681:
1379:. By his insisting that the texts translated be "llanos de entender" ("easy to understand"), he ensured that the texts would reach a much wider audience, both within Spain and in other European countries. The scholars from such nations as Italy, Germany, England or the Netherlands, who had moved to Toledo in order to translate medical, religious, classical and philosophical texts, returned to their countries with the acquired knowledge from classical Arabic, classical Greek, and ancient Hebrew. The King also commissioned the translation into Castilian of several "oriental" fables and tales which, although written in Arabic, were originally in Sanskrit, such as the
1371:(known as the Wise), Toledo rose even higher in importance as a translation center, as well as for the writing of original scholarly works. The Crown did not officially recognize the School, but the team of scholars and translators shared their communal knowledge and taught newcomers new languages and translation methods. There were usually several persons involved in the same translation. The Castilian Crown paid for most of their work, and sometimes hired the most able translators from other parts of Spain and Europe to join the school at Toledo.
1399:
in several languages, dictated from the base language, translating into
Castilian for the scribe, who wrote down the Castilian version. The scribe's work was later reviewed by one or several editors. Among those editors was the King, who had a keen interest in many disciplines, such as science, history, law, and literature. He effectively managed and selected each of the translators, and reviewed some of their work, encouraging intellectual debate.
52:
552:, etc., as well as the works of ancient philosophers and scientists from Persia, India, and China; these enabled Arabic-speaking populations at the time (both in the east and in "the west," or North Africa and the Iberian peninsula) to learn about many ancient classical disciplines that were generally inaccessible to the Christian parts of western Europe, and Arabic-speaking scientists in the eastern Muslim lands such as
1748:
centuries. Thanks to this group of scholars and writers, the knowledge acquired from the Arabic, Greek and Hebrew texts found its way into the heart of the universities in Europe. Although the works of
Aristotle and Arab philosophers were banned at some European learning centers, such as the University of Paris in the early 1200s, the Toledo's translations were accepted, due to their physical and cosmological nature.
611:) who were available to work on translations. But translating efforts were not methodically organized until Toledo was reconquered by Christian forces in 1085. The new rulers inherited vast libraries containing some of the leading scientific and philosophical thought not only of the ancient world, but of the Islamic east, the cutting edge of scientific discourse of the era—and it was all largely in Arabic.
1790:, of which he owned a copy after they were published in Venice in 1515. This work was the pioneer in a long list of efforts by European astronomers to attempt the computation of accurate tables of astrological predictions. They became the most popular astronomical tables in Europe and updated versions were regularly produced for three hundred years. Other translated works of astronomical nature, such as
662:
1500:
20:
1357:
2299:, "Otrosí fizo tras-lador toda le ley de los judíos et aun el su Talmud et otra sciencia que han los judies muy escondida, a que llaman Cabala. Et esto fizo porque parezca manifestamente por la su ley que toda ella es figura de esta ley que los cristianos habernos; et que también ellos como los moros están en gran error et en estado de perder las almas."
1423:
1541:, based on observations of astronomers that Alfonso had gathered in Toledo. Among them were Aben Raghel y Alquibicio and Aben Musio y Mohamat, from Seville, Joseph Aben Alí and Jacobo Abenvena, from Córdoba, and fifty more he brought from Gascony and Paris lured with big salaries, and to whom he also assigned the translation of Ptolemy's
607:
Latin, and the local
Romance vernacular had seen the emergence of new pidgin vernaculars and bilingual song forms, as well as the creation of new bodies of literature in Arabic and Hebrew. The environment bred multi-lingualism. This era saw the development of a large community of Arabic-speaking Christians (known as
1124:
language. Later in his career
Gundissalinus mastered Arabic sufficiently to translate it by himself. Unlike his colleagues, he focused exclusively on philosophy, translating Greek and Arabic works and the commentaries of earlier Muslim philosophers of the peninsula. Among his important translations is
1398:
Translation methods evolved under the direction of
Alfonso X. Previously, a native speaker would verbally communicate the contents of the books to a scholar, who would dictate its Latin equivalent to a scribe, who wrote down the translated text. Under the new methodology, a translator, with expertise
1214:
During the decades following
Archbishop Raimundo's death, the translating activity in Toledo decreased considerably, although it continued into the next century, and overlapped with Alfonso's School of Translators. At least one translator, Hermannus Alemannus, is known to have worked in both schools;
1797:
Another side effect of this linguistic enterprise was the promotion of a revised version of the
