County, Florida

6101:

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

5399:"The Question of Race in Campus Sexual-Assault Cases" 4344: 4342: 3167:"Title IX and the Rise of Female Athletes in America" 1387:

On June 16, 2021, the U.S. Department of Education's

5270:"Combined championships for NCAA basketball planned" 5080: 5078: 3698: 3696: 1973:

Sporting Chance: The Lasting Legacy of Title IX

6440: 6265: 6221:

Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act of 1972

6025: 5877:

Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants

5824: 5647: 5502: 5145: 5143: 5141: 5139: 4404:"Explaining Quid Pro Quo Harassment Under Title IX" 4275:"How Have Obama's K-12 Policies Fared Under Trump?" 4068:"Students Initiate Inquiry Into Harassment Reports" 3355:(Game, Set, Match | Author: Susan Ware| Date= 2011) 2052:

How to Become a Scandal: Adventures in Bad Behavior

1996:, a series of documentaries about women in sports. 1983:, and other programming related to women's sports. 1442:

Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women

1182:

Steps from a draft to legislative act to public law

283: 191: 173: 163: 132: 127: 108: 98: 93: 85: 74: 66: 57: 5347:"The Uncomfortable Truth About Campus Rape Policy" 5321:Unwanted Advances: Sexual Paranoia Comes to Campus 5210:"Sporting Chance – The Lasting Legacy of Title IX" 2378:"Dear Colleague Letter on Harassment and Bullying" 2204:Melnick, R. Shep (2018). "ONE Rights Regulation". 1633:When the Amherst case reached national attention, 1436:female athletics. For example, the male-dominated 4485: 4483: 4006:"An Account of Sexual Assault at Amherst College" 2366:Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 2005. 4398: 4396: 4161:"College Groups Connect to Fight Sexual Assault" 3704:"Wrestling programs threatened by Title IX" 1877:On the twenty-fifth anniversary of Title IX the 1557:recruiting, scholarships, and coaches salaries. 1041:Patsy T. Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act 411:Gebser v. Lago Vista Independent School District 6366:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 6228:Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 4955:"OCR rescinds 2005 Title IX clarification" 4886: 4884: 4858: 4856: 4521:David Smith; Molly Redden (February 23, 2017). 3719: 3717: 3523: 3521: 3519: 2747:National Organization for Women. June 27, 2007. 2415:"Dear Colleague Letter on Transgender Students" 1547:National Federation of High School associations 1212:who go to college to find a husband, go on to 1060: 6656:United States federal civil rights legislation 6050:National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 5018: 5016: 3136:"How Title IX changed the landscape of sports" 2879:"The Oyez Project, Grove City College v. Bell" 2758:"Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972" 2698:. (Indiana University Libraries, 2007), p. 43. 1007:is a landmark federal civil rights law in the 155:Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 6108:Occupational Safety and Health Administration 5479: 5087:"As Title IX turns 40, women pay homage" 985: 27:US federal law prohibiting sex discrimination 8: 6621:Anti-discrimination law in the United States 3530:University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 2921:"Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools" 2560:Women's Equity Resource Center. August 1997. 2159:. U.S. Department of Justice. August 6, 2015 1827: 1152:Office for Federal Fair Contracts Compliance 43: 18:Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 6661:United States federal education legislation 6322:Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act 5935:Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973 5900:Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 3452:Linda Jean Carpenter and R. Vivian Acosta, 3396:"Title IX at 35: Beyond the Headlines" 3327:, College Sports Council, February 8, 2011. 3312: 3310: 2946:"Bush signs resolution honoring Patsy Mink" 2791:. University of California – Santa Barbara. 2760:. The United States Department of Justice. 2313:. Brookings Institution Press. p. 94. 1765:and was forced to resign in December 2019. 