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to the Toltec and their city Tollan, which was idolized as the epitome of state civilization with an enormous influence in the surrounding region. However, Tula—the site attributed with this Tollan—lacks much of the splendor that the Aztecs describe. For example, Tula was mainly built out of the relatively soft and unimpressive adobe brick, and while Tula certainly was a major regional city in its time, it was minuscule both in population and in influence in comparison to both its predecessor, Teotihuacan, and its Aztec descendant, Tenochtitlan. Additional material remains at Tula, such as the destruction of Toltec buildings and monumental art coinciding with the arrival of Aztec ceramics, suggest that the Aztecs' reverence of the Toltec might have been mostly propagandistic, intentionally overexaggerating the previous culture to use it as a steppingstone for their own.
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817:(1989) maintained that the difficulties in salvaging historic data from the Aztec accounts of Toltec history are too great to overcome. For example, there are two supposed Toltec rulers identified with Quetzalcoatl: the first ruler and founder of the Toltec dynasty and the last ruler, who saw the end of the Toltec glory and was forced into humiliation and exile. The first is described as a valiant triumphant warrior, but the last as a feeble and self-doubting old man. This caused Graulich and Gillespie to suggest that the general Aztec cyclical view of time, in which events repeated themselves at the end and beginning of cycles or eras was being inscribed into the historical record by the Aztecs, making it futile to attempt to distinguish between a historical
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465:. The Toltec culture, as it is understood during its peak, can be tied directly to Tula Chico; after the site was burned and abandoned at the end of the Epiclassic period, Tula Grande was soon constructed bearing strong similarities 1.5 kilometers to the south. It is during the Early Postclassic period that Tula Grande and its associated Toltec culture would become the dominant force in the broader region.
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distributor. A survey done by Healan et al. recovered roughly 16,000 pieces of obsidian from the site's urban zone and over 25,000 from its surrounding residential areas. Tula's involvement in obsidian trade is also evidence for the city's interaction with another powerful city in the region, Chichén Itzá, as the vast majority of obsidian at both sites comes from the same two geological sources.
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networks and were possibly also used for diplomatic relations, suggesting that Tula Grande used these structures for a similar end. To that point, imported goods at Tula Grande shows that the
Toltecs indeed interacted commercially with sites throughout Mesoamerica; shared ceramic and ritual figurine styles between Tula and regions such as Socunusco supplement this idea.
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The physical layout of the broader plaza also partakes in referencing a shared past; its sunken colonnaded hall units are incredibly similar to those at cities of Tula's ancestral peoples. Importantly, these halls are known to have served as places to engage with both regional and long-distance trade
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Much of the questioning of these Aztec narratives is due to the lack of archaeological evidence to support them. Aztec accounts tell that the Toltec discovered medicine, designed the calendar system, created the
Nahuatl language. More broadly, the Aztec traced most of their own societal achievements
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of the Aztec mythical accounts based on the original approach of
Brinton. This approach applies a different understanding of the word Toltec to the interpretation of the Aztec sources, interpreting it as largely a mythical and philosophical construct by either the Aztecs or Mesoamericans generally
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on top of
Pyramid B. Various civic buildings surrounding a central plaza are especially distinctive, as excavations show the use of columns inside these buildings and in surrounding colonnades. One of these buildings, known as Building 3, is argued to have been a symbolically powerful building for
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is also taken as evidence for a Toltec horizon. The nature of interaction between Tula and Chichén Itzá has been especially controversial, with scholars arguing for either military conquest of Chichén Itzá by the Toltec, Chichén Itzá establishing Tula as a colony, or only loose connections between
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who argued that the "Toltecs" as described in the Aztec sources were merely one of several
Nahuatl-speaking city-states in the Postclassic period, and not a particularly influential one at that. He attributed the Aztec view of the Toltecs to the "tendency of the human mind to glorify the good old
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Beginning around 650 CE, the majority of these settlements were abandoned as a result of
Teotihuacan's decline. The Coyotlatelco rose as the dominant culture in the region. It is with the Coyotlatelco that Tula, as it relates to the Toltec, was founded along with a number of hilltop communities.