Castilian language which, although it incorporated a large amount of scientific and technical vocabulary, had streamlined its syntax in order to be understood by people from all walks of life and to reach
1123:
is considered to be the first appointed director of the Toledo School of
Translators, beginning in 1180. At the beginning, Gundissalinus only translated from Greek into Latin or Castilian, as he did not have sufficient knowledge of Arabic. He depended on John of Seville for all translations in that
1747:
The translations of works on different sciences, such as astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine, etc. acted as a magnet for numerous scholars from all over Europe who came to Toledo eager to learn first hand about the contents of all those books that had been out of reach to
Europeans for many
606:
rule in that land (711-1031) was one of the main reasons why
European scholars were traveling to study there as early as the end of the 10th century. As the Arabic-speaking rulers who initially came in 711 intermingled and intermarried with local populations, the co-existence of Arabic, Hebrew,
1406:
Jewish scientists and translators acquired a prominent role in the School. They were highly valued by the King because of their intellectual skills and mastery of the two languages most used in the translations: Arabic and Castilian. The King kept some of the Jewish scholars as his personal
614:
Another reason for Al-Andalus's importance at the time is that some Christian leaders in certain other parts of Europe considered a few scientific and theological subjects studied by the ancients, and further advanced by the Arabic-speaking scientists and philosophers, to be heretical. The
1294:
attended the School to study works of medicine before returning to England and being ordained cardinal. Later he traveled to Rome, where he became a personal physician to the Pope. He is believed to have translated into Latin several medical treatises which dealt with practical medicine.
1774:, which was the most important optical treatise of ancient and medieval times. In general, most disciplines in the field of medicine in Europe greatly benefited from the translations made of works that reflected the advanced state of medicine in medieval Islam and some Asian countries.
654:. They translated many works, usually from Arabic, Hebrew and Greek into Latin. The work of these scholars made available very important texts from Arabic and Hebrew philosophers, whom the Archbishop deemed important for an understanding of several classical authors, specially
523:
Traditionally Toledo was a center of multilingual culture and had prior importance as a centre of learning and translation, beginning in its era under Muslim rule. Numerous classical works of ancient philosophers and scientists that had been translated into Arabic during the
1043:, a 10th-century Arabic encyclopedic treatise on a wide range of topics, including statecraft, ethics, physiognomy, astrology, alchemy, magic and medicine, which was very influential in Europe during the High Middle Ages. He also translated many astrology treatises from
1798:
the masses, while being made suitable for higher expressions of thought. The contributions of all these scholars, both oral and written, under the tutelage and direction of Alfonso X, established the foundations of the modern supranational Spanish language.
1415:. He intended to prove that the texts were a reflection of Christian doctrine, and that the Jews put their souls in peril by not acknowledging that. Such translations have been lost, although there could be a link with the later development of the
1407:
physicians, and recognized their services with splendid favors and praises. Alfonso's nephew Juan Manuel wrote that the King was so impressed with the intellectual level of the Jewish scholars that he commissioned the translation of the
1184:(1266 – 1272). He was a personal friend of Manfred of Sicily. His place of birth is unknown, but it is known that he was an important figure in Castile's intellectual life before being appointed Bishop. He is credited with translating
1765:
relied on many of the Arabic translations to make important contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, the natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics. Many other scholars of the Renaissance period used the translation of
1273:(also known as Alvred Alphitus, Walfred, Sarawel, Sarchel, Alphredus Philosophus, Alphredus Anglicus, etc.) was an English translator and philosopher who resided in Spain towards the end of the 12th century. He Translated the
1693:). Alvaro did the Latin translation while Yehuda ben Moshe's gave him an oral Spanish (Castilian) translation of the Arabic treatise by Aben Ragel. This is the only documented case of a double, simultaneous translation.
1374:
King Alfonso's decision to abandon Latin as the target language for the translations and use a revised vernacular version of Castilian, had very significant consequences on the development of the first foundations of the
1754:
based his systematization of Aristotelian philosophy, and much of his writings on astronomy, astrology, mineralogy, chemistry, zoology, physiology, and phrenology upon those translations made in Toledo. His pupil,
1739:, his self-appointed successor, dismantled most of the team of translators, and soon most of its members transferred their efforts to other activities under new patronages, many of them leaving the city of Toledo.