1643:University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 1266:Department of Health, Education and Welfare 1091:of Oregon laid the foundation for Title IX. 1011:that was enacted as part (Title IX) of the 6168:Securities Investor Protection Corporation 5486: 5472: 5464: 5178:"News Title IX documentary debuts June 23" 4732:Mosbergen, Dominique (December 10, 2020). 3999: 3997: 3854:See the quotes by Price in Nicole Allan, " 3499:"NCAA.org – The Official Site of the NCAA" 3289: 3287: 2210:. Brookings Institution Press. p. 3. 1353:Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools 992: 978: 509: 392:Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools 248:Reported by the joint conference committee 6138:Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act 4903:"Smith professor speaks on Title IX" 4037:"Student's Account Has Rape in Spotlight" 3884:"Title IX and Sexual Violence in Schools" 2852:"Reading Room: Sex Discrimination Policy" 2835:"Landmark Title IX Cases in History" 2100:Hunsinger Benbow, Dana (March 14, 2019). 2025:women's basketball championship games at 1048:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 559:History of education in the United States 487:Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee 449:Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education 335:Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan 5907:Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 5457:) is being considered for deletion. See 4959:National Collegiate Athletic Association 4035:Richard, Perez-Pena (October 26, 2012). 3370:American Association of University Women 2830: 2828: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2344: 2342: 1866:United States Commission on Civil Rights 1438:National Collegiate Athletic Association 468:Jackson v. Birmingham Board of Education 32:Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 6431:Water Resources Development Act of 1974 6256:Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act 6145:Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970 6124:U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission 4325:Rosenblatt, Lauren (October 24, 2017). 3408:from the original on September 19, 2009 2986:(206). October 25, 2006. Archived from 2874: 2872: 2681: 2679: 2126:Arvidson, Cheryl (September 20, 1975). 2092: 2014:are executive producers of the series. 1881:lodged twenty-five complaints with the 909: 683: 591: 536: 523: 6329:National Ambient Air Quality Standards 6007:Legislative Reorganization Act of 1970 5001:from the original on December 14, 2010 4554:Balingit, Moriah (February 12, 2018). 4535:from the original on February 22, 2017 4502:from the original on November 21, 2017 4159:Perez-Pena, Richard (March 19, 2013). 3689:from the original on January 13, 2010. 3583:from the original on December 11, 2008 3341:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHult ( 3165:Olmstead, Maegan (September 2, 2016). 2738:"Legislative History of Title IX" 2733: 2731: 2394:from the original on December 21, 2010 2128:"Senate ERA author fights sports bill" 1898:White House Council on Women and Girls 1789:affirmed a 2018 lower court ruling in 223:House Subcommittee on Higher Education 42: 6636:June 1972 events in the United States 6285:Environmental Quality Improvement Act 6057:Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1970 5942:Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act 5272:(Press release). NCAA. April 24, 2019 5250:from the original on November 8, 2017 4935:from the original on October 18, 2009 4066:Perez-Pena, Richard (March 7, 2013). 4016:from the original on October 19, 2012 3970:John Christofferson (April 1, 2011). 3562: 3560: 3376:from the original on October 16, 2009 3250: 3248: 3194: 3192: 3107:United States Department of Education 2956:from the original on October 18, 2013 2803:"Title IX Frequently Asked Questions" 2764:from the original on November 4, 2013 2633:"Women Seek Equality in Universities" 2531:from the original on October 21, 2017 2501:from the original on October 19, 2017 2462:from the original on October 20, 2017 2431:from the original on October 17, 2017 2288:from the original on October 20, 2017 1799:14th Amendment to the US Constitution 1752:United States Department of Education 1675:the University of Southern California 1645:connected with Epifano, Brodsky, and 1561:Sexual harassment and sexual violence 584:History of education in New York City 574:History of education in Massachusetts 7: 6651:Transgender law in the United States 5847:Minority Business Development Agency 5158:from the original on January 2, 2013 4877:from the original on March 11, 2016. 