420:
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production of Flue-Cured
Virginia (FCV) tobacco is about 300 million kg from an area of 0.20 M ha while 450 M kg non-FCV tobacco is produced from an area of 0.25 M ha. In the global scenario, Indian tobacco accounts for 10% of the area and 9% of the total production. By virtue of the dominant role played by this commercial crop, the Indian Central Tobacco Committee (ICTC) established Central Tobacco Research Institute (CTRI) in Rajahmundry (Andhra Pradesh) in 1947. The institute was under the administrative control of ICTC, Madras from 1947 to 1965 and subsequently transferred to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi. ICAR acts as a repository of information and provides consultancy on agriculture, horticulture, resource management, animal sciences, agricultural engineering, fisheries, agricultural extension, agricultural education, home science, and agricultural communication. It has the mandate to co-ordinate agricultural research and development programmes and to develop linkages at the national and international levels with related organisations to enhance the quality of life of the farming community.
519:
139:
738:. Tobacco companies recommend up to 16 separate applications of pesticides just in the period between planting the seeds in greenhouses and transplanting the young plants to the field. Pesticide use has been worsened by the desire to produce bigger crops in less time because of the decreasing market value of tobacco. Pesticides often harm tobacco farmers because they are unaware of the health effects and the proper safety protocol for working with pesticides. These pesticides as well as fertilizers, end up in the soil, the waterway and the food chain. Coupled with child labor, pesticides pose an even greater threat. Early exposure to pesticides may increase a child's lifelong cancer risk as well as harm his or her nervous and immune systems.
679:
Indonesia, Malawi and
Zimbabwe. While some of these children work with their families on small family-owned farms, others work on large plantations. In late 2009 reports were released by the London-based human-rights group Plan International, claiming that child labor was common on Malawi (producer of 1.8% of the world's tobacco) tobacco farms. The organization interviewed 44 teens, who worked full-time on farms during the 2007-2008 growing season. The child-laborers complained of low pay, long hours as well as physical and sexual abuse by their supervisors. They also reported suffering from
555:
these to the "stringer" or "looper", which bundles the leaves to a four-sided pole with twine. These poles are hung until the harvester is full. The poles are then placed in a much larger wagon to be pulled by diesel tractors to their destination. For rare tobaccos they are often cured on the farm. Traditionally, the slaves who cropped and pulled had a particularly tough time with the first pull of the large, dirty, base leaves. The leaves slapped their faces and dark tobacco sap, which dries into a dark gum, covered their bodies, and then soil stuck to the gum.
175:
634:
tobacco are produced. These types of tobacco are used for cigarettes. In the northeast, darker, air-cured and sun-cured tobacco are grown. These types of tobacco are used for cigars, twists and dark-cigarettes. Brazil's government has made attempts to reduce the production of tobacco but has not had a successful systematic anti-tobacco farming initiative. Brazil's government, however, provides small loans for family farms, including those that grow tobacco, through the
539:
topping and suckering. "Topping" is the removal of the tobacco flowers while "suckering" is the pruning out of leaves that are otherwise unproductive. Both procedures ensure that as much of the plant's energy as possible focuses on producing the large leaves that are harvested and sold. "Cropping", "Pulling", and "Priming" are terms for removing mature leaves from tobacco plants. Leaves are cropped as they ripen, from the bottom to the top of the stalk.
496:
35:
647:
Jeelugumilli, A.P., Kandukuru, A.P., Guntur, A.P., Kalavacherla, A.P., Hunsur, Karnataka, Vedasandur, Tamil Nadu, Dinhata, West Bengal; and
Rajamundry houses the core research institute. The government has set up Tobacco Board Guntur which works to increase production, sale and exports of Indian tobacco. Guntur is also well known for its tobacco plantations. The
593:
683:, a form of nicotine poisoning. When wet leaves are handled, nicotine from the leaves gets absorbed in the skin and causes nausea, vomiting and dizziness. Children were exposed to 50-cigarettes worth of nicotine through direct contact with tobacco leaves. This level of nicotine in children can permanently alter brain structure and function.