1301:
worked in Toledo between 1240-1256. Although at the service of Manfred (Naples) from 1258–66, he returned to Spain where he became a naturalized citizen of the kingdom of Castile. He translated most of Aristotle's
1445:
Yehuda ben Moshe was one of the most notable Jewish translators during this period and also worked as the King's physician, even before Alfonso was crowned. Among his most notable translations besides the
1678:; Abulafia de Toledo, who was an author, compiler and translator, and Abraham Alfaqui, Ḥayyim Israel or Judah Cohen. Maestre Bernardo, an Islamic convert, assisted Abraham Alfaqui in the revision of the
772:
1780:, the first scientist to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology, which placed the sun instead of the earth at the center of the universe, studied the translation of Ptolemy's astronomical
1574:
was another renowned Jewish translator favored by the King; he was highly learned on astronomy, astrology, architecture and mathematics. At the King's direction, he produced a translation of the
658:. As a result, the library of the cathedral, which had been refitted under Raymond's orders, became a translations center of a scale and importance not matched in the history of western culture.
2167:
Menéndez Pelayo, Marcelino (1978). Historia de los heterodoxos españoles. España romana y visigoda. Período de la Reconquista. Erasmistas y protestantes. Volumen 1. Editorial Católica. p. 439.
1158:, a Scotsman who studied at Oxford University and in Paris before settling in Toledo, also worked as a translator during this period. He translated Aristotle's works on homocentric spheres,
680:
1586:, a book on the flat astrolabe (for rapid calculations of movement of the stars), typically used by astrologers. King Alfonso wrote a preface to Isaac ibn Sid's translation,
823:
2392:
412:
702:
was the most productive of the Toledo translators at the time, translating more than 87 books in Arabic science. He came to Toledo in 1167 in search of Ptolemy's
1992:
1667:
315:
424:
1606:
The latter included designs for a palace with windows placed so that light entering them throughout the day would indicate the time on an internal patio.
1807:
450:
767:
494:
in the 12th century, who promoted the translation of philosophical and religious works, mainly from classical Arabic into medieval Latin. Under King
2564:
1817:
1476:(Ptolemy), 15 treatises on astrology (effects of stars on man and properties of 360 stones with which to ward off negative astral influences), and
397:
502:. This resulted in establishing the foundations of a first standard of the Spanish language, which eventually developed two varieties, one from
1812:
1221:
during the second period. This transitional period was when the first direct translations were made from Arabic into the vernacular Castilian.
1883:
1578:
that was simple and easy to understand, so that "any man could readily use it". He also translated several scientific treatises, such as the
1442:. Alfonso obtained the book from a Jew who had kept it hidden, and commanded Yehuda to translate it from Arabic into the Castilian language.
1152:. He is known for frequently eliminating passages and adding his own commentaries, rather than being scrupulously faithful to the originals.
284:
259:
1095:, etc. Overall he's known for his intelligent syntheses, combined with his own observations and interpretations, particularly in astrology.
1849:
Dmitri Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early 'Abbasaid Society, Routledge, 1998
1632:). Of his works, the most important are those of the "round astrolabe" and the "flat astrolabe". He also contributed to translations of
2002:
310:
901:
402:
2584:
2376:
2247:
2222:
2133:
2107:
1917:
1892:
1549:
became the most popular astronomical tables in Europe with updated versions being regularly reprinted for over three hundred years.
392:
300:
2349:
Jean Meeus & Denis Savoie, "The history of the tropical year", Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 1992, pp.40–42
2574:
2569:
957:
784:
2559:
623:, for example, were enacted to restrict the teachings of several theological works, among which were the physical treatises of
616:
2172:
443:
366:
172:
1114:
843:
684:
561:
213:
198:
1484:, Joan de Mesina, and Joan de Cremona. He also contributed to the translation of another book on judicial astrology, the
748:
1037:
during the early days of the School, he was the main translator from Arabic into Castilian. John of Seville translated
1719:. Another King's notary and scribe, Bonaventura of Siena, translated Abraham's Spanish (Castilian) translation of the
336:
305:
131:
1960:
p. 287. "more of Arabic science passed into Western Europe at the hands of Gerard of Cremona than in any other way."