4047:from the original on January 4, 2013 3982:from the original on August 25, 2013 2637:The Washington Post And Times-Herald 1335:Basic Educational Opportunity Grants 1256:exercises with Title IX athletes at 6626:College sports in the United States 6389:Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement 6154:Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act 5861:Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 5792:Prevention of Nuclear War Agreement 5397:Yoffe, Emily (September 11, 2017). 5035:from the original on March 5, 2012. 4635:Mervosh, Sarah (October 22, 2018). 4581:Klein, Rebecca (January 31, 2020). 4570:– via www.washingtonpost.com. 4562:from the original on March 22, 2018 4254:from the original on April 14, 2013 4228:from the original on April 14, 2013 4222:"Simpson v. University of Colorado" 4128:Dalina Castellanos (May 22, 2010). 4004:Epifano, Angie (October 17, 2012). 3942:from the original on April 23, 2013 3843:Directions in Sexual Harassment Law 3366:"Title IX Athletic Statistics" 3272:from the original on March 16, 2008 3076:from the original on April 13, 2022 3046:from the original on April 13, 2022 2481:Savage, Charlie (October 5, 2017). 2178:Miller, George (October 29, 2002). 1731:However, starting in 2017 with the 1237:of Alaska, the "Father of Title IX" 6242:Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act 6161:Securities Investor Protection Act 6094:Occupational Safety and Health Act 6078:Economic Stabilization Act of 1970 6000:District of Columbia Home Rule Act 5371:Yoffe, Emily (September 8, 2017). 5345:Yoffe, Emily (September 6, 2017). 5291:Bagenstos, Samuel (October 2015). 5150:Margolis, Rachel (June 18, 2012). 5124:from the original on June 23, 2012 5097:from the original on June 24, 2012 5054:from the original on July 14, 2014 4849:(117): 32637–32640. June 22, 2021. 4458:"Civil Rights Division | Title IX" 4438:from the original on June 23, 2022 4248:"J.K. v. Arizona Board of Regents" 3886:. American Civil Liberties Union. 3434:from the original on June 21, 2009 3304:, Associated Press, July 21, 2011. 3116:from the original on April 6, 2022 2658:"Panel rewriting bill on sex bias" 2608:. January 10, 2019. Archived from 2470:– via www.documentcloud.org. 1828:OCR's test for Title IX compliance 25: 6357:Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970 6292:National Environmental Policy Act 5461:to help reach a consensus. › 4863:Irving, John (January 28, 2003). 4171:from the original on May 24, 2013 4140:from the original on May 23, 2013 4097:Tyler Kingkade (March 21, 2013). 4078:from the original on May 27, 2013 2631:Wentworth, Eric (June 22, 1970). 2551:"Title IX: A Brief History." 2247:LII / Legal Information Institute 1979:. It also showed the documentary 1944:honored over 40 female athletes. 1746:Dwayne Bensing, a lawyer for the 36:Title 9 of the United States Code 6343:New Source Performance Standards 6278:Council on Environmental Quality 5293:"What Went Wrong With Title IX?" 4490:Dominic Holden (December 2014). 4464:. August 6, 2015. Archived from 4109:from the original on May 8, 2013 3916:from the original on May 9, 2013 3890:from the original on May 2, 2013 3641:Government Accountability Office 3576:Government Accountability Office 3336: 3229:. March 28, 2023. Archived from 3016:. Associated Press. May 28, 2020 2081:North Haven Bd. of Educ. v. Bell 1904:, All‑American NCAA point guard 1492:Though interest in the sport of 1167:Subcommittee on Higher Education 961: 950: 579:History of education in Missouri 569:History of education in Kentucky 354:Iron Arrow Honor Soc. v. Heckler 203:in the Senate as S. 659 by 150:General Education Provisions Act 145:Vocational Education Act of 1963 49: 6611:1972 in American women's sports 6380:Coastal Zone Management Program 6301:Environmental Protection Agency 6064:Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1973 5979:Federal Contested Elections Act 5963:Drug Enforcement Administration 5921:End Stage Renal Disease Program 5442:Statute Compilations collection 5186:. June 11, 2012. Archived from 5116:Bull, Alister (June 23, 2012). 5046:Michael W. Lynch (April 2002). 4992:U.S. Commission on Civil Rights 4349:Anderson, Greta (May 7, 2020). 