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people from the southern Gulf Coast and a group of sedentary
Chichimeca from northern Mesoamerica. The former of these is believed to have composed the majority of the new culture and were influenced by the Mayan culture. During Teotihuacan's apogee in the Early Classic period, these people were
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deity. Graulich argued that the Toltec era is best considered the fourth of the five Aztec mythical "Suns" or ages, the one immediately preceding the fifth Sun of the Aztec people, presided over by
Quetzalcoatl. This caused Graulich to consider that the only possibly historical data in the Aztec
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characterized by certain stylistic traits associated with Tula, Hidalgo and extending to other cultures and polities in
Mesoamerica. Traits associated with this horizon are include the Mixtec-Puebla style of iconography, Tohil plumbate ceramic ware, and Silho or X-Fine Orange Ware ceramics. The
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While the skeptical school of thought does not deny that cultural traits of a seemingly central
Mexican origin have diffused into a larger area of Mesoamerica, it tends to ascribe this to the dominance of Teotihuacán in the Classic period and the general diffusion of cultural traits within the
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part of the narrative, some maintain that, by using a critical comparative method, some level of historicity can be salvaged from the sources. Others maintain that continued analysis of the narratives as sources of factual history is futile and hinders access to learning about the culture of
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Tula Chico, as the settlement is referred to during this phase, grew into a small regional state out of the consolidation of the surrounding Coyotlatelco sites. The settlement was roughly three to six square kilometers in size with a gridded urban plan and a relatively large population. The
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Additionally, surveys of Tula Grande have suggested the existence of an "extensive and highly specialized workshop-based obsidian industry," at the site that could have been one of the sources of the city's economic and political power, taking on Teotihuacan's previous role as the region's
517:, but more of a kingdom. While Tula does have the urban complexity expected of an imperial capital, its influence and dominance were not very far reaching. Evidence for Tula's participation in extensive trade networks has been uncovered; for example, the remains of a large
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At its height, Tula Grande had an estimated population of as many as 60,000 and covered 16 square kilometers of hills, plains, valleys, and marsh. Some of the most prominent examples of the Toltec material culture at the site include pyramids, ball-courts, and the
725:(1977) were fully aware that the Aztec chronicles were a mixture of mythical and historical accounts; this led them to try to separate the two by applying a comparative approach to the varying Aztec narratives. For example, they seek to discern between the deity
605:, who was best known for being one of the first westerners to study the history of Mesoamerica. Durán's work remains relevant to Mesoamerican societies, and based on his findings Durán claims that the Toltecs were disciples of the "High Priest Topiltzin."
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and its inhabitants as Toltecs – and that it was a common practice among ruling lineages in Postclassic Mesoamerica to strengthen claims to power by asserting Toltec ancestry. Mesoamerican migration accounts often state that Tollan was ruled by
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and his disciples were said to have preached and performed miracles. "Astonished, the people called these men Toltecs," which Duran says, "means Masters, or Men Wise in Some Craft." Duran speculated that this Topilzin may have been the
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has since been associated with the influx of certain Central Mexican cultural traits into the Maya sphere of dominance that took place in the late Classic and early Postclassic periods; the Postclassic Mayan civilizations of
646:, the first archaeologist to work at Tula, Hidalgo, defended the historicist views based on his impression of the Toltec capital, and was the first to note similarities in architectural styles between Tula and
513:. They conclude that relative to the influence exerted in Mesoamerica by Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan, Tula's influence on other cultures was negligible and was probably not deserving of being defined as an
847:('Chichimecness'), which symbolized the savage, nomadic state of peoples who had not yet become urbanized. This interpretation argues that any large urban center in Mesoamerica could be referred to as
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Modern scholars debate whether the Aztec narratives of Toltec history should be given credence as descriptions of actual historical events. While all scholars acknowledge that there is a large
876:), a godlike mythical figure who was later sent into exile from Tollan and went on to found a new city elsewhere in Mesoamerica. According to Patricia Anawalt, a professor of anthropology at
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all read the Aztec chronicles and believed them to be realistic historic descriptions of a pan-Mesoamerican empire based at Tula, Hidalgo. This historicist view was first challenged by
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650:. This led him to posit the theory that Chichén Itzá had been violently taken over by a Toltec military force under the leadership of Kukulcan. Following Charnay the term
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sent to preach the Christian Gospel among the "Indians", although he provides nothing more than circumstantial evidence of any contact between the hemispheres.
880:, assertions of Toltec ancestry and claims that their elite ruling dynasties were founded by Quetzalcoatl have been made by such diverse civilizations as the
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tightly integrated into the political and economic systems of the state and formed large settlements in the Tula region, most notably Villagran and Chingu.
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from those of the Aztec accounts, it attempts to find archaeological clues to the ethnicity, history and social organization of the inhabitants of Tula.
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Smith, Michael E. (2007). "Tula and Chichén Itzá: Are We Asking the Right Questions?". In Kowalski, Jeff Karl; Kristin-Graham, Cynthia (eds.).
682:, which all held the Toltecs to have been an actual ethnic group. This school of thought connected the "Toltecs" to the archaeological site of
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The later debate about the nature of the Toltec culture goes back to the late 19th century. Mesoamericanist scholars such as Mariano Veytia,
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Iverson, Shannon Dugan (1 March 2017). "The Enduring Toltecs: History and Truth During the Aztec-to-Colonial Transition at Tula, Hidalgo".
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between the 10th and 12th century AD. The Aztecs referred to several Mexican city states as Tollan, "Place of Reeds", such as "Tollan
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in modern times) can refer specifically to Tula, Hidalgo, or more generally to all great cities through meaning 'place of the reeds'.