971:
436:
498:
during the 13th century, the translators no longer worked with Latin as the final language, but translated into
490:
The School went through two distinct periods separated by a transitional phase. The first was led by Archbishop
76:
1910:
The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts
1696:
With Pietro de Reggio, the Italian Edigio de Tebladis de Parma translated the following into Latin: Ptolemy's
387:
1048:
1120:
1034:
985:
905:
754:
673:
592:
269:
177:
116:
91:
1759:
also used much of the translated work to bring Aristotle into his philosophical and theological treatises.
962:
Liber ad Almansorem, Liber divisionum, Introductio in medicinam, De egritudinibus iuncturarum, Antidotarium
706:
Since he did not know Arabic when he arrived, he relied on Jews and Mozarabs for translation and teaching.
2579:
2514:
639:
491:
479:
during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the Islamic philosophy and scientific works from
352:
238:
136:
106:
2589:
2022:
1167:
1006:
407:
264:
167:
111:
96:
1206:
of Aristotle. Herman also wrote his own philosophical commentary and summary of the Nicomachean Ethics
642:, Archbishop of Toledo from 1126 to 1151, started the first translation efforts at the library of the
1736:
1682:, which had first been translated by a team led by Maestre Ferrando de Toledo, from the same school.
1659:
1609:
1465:
1368:
1303:
1102:
796:
665:
495:
419:
279:
274:
121:
35:
1794:, were used as an introductory text in astronomy by European students all through the 15th century.
1056:
1777:
1325:
1298:
1177:
1064:
1039:
736:
730:
643:
620:
346:
203:
162:
152:
126:
101:
24:
1174:, and Averroes' influential commentaries on the scientific works of Aristotle, among many others.
2386:
1416:
1320:
1270:
1186:
935:
760:
525:
208:
86:
81:
2368:
2361:
897:
2466:
2430:
1340:
from the Hebrew text into Castilian, and translated from Arabic to Castilian an epitome of the
1337:
2372:
2243:
2218:
2168:
2129:
2103:
2081:
2046:
1998:
1913:
1888:
1655:
1590:, explaining that the original Arabic work was done in Toledo and from it Arzarquiel made his
1391:
1181:
699:
692:
603:
331:
182:
66:
2150:
2071:
1787:
1518:
1503:
1435:
1376:
1274:
1236:
1232:
1098:
861:
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468:
357:
2519:
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1751:
1493:
1381:
1030:
893:
847:
803:
651:
572:
362:
341:
51:
2311:
The Scientific Works of the Court of Alfonso X of Castile: The King and His Collaborators
2459:
2423:
1756:
1481:
1291:
1267:, a series of Muslim religious treatises, dated 1213, and a Greek treatise on biology.
1224:
1076:
925:
914:
909:
869:
742:
646:, where he led a team of translators who included Mozarabic Toledans, Jewish scholars,
576:
503:
484:
2553:
1685:
Among the Christian translators of this period were Alvaro de Oviedo, who translated
1571:
1522:
1217:
476:
254:
157:
2528:
2215:
Pensamiento y circulación de las ideas en el Mediterráneo: el papel de la traducción
1386:
1155:
877:
631:(the Latinized name of the Muslim philosopher-physician of al-Andalus, Ibn Rushd).
596:
533:
1564:, while Guillén Arremon D'Aspa collaborated with Yehuda on the translation of the
661:
1884:
A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages
1762:
1715:
and worked with Yehuda, Samuel ha-Levi and fellow Italian Juan de Mesina on the
1538:
1133:
1088:
950:
584:
541:
499:
233:
228:
71:
43:
1499:
19:
2534:
1556:
Juan D'Aspa assisted Yehuda ben Moses Cohen in the literal translation of the
1550:
1149:
1092:
1060:
1044:
1018:
779:
529:
382:
2447:. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970–1980, Introduction, v. 1, pp. ix-x.
2085:
1434:, a book about the medical properties of various rocks and gems, was done by
2482:
History of Science: Ancient and Medieval Science from the Beginnings to 1450
2151:"Herman el Alemán, traductor de la Escuela de Toledo: Estado de la cuestión"
1711:
Maestre Joan de Cremona, who was the King's notary, translated parts of the
1629:
1545:
and to gather books by Montesan and Algazel. As a result of their work, the
1489:
1461:
1403:
1356:
1191:
1137:
1110:
1084:
1068:
990:
881:
873:
833:
725:
655:
624:
537:
223:
2076:
2059:
1228:
1101:, a Flemish astronomer and translator from Arabic to Latin, was a pupil of
564:, and others, had added significant works to that ancient body of thought.