4190:Stancill, Jane (June 1, 2013). 3789:"Who's Playing College Sports." 2789:The American Presidency Project 2707:118 Cong. Record 5802-3 (1972). 2153:"Title IX: Legislative History" 1132:National Organization for Women 564:History of education in Chicago 297:Cannon v. University of Chicago 6417:Endangered Species Act of 1973 6410:Endangered Species Act of 1969 6014:Congressional Research Service 5594:VP confirmation of Gerald Ford 5085:Groer, Annie (June 23, 2012). 4865:"Wrestling With Title IX" 3826:Title IX: Taking Yale to Court 1715:Gender identity under Title IX 1586:American Civil Liberties Union 899:Full-service community schools 316:North Haven Bd. of Ed. v. Bell 1: 6235:Federal Energy Administration 5986:Federal Election Campaign Act 5771:Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty 5214:www.SportingChanceTitleIX.com 5023:Brady, Erik (April 2, 2010). 3579:. GAO-01-297. March 8, 2001. 3430:. The MARGARET Fund of NWLC. 2725:118 Cong. Record 5808 (1972). 2716:118 Cong. Record 5804 (1972). 2576:documents.alexanderstreet.com 1971:first showed the documentary 1171:Education and Labor Committee 6396:Marine Mammal Protection Act 6308:Clean Air Amendments of 1970 5928:Supplemental Security Income 5870:Education Amendments of 1972 5427:Education Amendments of 1972 5048:"Title IX's Pyrrhic Victory" 4929:U.S. Department of Education 3606:"Gender Equity Report Card." 3199:Boyce, Rebecca (Fall 2008). 2856:U.S. Department of Education 2422:U.S. Department of Education 2385:U.S. Department of Education 1883:U.S. Department of Education 1659:U.S. Department of Education 1366:On March 8, 2021, President 1209:Higher Education Act of 1965 1159:Women's Equity Action League 1013:Education Amendments of 1972 140:Higher Education Act of 1965 70:Education Amendments of 1972 6616:92nd United States Congress 6373:Coastal Zone Management Act 6131:Consumer Product Safety Act 5914:National Cancer Act of 1971 5552:1970 Lincoln Memorial visit 5495:Presidency of Richard Nixon 5454:Presidency of Richard Nixon 3635:September 25, 2012, at the 3604:Women's Sports Foundation. 2556:September 21, 2015, at the 2243:"20 U.S. Code § 1681 – Sex" 1879:National Women's Law Center 1423:Coaching and administration 1287:Code of Federal Regulations 877:For-profit higher education 285:United States Supreme Court 80:92nd United States Congress 6677: 6535:Senate Watergate Committee 6115:Permissible exposure limit 5893:Rehabilitation Act of 1973 5638:Presidential Proclamations 2884:September 5, 2015, at the 2693:December 28, 2012, at the 1927:wrote a pro–Title IX 1831: 1757:Alliance Defending Freedom 1712: 1405:Institutional requirements 1396:Impact on American schools 1324:Grove City College v. Bell 830:School corporal punishment 373:Grove City College v. Bell 29: 6567: 6424:Oil Pollution Act of 1973 6043:Fair Credit Reporting Act 5840:Revised Philadelphia Plan 5799:Threshold Test Ban Treaty 4907:The Smith College Sophian 3800:Women's Sports Foundation 3617:Women's Sports Foundation 3171:Women's Sports Foundation 2570:Fitzgerald, Sara (2013). 1942:Women's Sports Foundation 1554:Women's Sports Foundation 865:School-to-work transition 291: 196: 48: 6574:← Johnson administration 6207:Agricultural Act of 1970 5750:1973 Chilean coup d'état 5459:templates for discussion 5299:. September/October 2015 3774:August 15, 2012, at the 3611:January 7, 2013, at the 2027:American Airlines Center 1910:University of Louisville 1739:and Education Secretary 1695:Arizona State University 1457:Impact on men's programs 1456: 1448:Increasing participation 1175:Civil Rights Act of 1964 1097:Civil Rights Act of 1964 1079:Foundations and hearings 968:United States portal 514:This article is part of 6472:Saturday Night Massacre 6214:Farm Credit Act of 1971 6184:Alternative minimum tax 5324:. Harper. p. 256. 4196:The News & Observer 3936:"Dear Colleague letter" 3910:"Dear Colleague letter" 3832:Vol. 42, No. 55 (2020). 2908:Encyclopædia Britannica 2525:www.presidency.ucsb.edu 1887:Office for Civil Rights 1834:Office for Civil Rights 1795:Equal Protection Clause 1686:Department of Education 1602:Department of Education 1594:Office for Civil Rights 1590:Department of Education 1539:American Sports Council 1463:Office for Civil Rights 1389:Office for Civil Rights 686:Education policy issues 655:Environmental education 252:agreed to by the Senate 230:on March 1, 1972 ( 219:Committee consideration 6526:United States v. Nixon 6177:Tax Reform Act of 1969 5854:Native American policy 5833:Family Assistance Plan 5318:Kipnis, Laura (2017). 