721:
for tobacco farming. Major tobacco companies have encouraged global tobacco production. Philip Morris, British
American Tobacco and Japan Tobacco each own or lease tobacco manufacturing facilities in at least 50 countries and buy crude tobacco leaf from at least 12 more countries. This encouragement,
693:
Families that farm tobacco often have to make the difficult decision between having their children work or go to school. Unfortunately working often beats education because tobacco farmers, especially in the developing world, cannot make enough money from their crop to survive without the cheap labor
651:
works under the aegis of the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research. Tobacco crop is cultivated in an area of 0.45 M ha (0.27% of the net cultivated area) producing ≈750 M kg of tobacco leaf. India is the 2nd largest producer and exporter (in quantity terms) after China and Brazil, respectively. The
678:
The
International Labour Office reported that the most child-laborers work in agriculture, which is one of the most hazardous types of work. The tobacco industry houses some of these working children. There is widespread use of children on farms in the United States, Argentina, Brazil, China, India,
550:
As the industrial revolution approached
America, the harvesting wagons that transported leaves were equipped with man-powered stringers, an apparatus that used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times, large fields are harvested by a single piece of farm equipment, though topping the flower
1111:
UNICEF, The State of the World's
Children 1997 (Oxford, 1997); US Department of Agriculture By the Sweat and Toil of Children Volume II: The Use of Child Labor in US Agricultural Imports & Forced and Bonded Child Labor (Washington, 1995); ILO Bitter Harvest: Child Labour in Agriculture (Geneva,
749:
in
Florida used to produce phosphate for American tobacco crops contains uranium, radium, lead-210, polonium-210 and radon. The radioactive smoke from tobacco fertilized this way is deposited in lungs and releases alpha radiation even if a smoker quits the habit. The combination of carcinogenic tar
620:
At the peak of global tobacco production, there were 20 million rural
Chinese households producing tobacco on 2.1 million hectares of land. The vast majority of tobacco production is intended for the national market. While it is the major crop for millions of Chinese farmers, growing tobacco is not
554:
Some farmers still use "tobacco harvesters". They are not very efficient yet highly cost-effective for harvesting premium and rare strains of tobacco. Modern harvester trailers for in-demand crops are pulled by diesel-fueled tractors. "Croppers" or "primers" pull the leaves off in handfuls and pass
542:
The first crop of leaves located near the base of the tobacco stalk are called "sand lugs" in more rural southern tobacco states. They are called "sand lugs" because these leaves are close to the ground and get splashed with sand and clay when heavy rains hit the soil. Sand lugs weigh the most, and
633:
In Brazil around 135,000 family farmers cite tobacco production as their main economic activity. Tobacco has never exceeded 0.7% of the country's total cultivated area. In the southern regions of Brazil, Virginia and Amarelinho flue-cured tobacco as well as Burley and Dark (Galpão Comum) air-cured
576:
Production of tobacco leaf increased by 40% between 1971, during which 4.2 million tons of leaf were produced, and 1997, during which 5.9 million tons of leaf were produced. According to the Food and Agriculture organization of the UN, tobacco leaf production is expected to hit 7.1 million tons by
664:
systems. In addition to that, approximately 250,000 unregistered farmers are believed to have tobacco as their main crop. This makes Bangladesh the second largest tobacco producer in terms of workforce, just after China. It is also the third largest in terms of percentage of registered farm land
646:
India has 96,865 registered tobacco farmers and many more who are not registered. Around 0.25% of India's cultivated land is used for tobacco production. Since 1947, the Indian government has supported growth in the tobacco industry. India has seven tobacco research centers that are located in:
580:
During that same time period, production in developed countries actually decreased. China's increase in tobacco production was the single biggest factor in the increase in world production. China's share of the world market increased from 17% in 1971 to 47% in 1997. This growth can be partially
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The croppers were men, and the stringers, who were seated on the higher elevated seats, were women and children. The harvesters had places for one team of ten workers: eight people cropping and stringing, plus a packer who moved the heavy strung poles of wet green tobacco from the stringers and
538:
in several ways. In the oldest method, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a sickle. In the nineteenth century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. As the plants grow, they usually require
686:
In 2014, Human Rights Watch released a report detailing child labor on U.S. tobacco farms. The report states 73% of the children they interviewed reported getting sick with nausea, headaches, respiratory illnesses, and skin conditions, while 66% reported symptoms consistent with acute nicotine
559:
packed them onto the pallet section of the harvester, plus a horseman. The outer seats were suspended from the harvester - slung out over to fit into the rows of tobacco. As these seats were suspended it was important to balance the weight of the two outside teams (similar to a playground
722:
along with government subsidies has led to a glut in the tobacco market. This surplus has resulted in lower prices, which are devastating to small-scale tobacco farmers. According to the World Bank, between 1985 and 2000 the inflation-adjusted price of tobacco dropped 37%.
621:
as profitable as cotton or sugar cane. This is because the Chinese government sets the market price. While this price is guaranteed, it is lower than the natural market price because of the lack of market risk. To further control tobacco in their borders, China founded the
581:
explained by the existence of a high import tariff on foreign tobacco entering China. While this tariff has been reduced from 64% in 1999 to 10% in 2004, it still has led to local, Chinese cigarettes being preferred over foreign cigarettes because of their lower cost.