1947:
C. Burnett, "Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo", pp. 249–51, 270.
1662:, translated several books from Arabic into Spanish (Castilian), such as
1782:
1452:
1412:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1199:
1145:
1136:. At one time it was thought to be the work of the Christian scholastic
1072:
1052:
1001:
945:
889:
813:
718:
647:
628:
608:
588:
557:
553:
2297:. Barcelona: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. p. 2.
1488:, that was, ironically, translated from Latin (as it was used among the
1767:
1663:
1456:, a composite work of ancient treatises on magic and astrology, or the
1439:
713:
549:
507:
218:
1422:
1534:
1408:
1141:
885:
791:
377:
372:
1786:. He also used the data for astronomical computing contained in the
2122:
2120:
Christoph Kann (1993). "Michael Scotus". In Bautz, Traugott (ed.).
2047:
Arzobispo Raimundo de Toledo Escuela de Traductores [1130-1187]
2017:
2544:
Sobre la noción, significado e importancia de la Escuela de Toledo
1858:
M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 429–30, 451–2
1421:
1355:
679:
660:
568:
545:
2529:
El literalismo de los traductores de la corte de Alfonso el Sabio
2535:
Norman Roth, "Jewish Collaborators in Alfonso's Scientific Work"
1530:
1247:; and Hunayn Ibn Ishaq's versions of four of Galen's treatises:
921:
Other medical works which he translated include the following:
1700:
and Jehudas's Spanish (Castilian) version of Ibn Aben Ragel's
1526:
1166:
19 books, dated Oct 21, 1220. He also translated the works of
475:) is the group of scholars who worked together in the city of
1509:
Yehuda ben Moshe also collaborated in the translation of the
602:
Al-Andalus's multi-cultural richness beginning in the era of
2128:(in German). Vol. 5. Herzberg: Bautz. cols. 1459–1461.
2515:
Biblioteca Virtual Antigua Escuela de Traductores de Toledo
1140:. Gundissalinus also translated several works of the major
1227:, a Spanish physician and Canon of Toledo, translated the
2267:. Madrid: Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. p. 15.
1525:, that provided data for computing the position of the
1480:, that the King Alfonso later ordered to be revised by
1117:, which he dedicated to his colleague John of Seville.
1071:, etc. In philosophy he produced Latin translations of
567:
Some of the Arabic literature was also translated into
1460:
that was translated into Latin from an Arabic text by
1985:
The Influence of Arabic Medicine in the Medieval West
1971:
Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages
1666:'s treatise on the construction of the universe, and
1594:. Isaac ibn Sid also contributed to the translation,
2124:
Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL)
1598:
four works on the crafting of clocks, including the
1478:
Los IIII libros de las estrellas de la ochaua espera
888:
at the time, which were partly based on the work of
2458:
2422:
2360:
2202:. Oxford, UK: Family Publications. pp. 31–32.
2121:
2465:. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Press. pp.
2429:. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Press. pp.
2280:España en su historia; cristianos, moros y judíos
2217:. Universidad de Castilla La Mancha. p. 34.
1202:, and the commentaries of Alfarabi regarding the
828:On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions
1935:History of Science: Ancient and Medieval Science
1612:is credited with the translation from Arabic of
1566:IIII libros de las estrellas de la ochaua espera
1438:assisted by Garci Pérez, when Alfonso was still
1430:The first known translation of this period, the
27:became a translation center in the 12th century.
2498:. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970–1980.
2240:La traducción de literatura árabe contemporánea
1840:(2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–21.
1706:Libro conplido en los iudizios de las estrellas
1674:Others included Samuel ha-Levi, who translated
1486:Libro conplido en los iudizios de las estrellas
2338:Judaism and Science: A Historical Introduction
2282:. Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada. p. 494.
1912:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 81–82.
2327:, Boston, Houghton-Mifflin, 2002, pp. 327–28.
2042:
2040:
1994:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
1991:Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi, eds. (1996),
1352:Alfonso X and the establishment of the School
1310:' middle commentary and short fragments from
444:
8:
2461:Six Wings: Men of Science in the Renaissance
2425:Six Wings: Men of Science in the Renaissance
2391:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2325:Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews
2102:, p. 332. New Haven: Yale University Press.
709:His translated books include the following:
2408:A History of Magic and Experimental Science
2359:Hellemans, Alexander. Bunch, Bryan (1988).
2242:. Univ de Castilla La Mancha. p. 109.