4909:. 2008. Archived from 3828:," 2011, published in 3706:. 1997. Archived from 3656:. 2000. Archived from 3472:. 2008. Archived from 3293:Frederick J. Frommer. 2743:June 24, 2010, at the 1873:Legacy and recognition 1864:In February 2010, the 1748:Office of Civil Rights 1690:University of Colorado 1631: 1584:Advocates such as the 1377:Secretary of Education 1318: 1261: 1238: 1205:Equal Rights Amendment 1195: 1144:University of Maryland 1092: 1071: 823:Standards-based reform 798:Gender achievement gap 788:Racial achievement gap 721:Educational attainment 262:on June 8, 1973 ( 254:on May 24, 1972 ( 240:on May 11, 1972 ( 215:) on February 28, 1972 6583:Ford administration → 6085:Smithsonian Agreement 5608:Judicial appointments 5154:. Espnmediazone.com. 3867:Confusion and Silence 3861:June 3, 2020, at the 3794:July 2, 2010, at the 3323:May 28, 2016, at the 3300:January 24, 2013, at 2903:June 4, 2015, at the 2888:, 465 U.S. 555 (1984) 2672:– via ProQuest. 2646:– via ProQuest. 2606:Colorado Public Radio 2157:Civil Rights Division 2141:– via ProQuest. 1918:Georgetown University 1626: 1351:Title IX in the case 1312: 1251: 1232: 1189: 1136:Executive Order 11375 1086: 1074:Historical background 889:Research universities 756:Student financial aid 751:Graduate unemployment 726:Post-secondary issues 702:Primary and secondary 665:Mathematics education 6606:1972 in American law 6488:White House Plumbers 5437:) as amended in the 4913:on December 7, 2008. 3871:Yale Alumni Magazine 2952:. October 31, 2002. 2664:. UPI. July 11, 1970 2364:A Place on the Team. 2329:10.7864/j.ctt1vw0rgc 2249:. Cornell Law School 2226:10.7864/j.ctt1vw0rgc 1999:Good Morning America 1818:Biden administration 1785:In August 2020, the 1733:Trump administration 1721:Obama administration 1709:Transgender students 1616:In October 2012, an 1484:teams, and 25 men's 1470:collegiate wrestling 1373:Trump administration 1243:Title IX coordinator 1219:desegregation busing 1117:collegiate athletics 957:Education portal 793:Desegregation busing 746:Elite overproduction 675:Vocational education 168:20 U.S.C.: Education 6542:impeachment process 6458:Operation Sandwedge 6193:Revenue Act of 1971 5993:1970 VRA Amendments 5741:Shanghai Communiqué 5734:1972 visit to China 5686:Paris Peace Accords 5658:International trips 5538:Second inauguration 5091:The Washington Post 4103:The Huffington Post 4010:The Amherst Student 3976:The Huffington Post 3873:, July/August 2011. 3811:Alexander v. Yale, 3710:on January 5, 2003. 2950:Honolulu Advertiser 2284:. August 15, 2016. 2008:Tribeca Productions 1608:On March 15, 2011, 1520:outdoor track (126) 1505:cross country (183) 1305:Further legislation 1148:Department of Labor 910:Levels of education 882:For-profit colleges 850:Foreign involvement 192:Legislative history 45: 6465:Operation Gemstone 5764:1972 Moscow Summit 5520:First inauguration 5297:Washington Monthly 5220:on October 6, 2017 4870:The New York Times 4765:. January 21, 2021 4642:The New York Times 4614:The New York Times 4468:on January 6, 2024 4406:. October 12, 2023 4301:"Title IX Defense" 4165:The New York Times 4072:The New York Times 4041:The New York Times 3748:Sports Illustrated 3233:on January 5, 2024 3177:on January 5, 2024 3146:on January 5, 2024 2813:on January 6, 2024 2685:Cruikshank, Kate. 2612:on January 6, 2024 2582:on January 6, 2024 2487:The New York Times 2456:The New York Times 1947:On June 21, 2012, 1809:, a Democrat, and 1771:The New York Times 1671:Swarthmore College 1667:Occidental College 1508:indoor track (180) 1330:Grove City College 1319: 1262: 1239: 1196: 1093: 1017:federal government 872:Community colleges 818:School segregation 736:Cost and financing 660:Language education 6593: 6592: 6518:White House tapes 6509:list of opponents 6350:Noise Control Act 5949:Shafer Commission 5815:Space exploration 5785:Washington Summit 5679:Cambodian bombing 5587:1974 SOTU Address 5580:1973 SOTU Address 5573:1972 SOTU Address 5566:1971 SOTU Address 5559:1970 SOTU Address 5528:Bring Us Together 5244:ESPNMediaZone.com 4965:on April 16, 2011 4332:Los Angeles Times 4273:Ujifusa, Andrew. 4134:Los Angeles Times 3742:(June 11, 2020). 