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poisoning. The report states most children they interviewed worked between 10 and 12 hours per day and some children reported earning less than minimum wage with deductions by the contractor or grower for drinking water or for reasons that were not explained to them.
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2010. This number is a bit lower than the record high production of 1992, during which 7.5 million tons of leaf were produced. The production growth was almost entirely due to increased productivity by developing nations, where production increased by 128%.
1421:
Martell, E. A. (1975). "Tobacco Radioactivity and Cancer in Smokers: Alpha interactions with chromosomes of cells surrounding insoluble radioactive smoke particles may cause cancer and contribute to early atherosclerosis development in cigarette smokers".
563:). Having too heavy or light a person in an unbalanced combination often resulted in the harvester tipping over especially when turning around at the end of a row. Water tanks were a common feature on the harvester due to heat and danger of dehydration.
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were attempted and discussed to control the flea beetle. By 1880, growers discovered that replacing the branches with a frame covered with thin fabric effectively protected plants from the beetle. This practice spread, becoming ubiquitous in the 1890s.
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and radiation in a sensitive organ such as lungs increases the risk of cancer. If the smoker also breathes in the asbestos fibers which commonly occur in urban and industrial environments, the risk of cancer is greatly increased.
605:
In the United States, as of 2014 North Carolina was the largest producer of tobacco, with around 1,800 tobacco farms employing 30,000 workers yielding in 400 million pounds of the crop annually.
480:) is a great pest to the tobacco plant. The caterpillar's vigorous eating habits can cause up to 23-50% in yield losses, resulting in economic strain to the local agricultural economies. The
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lugged each stack to the "stringer" or "looper", typically a female slave, who bundled each stack of leaves. Eventually, workers carried the tobacco and placed it on sleds or trailers.
584:
Every year 6.7 million tons of tobacco are produced throughout the world. The top producers of tobacco are China (39.6%), India (8.3%), Brazil (7.0%) and the United States (4.6%).
1125:
901:
Rowena Jacobs, et al., "The Supply-Side Effects Of Tobacco Control Policies," in Tobacco Control in Developing Countries, Jha and Chaloupka eds., Oxford University Press, 2000.
1404:
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is also known to have caused damage to tobacco plants in North Carolina, which became a concern as farmers lacked a suitable method for controlling the caterpillars.
138:
958:
1189:
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487:
Shade tobacco is the practice of growing the plants under a screen of cheesecloth fabric. The thin leaves were used for the outer wrappings of cigars.
625:(STMA) in 1982. STMA controls tobacco production, marketing, imports, and exports; and contributed 1.3% to national income between 1982 and 2004.
52:
876:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Projection of tobacco production, consumption and trade for the year 2010." Rome, 2003.
717:
A large percent of the profits from tobacco production go to large tobacco companies rather than local tobacco farmers. Also many countries have
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http://plan-international.org/about-plan/resources/media-centre/press-releases/malawi-child-tobacco-pickers-50-a-day-habit/?searchterm=tobacco
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85:
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Hu T-W, Mao Z, et al. "China at the Crossroads: The Economics of Tobacco and Health". Tobacco Control. 2006;15:i37–i41.
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Bangladesh had 84,919 registered tobacco farmers in 2009, which are seen as "first tier" farmers with access to formal
612:
in 2014, and competition from growers in other countries, made tobacco farming economics more challenging as of 2015.
403:
or hotbeds and then transplanted to the field until it matures. It is grown in warm climates with rich, well-drained
1051:
701:’s tobacco industry, despite last years’ abolition of an employment system accused of fostering child labor in the
302:
67:
1254:
272:
143:
735:
249:
1014:
International Tobacco Growers' Association. "Tobacco Farming: Sustainable Alternative." Volume II East Sussix:
292:
45:
1032:
Shoba, John and Shailesh Vaite. Tobacco and Poverty: Observations from India and Bangladesh. Canada, 2002.
680:
1320:
National Research Council, 1995, Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children, National Academy Press.
371:
1379:
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are most difficult to work with. Their weight is due to their large size and the added weight of soil;
718:
411:
of tobacco were under cultivation worldwide in 2000, yielding over seven million tonnes of tobacco.
92:
1495:
1137:
1302:
Taylor, Peter, "Smoke Ring: The Politics of Tobacco", Panos Briefing Paper, September 1994, London
1041:
3. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Issues in the Global Tobacco Economy"
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1194:
934:
282:
189:
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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Issues in the Global Tobacco Economy"
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is activated by light. In colonial Virginia, seedbeds were fertilized with wood ash or animal
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132:
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1519:
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812:
661:
364:
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1023:
High Level Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor. "Report from South America." 2006.