1997:, vol. 3, Routledge, pp. 963–84,
1887:. Cambridge University Press. p. 413.
1265:Hunayn Ibn Ishaq's Isagoge ad Tegni Galieni
1808:Translations during the Spanish Golden Age
1604:Libro del relogio del palacio de las oras,
1496:, and then back into Castilian and Latin.
451:
437:
30:
2484:. New York: Basic Books Inc. p. 499.
2410:. Columbia University Press. p. 159.
2075:
2060:"Cómo trabajaron las escuelas alfonsíes"
1818:Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe
1658:, physician to both Alfonso and his son
1498:
18:
2238:Hernando de Larramendi, Miguel (2000).
2213:de Larramendi; Miguel Hernando (1997).
1829:
1426:An illustrated page of the "Lapidario".
1109:a major work of Islamic science on the
323:
292:
246:
190:
144:
58:
42:
2384:
1813:Latin translations of the 12th century
1411:, the law of the Jews, as well as the
403:Bhagavad-gita translations by language
2155:Minerva: Revista de Filología Clásica
1937:. New York: Basic Books. p. 481.
838:On the Classification of the Sciences
579:, such as that of Jewish philosopher
260:Internationalization and localization
7:
2064:Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica
1628:(an instrument that improved on the
872:", the most accurate compilation of
2520:The School of Translators of Toledo
2340:(Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007).
1958:Renaissance of the Twelfth Century,
1640:(stone of the shadow, or sundial),
1596:Libro de quadrante pora rectificar:
2496:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
2445:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
1160:De verificatione motuum coelestium
393:Books and magazines on translation
14:
2149:González, Maurilio Pérez (1992).
1838:A History Of The Spanish Language
1600:Libro del relogio dell argen uiuo
1162:, later used by Roger Bacon, and
1107:Liber de compositione astrolabii,
1081:De differentia spiritus et animae
1029:Another important translator was
868:He edited for Latin readers the "
695:, second half of the 13th century
2058:Menéndez Pidal, Gonzalo (1951).
1881:Hilde de Ridder-Symoens (2003).
1306:, interspersed with portions of
1105:. He translated into Latin the
785:On the Measurement of the Circle
473:Escuela de Traductores de Toledo
50:
2565:History of the Spanish language
2522:University of Castile-La Mancha
2367:. Simon and Schuster. pp.
1023:Liber de medicamentis simplicus
689:Recueil des traités de médecine
583:, Muslim sociologist-historian
528:"back east" were well known in
2293:Castro y Calvo; J. M. (1947).
2100:The Growth of Scientific Ideas
2098:William P. D. Wightman (1953)
1648:(quicksilver or mercury), and
1515:Libros del saber de Astronomía
425:Kural translations by language
398:Bible translations by language
173:Dynamic and formal equivalence
1:
2295:Juan Manuel, Libro de la caza
2186:Translations and Translators,
1702:Liber de Judiciis Astrologiae
1644:(clepsydra, or water clock),
1172:On the Motions of the Heavens
1132:), by the Jewish philosopher
1115:Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti
650:teachers, and monks from the
413:List of most translated works
214:Translation management system
2263:Muñoz Sendino, José (1949).
1869:Studies in Mediaeval Science
1713:Libro de las estrellas fixas
1580:Libro del astrolabio redondo
1402:Under Alfonso's leadership,
940:Practica, Brevarium medicine
749:On Generation and Corruption
743:On the Heavens and the World
465:Toledo School of Translators
2070:(4). Mexico D.F.: 363–380.
1330:Commentario Medio y Poetica
1324:, middle commentary on the
1280:, and the part on alchemy,
2606:
2278:Van Scoy, Herbert (1948).
1725:Livre de leschiele Mahomet
617:Condemnations of 1210–1277
2363:The timetables of science
972:Isaac Israeli ben Solomon
930:Expositio ad Tegni Galeni
773:On Algebra and Almucabala
2585:Literature of al-Andalus
2406:Thorndike, Lynn (1960).
2309:Procter, Evelyn (1945).
2198:Skinner, Gerard (2007).
2018:"Flowers of Abu Ma'shar"
674:Cantigas de Santa Maria
388:Journalistic translation
2575:13th century in Castile
2570:12th century in Castile
2537:in Robert I. Burns, ed.
2494:Gillispie, Charles C.,
2457:Sarton, George (1957).