3738:Dellenger, Ross; 3072:. June 16, 2021. 3042:. March 8, 2021. 2450:Savage, Charles. 2320:978-0-8157-3222-8 2282:National Archives 2217:978-0-8157-3222-8 2056:presume the guilt 1964:ESPN The Magazine 1768:In October 2018, 1571:Alexander v. Yale 1258:Purdue University 1002: 1001: 855:Special education 845:Sexual harassment 638:Medical education 592:Curriculum topics 528: 508: 507: 250:on May 24, 1972; 228:Passed the Senate 111:Statutes at Large 16:(Redirected from 6668: 6586: 6577: 6560: 6553: 6544: 6537: 6530: 6520: 6511: 6504: 6497: 6490: 6483: 6474: 6467: 6460: 6453: 6433: 6426: 6419: 6412: 6405: 6398: 6391: 6382: 6375: 6368: 6359: 6352: 6345: 6338: 6331: 6324: 6317: 6310: 6303: 6294: 6287: 6280: 6258: 6251: 6244: 6237: 6230: 6223: 6216: 6209: 6202: 6195: 6186: 6179: 6170: 6163: 6156: 6147: 6140: 6133: 6126: 6117: 6110: 6103: 6096: 6087: 6080: 6073: 6066: 6059: 6052: 6045: 6038: 6036:Bank Secrecy Act 6016: 6009: 6002: 5995: 5988: 5981: 5972: 5965: 5958: 5951: 5944: 5937: 5930: 5923: 5916: 5909: 5902: 5895: 5886: 5879: 5872: 5863: 5856: 5849: 5842: 5835: 5817: 5810: 5801: 5794: 5787: 5780: 5773: 5766: 5759: 5752: 5743: 5736: 5729: 5720: 5713: 5704: 5697: 5694:Peace with Honor 5688: 5681: 5674: 5667: 5660: 5640: 5633: 5631:Executive Orders 5624: 5617: 5610: 5603: 5596: 5589: 5582: 5575: 5568: 5561: 5554: 5547: 5540: 5531: 5522: 5515: 5488: 5481: 5474: 5465: 5414: 5413: 5411: 5409: 5394: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5383: 5368: 5362: 5361: 5359: 5357: 5342: 5336: 5335: 5315: 5309: 5308: 5306: 5304: 5288: 5282: 5281: 5279: 5277: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5255: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5225: 5216:. 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2473: 2442: 2405: 2368: 2362:Suggs, Welch. 2338: 2319: 2299: 2269: 2260: 2234: 2216: 2196: 2170: 2144: 2118: 2091: 2090: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2083: 2076: 2073: 2043: 2040: 2012:Jane Rosenthal 1975:, narrated by 1955:tablet of the 1906:Shoni Schimmel 1874: 1871: 1854:New York Times 1832:Main article: 1829: 1826: 1713:Main article: 1710: 1707: 1635:Annie E. Clark 1562: 1559: 1528: 1527: 1524: 1523:swimming (125) 1521: 1518: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1506: 1458: 1455: 1449: 1446: 1424: 1421: 1415: 1412: 1406: 1403: 1397: 1394: 1306: 1303: 1226: 1225:Implementation 1223: 1183: 1180: 1128:Lyndon Johnson 1121:Dear Colleague 1103:then proposed 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1065: 1055: 1052: 1023:§§ 1681–1688. 1000: 999: 997: 996: 989: 982: 974: 971: 970: 946: 945: 944: 943: 938: 935:Post-secondary 912: 911: 907: 906: 904: 903: 902: 901: 891: 886: 885: 884: 874: 869: 868: 867: 860:Apprenticeship 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 826: 825: 820: 815: 810: 805: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 765: 764: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 733: 723: 718: 711: 710: 709: 707:Post-secondary 704: 693: 690: 689: 681: 680: 678: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 651: 650: 645: 643:Medical school 635: 634: 633: 623: 618: 613: 608: 606:Normal schools 603: 597: 594: 593: 589: 588: 587: 586: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 556: 551: 539: 538: 534: 533: 521: 520: 506: 505: 503: 502: 483: 464: 445: 426: 407: 388: 369: 350: 331: 312: 292: 289: 288: 281: 280: 278: 277: 267: 245: 235: 225: 216: 197: 194: 193: 189: 188: 187:§ 1681 et seq. 178: 171: 170: 165: 164:Titles amended 161: 160: 158: 157: 152: 147: 142: 136: 134: 130: 129: 125: 124: 114: 106: 105: 100: 96: 95: 91: 90: 87: 83: 82: 76: 72: 71: 68: 64: 63: 59: 55: 54: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6673: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6603: 6601: 6585: 6584: 6579: 6576: 6575: 6570: 6569: 6566: 6559: 6555: 6552: 6548: 6543: 6539: 6538: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6527: 6522: 6519: 6515: 6510: 6506: 6505: 6503: 6499: 6496: 6492: 6489: 6485: 6482: 6478: 6473: 6469: 6466: 6462: 6459: 6455: 6454: 6452: 6448: 6447: 6445: 6443: 6439: 6432: 6428: 6425: 6421: 6418: 6414: 6411: 6407: 6404: 6400: 6397: 6393: 6390: 6386: 6381: 6377: 6376: 6374: 6370: 6367: 6363: 6358: 6354: 6351: 6347: 6344: 6340: 6337: 6333: 6330: 6326: 6323: 6319: 6316: 6312: 6309: 6305: 6304: 6302: 6298: 6293: 6289: 6286: 