999:
778:
312:
297:
287:
992:
690:
In United States children were found to be working for twelve hours in Tobacco Fields.
481:
765:
FAO projections of tobacco production, consumption, and trade to the year 2010 (2003)
1513:
454:
In the 19th century, young plants came under increasing attack from certain types of
212:
1290:
14. Tobacco Free Kids. "Golden Leaf, Barren Harvest: The Costs of Tobacco Farming."
1164:"Tobacco's Hidden Children - Hazardous Child Labor in United States Tobacco Farming"
1138:"Tobacco's Hidden Children - Hazardous Child Labor in United States Tobacco Farming"
766:
495:
466:, which destroyed half the U.S. tobacco crops in 1876. In the years afterward, many
447:
manure). Seedbeds were then covered with branches to protect the young plants from
147:
1082:
697:
In December 2022, the UN special report showed that 3000 children were working in
1485:
1453:
When Tobacco Was King: Families, Farm Labor, and Federal Policy in the Piedmont.
706:
455:
436:
317:
34:
17:
742:
467:
400:
824:
803:(1967-12-01). "Biology of the Cabbage Looper on Tobacco In North Carolina1".
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industry. The government of Malawi was implementing programs aimed at ending
1163:
816:
731:
527:
231:
1494:
592:
1112:
1997); ILO Child Labour on Commercial Agriculture in Africa (Geneva 1997)
959:"Thousands of farmers stopped growing tobacco after deregulation payouts"
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and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves is still done by hand.
244:
1435:
1059:
746:
702:
560:
535:
408:
396:
207:
166:
1102:
ILO. International Hazard Datasheets on Occupations: Field Crop Worker
1281:"International Cigarette Manufacturers," Tobacco Reporter, March 2001
698:
511:
507:
440:
890:
Higher World Tobacco use expected by 2010-growth rates slowing down.
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In Asia, Oceania, and the Indian subcontinent, the tobacco cutworm (
1474:
International Hazard Datasheets on Occupations: Field Crop Worker.
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517:
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418:
137:
1190:"Just 13, and Working Risky 12-Hour Shifts in the Tobacco Fields"
930:"Just 13, and Working Risky 12-Hour Shifts in the Tobacco Fields"
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US Census Bureau-Foreign Trade Statistics, (Washington DC; 2005)
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In the US, the decline in the number of smokers, the end of the
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428:
404:
28:
888:
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
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Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar
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damage, and the plants were left alone until around April.
1292:
http://tobaccofreekids.org/campaign/global/FCTCreport1.pdf
423:
Tobacco cultivation in a dry river bed, Tireli, Mali, 1980
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Tobacco production requires the use of a large amount of
1218:"UN Warns Malawi Against Child Labor on Tobacco Farms"
993:
http://www.gov.cn/english/2005-10/03/content_74295.htm
884:
882:
872:
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868:
1455:
Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2014.
59:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1257:Press Office. May 1997. p. 3. Archived from
1244:"Tobacco Epidemic: Much More than a Health Issue"
767:http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/Y4956E/Y4956E00.HTM
1123:"Malawi Child Tobacco Pickers' '50-a-day habit"
1416:
1414:
665:dedicated to tobacco cultivation with 0.4%.
372:
8:
1460:Bitter Harvest: Child Labour in Agriculture.
1403:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
844:. Univ. Press of Mississippi. pp. 30–.
779:"NOCTUIDAE - Spodoptera litura (Fabricius)"
1489:, a 1959 documentary on tobacco harvesting
379:
365:
153:
1311:FAO Yearbook, Production, Volume 48, 1995
119:Learn how and when to remove this message
1467:Child Labour, Targeting the Intolerable.
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972:
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165:
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431:are scattered onto the surface of the
989:State Tobacco Monopoly Administration
623:State Tobacco Monopoly Administration
142:Tobacco plants growing in a field in
7:
1089:from the original on August 8, 2022.
1052:"About Institute- CTRI, Rajahmundry"
57:adding citations to reliable sources
957:Bomey, Nathan (September 2, 2015).
838:McGregory, Jerrilyn (1997-04-01).
649:Central Tobacco Research Institute
610:Tobacco Transition Payment Program
395:usually takes place annually. The
25:
1359:Proctor, Robert N. (2006-12-01).
173:
33:
1380:"Radiation Protection - US EPA"
44:needs additional citations for
1502:New International Encyclopedia
1081:Lock, Brandon (July 4, 2022).
805:Journal of Economic Entomology
669:Problems in tobacco production
1:
987:People's Republic of China. "
709:and ensuring its protection.