2443:Gillispie, Charles C.,
2421:Sarton, George (1957).
1735:After Alfonso's death,
1691:De judiciis Astrologiae
1616:(spherical astrolabe),
1170:(Alpetragius) in 1217,
1121:Dominicus Gundissalinus
1035:Dominicus Gundissalinus
593:Constantine the African
532:such as those from the
270:Video game localization
178:Contrastive linguistics
2560:History of translation
2077:10.24201/nrfh.v5i4.196
1908:Grant, Edward (1996).
1553:himself owned a copy.
1506:
1436:Yehuda ben Moshe Cohen
1427:
1364:
696:
677:
472:
353:Telephone interpreting
239:Multimedia translation
28:
2546:, by Paulo Vélez León
2200:The English cardinals
2023:World Digital Library
1836:Penny, Ralph (2002).
1646:Argente vivo o azogue
1624:(constellations) and
1576:Libro de las armellas
1502:
1458:Tratado de la açafeha
1425:
1359:
1328:, finished Averroes'
1263:. He also translated
1049:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
1007:The Canon of Medicine
936:Yuhanna ibn Sarabiyun
683:
664:
285:Software localization
265:Language localization
168:Translation criticism
97:Linguistic validation
22:
2480:Taton, Rene (1963).
1983:Jacquart, Danielle,
1933:Taton, Rene (1963).
1737:Sancho IV of Castile
1610:Rabbi Zag Sujurmenza
1369:Alfonso X of Castile
1346:Summa Alexandrinorum
1103:Hermann of Carinthia
808:Elementa astronomica
797:Elements of Geometry
666:Alfonso X of Castile
496:Alfonso X of Castile
280:Website localization
2265:La escala de Mahoma
1792:Theorica planetarum
1778:Nicolaus Copernicus
1680:Libro de la açafeha
1638:Piedra de la sombra
1634:Armellas de Ptolemy
1562:Libro de las cruzes
1511:Libro de las cruces
1466:Guillelmus Anglicus
1321:Aethica Nichomachea
1299:Hermannus Alemannus
1282:Avicennae Mineralia
1275:pseudo-Aristotelian
1261:De motibus liquidis
1253:De utilitate pulsus
1245:De aere aquis locis
1210:Transitional period
1164:Historia animalium,
1040:Secretum Secretorum
731:Posterior Analytics
644:Cathedral of Toledo
621:University of Paris
347:Video relay service
204:Machine translation
163:Translation project
153:Translation studies
25:Cathedral of Toledo
2313:. MLR. p. 40.
1620:(flat astrolabe),
1614:Astrolabio redondo
1558:Libro de la alcora
1507:
1468:. He also did the
1428:
1417:Christian Kabbalah
1365:
1271:Alfred of Sareshel
1215:he translated the
1187:Nicomachean Ethics
761:Nicomachean Ethics
697:
678:
526:Islamic Golden Age
209:Mobile translation
29:
2184:M.-T. d'Alverny,
1656:Abraham of Toledo
1517:, and the famous
1464:with the help of
1257:Se motu membrorum
1182:bishop of Astorga
1178:Herman the German
1033:. Together with
980:De definitionibus
966:Practica puerorum
892:and the works of
700:Gerard of Cremona
693:Gerard of Cremona
640:Raymond of Toledo
627:and the works of
595:, or the Persian
492:Raymond of Toledo
461:
460:
332:Untranslatability
183:Polysystem theory
16:Group of scholars
2597:
2542:
2527:
2513:
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2492:
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2203:
2195:
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2165:
2159:
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2140:
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2096:
2090:
2089:
2079:
2055:
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2035:
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2014:
2008:
2007:
1988:
1980:
1974:
1967:
1961:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1939:
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1930:
1924:
1923:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1878:
1872:
1865:
1859:
1856:
1850:
1847:
1841:
1834:
1788:Alfonsine tables
1772:Kitab al-manazir
1721:Escala de Mohama
1652:(candle clock).