6282: 6281: 6279: 6275: 6274: 6272: 6270: 6267:Environmental 6264: 6257: 6253: 6250: 6246: 6243: 6239: 6236: 6232: 6229: 6225: 6222: 6218: 6215: 6211: 6208: 6204: 6201: 6197: 6194: 6190: 6185: 6181: 6180: 6178: 6174: 6169: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6158: 6155: 6151: 6146: 6142: 6139: 6135: 6132: 6128: 6127: 6125: 6121: 6116: 6112: 6109: 6105: 6102: 6098: 6097: 6095: 6091: 6086: 6082: 6079: 6075: 6074: 6072: 6068: 6065: 6061: 6058: 6054: 6051: 6047: 6044: 6040: 6037: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6028: 6024: 6015: 6011: 6010: 6008: 6004: 6001: 5997: 5994: 5990: 5987: 5983: 5980: 5976: 5971: 5967: 5964: 5960: 5959: 5957: 5953: 5950: 5946: 5943: 5939: 5936: 5932: 5929: 5925: 5922: 5918: 5915: 5911: 5908: 5904: 5901: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5885: 5881: 5878: 5874: 5873: 5871: 5867: 5862: 5858: 5857: 5855: 5851: 5848: 5844: 5841: 5837: 5834: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5823: 5816: 5812: 5809: 5805: 5800: 5796: 5793: 5789: 5786: 5782: 5779: 5778:SALT I Treaty 5775: 5772: 5768: 5765: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5754: 5751: 5747: 5742: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5731: 5728: 5724: 5719: 5715: 5714: 5712: 5708: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5690: 5687: 5683: 5680: 5676: 5675: 5673: 5669: 5666: 5662: 5659: 5655: 5654: 5652: 5650: 5646: 5639: 5635: 5632: 5628: 5623: 5622:controversies 5619: 5616: 5615:Supreme Court 5612: 5611: 5609: 5605: 5602: 5598: 5595: 5591: 5588: 5584: 5581: 5577: 5574: 5570: 5567: 5563: 5560: 5556: 5553: 5549: 5546: 5542: 5539: 5535: 5529: 5524: 5523: 5521: 5517: 5514: 5510: 5509: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5496: 5489: 5484: 5482: 5477: 5475: 5470: 5469: 5466: 5460: 5456: 5455: 5450: 5443: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5425: 5424: 5420: 5404: 5400: 5393: 5390: 5378: 5374: 5367: 5364: 5352: 5348: 5341: 5338: 5333: 5327: 5323: 5322: 5314: 5311: 5298: 5294: 5287: 5284: 5271: 5265: 5262: 5249: 5246:. June 2012. 5245: 5241: 5235: 5232: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5205: 5202: 5189: 5185: 5184: 5179: 5173: 5170: 5157: 5153: 5146: 5144: 5142: 5140: 5136: 5123: 5119: 5112: 5109: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5081: 5079: 5075: 5069: 5066: 5053: 5049: 5042: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5019: 5017: 5013: 4997: 4993: 4986: 4980: 4977: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4950: 4947: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4920: 4917: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4898: 4895: 4887: 4885: 4881: 4876: 4872: 4871: 4866: 4859: 4857: 4853: 4848: 4844: 4837: 4831: 4828: 4816: 4812: 4806: 4803: 4790: 4786: 4780: 4777: 4764: 4760: 4754: 4751: 4739: 4735: 4728: 4725: 4712: 4711: 4703: 4697: 4694: 4682: 4681: 4676: 4670: 4667: 4664: 4659: 4656: 4644: 4643: 4638: 4631: 4628: 4616: 4615: 4610: 4603: 4600: 4588: 4584: 4577: 4574: 4561: 4557: 4550: 4547: 4534: 4530: 4529: 4524: 4517: 4514: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4486: 4484: 4480: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4453: 4450: 4434: 4427: 4421: 4418: 4405: 4399: 4397: 4393: 4381: 4377: 4371: 4368: 4356: 4352: 4345: 4343: 4339: 4334: 4333: 4328: 4321: 4318: 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3433: 3429: 3423: 3420: 3404: 3397: 3391: 3388: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3361: 3358: 3352: 3349: 3344: 3339:, p. 240 3338: 3333: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3319: 3313: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3302:archive.today 3299: 3296: 3290: 3288: 3284: 3268: 3264: 3257: 3251: 3249: 3245: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3218: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3195: 3193: 3189: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3161: 3158: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3131: 3128: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3097: 3091: 3088: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3061: 3058: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3031: 3028: 3015: 3011: 3005: 3002: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2971: 2968: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2941: 2938: 2926: 2922: 2916: 