1472:International Labor Office,
1465:International Labor Office,
1458:International Labor Office,
1330:Moore, J. M.; Harris, G. H.
596:Worldwide tobacco production
502:leaves drying in the sun at
267:Personal and social effects
1536:
522:Tobacco harvesters in the
130:
1378:EPA, OAR, ORIA, RPD, US.
1255:World Health Organization
741:Tobacco is often heavily
407:. About 4.2 million
278:Prevalence of consumption
68:"Cultivation of tobacco"
1083:"Tobacco in Bangladesh"
694:that children provide.
293:Tobacco and other drugs
1487:The Back-breaking Leaf
745:. Some of the mineral
681:green tobacco sickness
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531:
515:
424:
393:cultivation of tobacco
151:
1496:"Tobacco Pests"
1361:"Puffing on Polonium"
1251:Fact sheet Number 155
817:10.1093/jee/60.6.1636
595:
521:
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443:(frequently powdered
422:
141:
1121:Plan International.
719:government subsidies
53:improve this article
1198:. September 7, 2014
938:. September 7, 2014
1424:American Scientist
1365:The New York Times
1224:. 22 December 2022
1195:The New York Times
998:2013-08-10 at the
935:The New York Times
736:pests and diseases
598:
532:
516:
425:
190:History of tobacco
152:
1451:Evan P. Bennett,
841:Wiregrass Country
734:to fight various
567:Global production
524:Dutch East Indies
477:Spodoptera litura
464:Epitrix pubescens
460:Epitrix cucumeris
415:Sowing and growth
399:is germinated in
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238:Nicotiana tabacum
133:Curing of tobacco
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1062:on 9 April 2018
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64:Find sources:
58:
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42:This article
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1387:. Retrieved
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1342:. Retrieved
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1277:
1266:. Retrieved
1259:the original
1250:
1238:
1226:. Retrieved
1221:
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1202:September 8,
1200:. Retrieved
1193:
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1172:. Retrieved
1167:
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1064:. Retrieved
1060:the original
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942:September 8,
940:. Retrieved
933:
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855:. Retrieved
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786:LepIntercept
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526:(modern day
486:
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456:flea beetles
453:
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392:
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336:Cultivation
335:
236:
230:
148:Pennsylvania
115:
106:
96:
89:
82:
75:
63:
51:Please help
46:verification
43:
26:
801:Rabb, R. L.
726:Environment
707:child labor
674:Child labor
506:village of
468:experiments
437:germination
435:, as their
401:cold frames
318:Tobacconist
144:Intercourse
109:August 2008
1268:2010-09-27
1253:. Geneva:
1228:12 January
754:References
743:fertilized
732:pesticides
656:Bangladesh
638:(PRONAF).
330:Production
79:newspapers
1002:>>.
963:USA Today
825:0022-0493
536:harvested
528:Indonesia
283:Marketing
232:Nicotiana
202:Chemistry
131:See also
1514:Category
1436:27845575
1399:cite web
1087:Archived
996:Archived
991:<<
427:Tobacco
409:hectares
351:Products
346:Industry
308:Politics
245:Nicotine
159:a series
157:Part of
1520:Tobacco
1505:. 1905.
1389:9 April
1344:26 July
1174:9 April
1168:hrw.org
1148:9 April
1142:hrw.org
1066:9 April
747:apatite
713:Economy
703:tobacco
561:see-saw
491:Harvest
397:tobacco
313:Smoking
298:Control
225:Biology
208:Tobacco
184:History
167:Tobacco
93:scholar
1434:
1384:US EPA
848:
823:
699:Malawi
629:Brazil
572:Trends
545:slaves
514:, 2001
512:Greece
508:Xanthi
441:manure
341:Curing
150:, 2006
95:
88:
81:
74:
66:
1432:JSTOR
1335:(PDF)
1262:(PDF)
1247:(PDF)
857:4 May
782:(PDF)
642:India
616:China
504:Pomak
500:Basma
449:frost
445:horse
429:seeds
255:Types
213:Smoke
100:JSTOR
86:books
1405:link
1391:2018
1346:2014
1230:2023
1204:2014
1176:2018
1150:2018
1068:2018
944:2014
859:2014
846:ISBN
821:ISSN
433:soil
405:soil
391:The
72:news
1222:VOA
813:doi
462:or
288:Art
55:by
1516::
1499:.
1428:63
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1413:^
1401:}}
1397:{{
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819:.
809:60
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510:,
458:,
161:on
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380:e
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366:v
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107:(
97:·
90:·
83:·
76:·
49:.
20:)
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