1626:Lámina Universal
1618:Astrolabio llano
1588:Lamina Universal
1584:Libro del ataçir
1547:Alfonsine tables
1537:relative to the
1519:Alfonsine tables
1504:Alfonsine tables
1377:Spanish language
1241:Liber isagogarum
1237:Hunayn ibn Ishaq
1099:Rudolf of Bruges
1065:Thābit ibn Qurra
862:Hunayn ibn Ishaq
858:Thabit ibn Qurra
672:, dictating the
619:at the medieval
581:Moses Maimonides
481:Classical Arabic
453:
446:
439:
408:Translated books
358:Language barrier
275:Dub localization
54:
31:
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2600:
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2415:
2405:
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2400:
2383:
2379:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2348:
2344:
2336:Noah J. Efron,
2335:
2331:
2323:James Carroll,
2322:
2318:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2292:
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2287:
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2016:
2015:
2011:
2005:
1990:
1982:
1981:
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1964:
1956:C. H. Haskins,
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1932:
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1920:
1907:
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1895:
1880:
1879:
1875:
1867:C. H. Haskins,
1866:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1835:
1831:
1826:
1804:
1752:Albertus Magnus
1745:
1733:
1676:Libro del saber
1382:Kalila wa-Dimna
1354:
1336:translated the
1332:to Aristotle's
1249:De tactu pulsus
1243:, Hippocrates'
1212:
1057:Aḥmad ibn Yusuf
1031:John of Seville
926:Haly Abenrudian
912:(including the
894:Jabir ibn Aflah
884:) ever seen in
804:Jabir ibn Aflah
637:
604:Umayyad dynasty
521:
516:
457:
363:Fan translation
342:Transliteration
132:Sense-for-sense
17:
12:
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5:
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2506:External links
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2004:978-0415124102
2003:
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1768:ibn al-Haitham
1757:Thomas Aquinas
1744:
1741:
1732:
1729:
1687:Libro Conplido
1622:Constelaciones
1543:Quadripartitum
1521:, compiled by
1482:Samuel ha-Levi
1361:Calila e Dimna
1353:
1350:
1318:, Aristotle's
1292:John of Toledo
1284:of Ibn Sina's
1225:Mark of Toledo
1211:
1208:
1077:Costa ben Luca
1027:
1026:
1015:
999:
983:
969:
955:
943:
933:
915:Book of Optics
910:Ibn al-Haytham
870:Toledan Tables
866:
865:
855:
841:
831:
821:
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691:translated by
652:Order of Cluny
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485:Medieval Latin
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2224:84-89492-90-5
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2157:(6): 269–284.
2156:
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2145:
2142:
2137:
2135:3-88309-043-3
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2108:1-135-46042-6
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2019:
2013:
2010:
2006:
2000:
1996:
1995:
1987:, p. 983
1986:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1969:D. Campbell,
1966:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1950:
1944:
1941:
1936:
1929:
1926:
1921:
1919:0-521-56762-9
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1894:0-521-54113-1
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1742:
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1730:
1728:
1726:
1723:into French (
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1698:Quatripartito
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1642:Relox de agua
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1572:Isaac ibn Sid
1569:
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1523:Isaac ibn Sid
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1344:known as the
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1233:medical works
1230:
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1218:Old Testament
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1207:
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1193:
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1144:philosophers
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1130:Meqor Hahayim
1127:
1122:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1094:
1091:(Avicebron),
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1041:
1036:
1032:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1012:Liber Canonis
1009:
1008:
1003:
1000:
997:
993:
992:
987:
984:
981:
977:
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849:
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829:
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819:
815:
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790:
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774:
769:
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756:
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750:
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739:
738:
733:
732:
727:
724:
721:
720:
715:
712:
711:
710:
707:
705:
701:
694:
690:
686:
682:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
634:
632:
630:
626:
622:
618:
612:
610:
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598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
565:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
518:
513:
511:
509:
506:and one from
505:
501:
497:
493:
488:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
454:
449:
447:
442:
440:
435:
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431:
426:
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421:
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414:
411:
410:
409:
406:
404:
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386:
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374:
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368:
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348:
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343:
340:
338:
337:Transcription
335:
333:
330:
329:
328:
327:
322:
317:
314:
312:
311:Organizations
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
298:
297:
296:
293:Institutional
291:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
255:Glocalization
253:
252:
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245:
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237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
196:
195:
194:
189:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
158:Skopos theory
156:
154:
151:
150:
149:
148:
143:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
127:Word-for-word
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
78:
77:Bhagavad-gita
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
64:
63:
62:
57:
53:
49:
48:
45:
41:
37:
33:
32:
26:
21:
2590:Panchatantra
2541:(in Spanish)
2526:(in Spanish)
2512:(in Spanish)
2495:
2490:
2481:
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2531:in Spanish
2173:8422001128
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1871:, pp. 8–10
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