2913: 2909: 2906: 2902: 2899: 2894: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2880: 2875: 2873: 2869: 2857: 2853: 2846: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2798: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2779: 2776: 2763: 2759: 2753: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2739: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2722: 2719: 2713: 2710: 2704: 2701: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2689: 2682: 2680: 2676: 2663: 2662:Afro-American 2659: 2653: 2650: 2638: 2634: 2627: 2624: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2597: 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1858: 1856: 1855: 1850: 1844: 1840: 1835: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1816:In 2021, the 1814: 1812: 1808: 1807:Tulsi Gabbard 1802: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1781: 1776: 1773: 1772: 1766: 1764: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1749: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1737:Jeff Sessions 1734: 1729: 1726: 1722: 1716: 1708: 1706: 1703: 1699: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1682: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1630: 1625: 1623: 1622:Angie Epifano 1619: 1614: 1611: 1606: 1603: 1597: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1582: 1580: 1576: 1575:Ann Olivarius 1572: 1568: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1550: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1537:In 2011, the 1535: 1533: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1503: 1502: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1466: 1464: 1454: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1433: 1431: 1430:female sports 1422: 1420: 1413: 1411: 1404: 1402: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1385: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1361: 1356: 1354: 1349: 1345: 1339: 1336: 1331: 1327: 1325: 1316: 1311: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1296: 1291: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1260:in the 1970s. 1259: 1255: 1250: 1246: 1244: 1236: 1231: 1224: 1222: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1201: 1193: 1188: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1155: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1113: 1108: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1090: 1085: 1078: 1073: 1064: 1059: 1053: 1051: 1049: 1044: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1029: 1024: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1009:United States 1006: 1005:Title IX 995: 990: 988: 983: 981: 976: 975: 973: 972: 969: 958: 953: 948: 947: 942: 941:Organizations 939: 937: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 915: 914: 913: 908: 900: 897: 896: 895: 892: 890: 887: 883: 880: 879: 878: 875: 873: 870: 866: 863: 862: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 824: 821: 819: 816: 814: 811: 809: 808:School choice 806: 804: 801: 799: 796: 794: 791: 789: 786: 784: 781: 779: 776: 774: 771: 770: 769: 766: 762: 761:Student loans 759: 757: 754: 752: 749: 747: 744: 742: 741:Credentialism 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 728: 727: 724: 722: 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Smith 427: 424: 421: 417: 413: 412: 408: 405: 402: 398: 394: 393: 389: 386: 383: 379: 375: 374: 370: 367: 364: 360: 356: 355: 351: 348: 345: 341: 337: 336: 332: 329: 326: 322: 318: 317: 313: 310: 307: 303: 299: 298: 294: 293: 290: 286: 282: 275: 274:Richard Nixon 272:by President 271: 268: 265: 261: 258:) and by the 257: 253: 249: 246: 243: 239: 236: 233: 229: 226: 224: 220: 217: 214: 210: 206: 202: 199: 198: 195: 190: 186: 182: 179: 176: 172: 169: 166: 162: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 137: 135: 131: 126: 123: 119: 115: 113: 107: 104: 101: 97: 92: 89:June 23, 1972 88: 84: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 60: 56: 52: 47: 41: 37: 33: 19: 6581: 6572: 6524: 6502:Enemies List 5956:War on drugs 5883: 5452: 5408:November 27, 5406:. Retrieved 5403:The Atlantic 5402: 5392: 5382:November 27, 5380:. Retrieved 5377:The Atlantic 5376: 5366: 5356:November 27, 5354:. Retrieved 5351:The Atlantic 5350: 5340: 5320: 5313: 5301:. Retrieved 5296: 5286: 5274:. Retrieved 5264: 5254:December 18, 5252:. 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