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region. Recent scholarship, then, does not see Tula, Hidalgo as the capital of the Toltecs of the Aztec accounts. Rather, it takes
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and Fernando Horcasitas. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, Publishing Division of the University. pp. 57–69.
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798:. The Nahuatl word for 'Toltec', for example, can mean 'master artisan' as well as 'inhabitant of Tula, Hidalgo', and the word
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Depiction of an anthropomorphic bird-snake deity, probably Quetzalcoatl at the Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli at Tula, Hidalgo
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culture considered the Toltec to be their intellectual and cultural predecessors and described Toltec culture emanating from
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Since the 1990s, the historicist position has fallen out of favor for a more critical and interpretive approach to the
436:. Researchers are yet to reach a consensus in regards to the degree or direction of influence between these two sites.
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The historicist school of thought persisted well into the 20th century, represented in the works of scholars such as
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and Lisa Montiel, who compare the archaeological record related to Tula Hidalgo to those of the polities centered in
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the Toltec due to its reference in architecture to the historic and mythic homes of the people's ancestors.
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Lifelines in World History: The Ancient World, The Medieval World, The Early Modern World, The Modern World
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2080:(1985). "El imperio tolteca y su caída.". In Jesús Monjarás-Ruiz; Rosa Brambila; Emma Pérez-Rocha (eds.).
1599:(1993). "The toltec Horizon in Mesoamerica: New perspectives on an old issue". In Don Stephen Rice (ed.).
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complexity of the main plaza was especially distinct from other Coyotlatelco sites in the area, as it had
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841:, literally 'Toltecness', meant art, culture, civilization, and urbanism and was seen as the opposite of
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The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion
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706:, followed by the historian Enrique Florescano, have argued that the "original" Tollan was probably
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1895:]. Translated by Ronda Cunningham (1st English ed.). Springville, UT: Bonneville Books.
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Ringle, William M.; Tomás Gallareta Negrón; George J. Bey (1998). "The Return of Quetzalcoatl".
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While the exact origins of the culture are unclear, it likely developed from a mixture of the
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chronicles are the names of some rulers and possibly some of the conquests ascribed to them.
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2013:
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Twin Tollans: Chichén Itzá, Tula, and the Epiclassic to Early Postclassic Mesoamerican World
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Twin Tollans: Chichén Itzá, Tula, and the epiclassic to early postclassic Mesoamerican world
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and the Guatemalan highlands have been referred to as "Toltecized" or "Mexicanized" Mayas.
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that served to symbolize the might and sophistication of several civilizations during the
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Other controversies relating to the Toltec include the question of how best to understand
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1830:"Waves of Influence in Postclassic Mesoamerica? A Critique of the Mixteca-Puebla Concept"
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Anawalt, Patricia Rieff (1990). "The Emperors' Cloak: Aztec Pomp, Toltec Circumstances".
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1641:. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, Publishing Division of the University.
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days" and the confounding of the place of Tollan with the myth of the struggle between
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1850:"The Archaeological Study of Empires and Imperialism in Prehispanic Central Mexico"
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Latin American horizons: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 11th and 12th October 1986
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Smith, Michael E.; Diehl, Richard A.; Berlo, Janet Catherine (1993). "Mesoamerica
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One of the earliest historical mentions of Toltecs was in the 16th century by the
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1943:
Quetzalcoatl and the Irony of Empire: Myths and Prophecies in the Aztec Tradition
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the two. Whether the Mixteca-Puebla art style has any meaning is also disputed.
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2084:. Mexico City: Instituo Nacional de Antropología e Historia. pp. 249–272.
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Healan, Dan M.; Cobean, Robert H. (24 September 2012). "Tula and the Toltecs".
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1654:]. Translated by Lysa Hochroth. Raúl Velázquez (illus.). Baltimore, MD:
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to mean simply an inhabitant of Tula during its apogee. Separating the term
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2000:
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Veytia, Mariano (2000) . Hemingway, Donald W.; Hemingway, W. David (eds.).
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for Tula) as the epitome of civilization. In the Nahuatl language the word
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1933:
The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America: Primitive History
948:(3rd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 35–36.
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1978:
The Toltec Heritage: From the Fall of Tula to the Rise of Tenochtitlan
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1509:
1129:"Review of Mesoamerica after the Decline of Teotihuacan A. D. 700-900"
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View of the columns of the burned palace at Tula Hidalgo. The second
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Tempo Tlahuizcalpantecuhtl (Pyramid B), the largest structure at the
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1981:. Civilization of the American Indian series, Vol. 153. Norman:
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The Aztec Kings: The Construction of Rulership in Mexica History
1577:. Civilization of the American Indian series, Vol. 153. Norman:
220:
212:
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2184:(3). Columbus, OH: American Society for Ethnohistory: 153–186.
2165:"The Aztlan Migrations of Nahuatl Chronicles: Myth or History?"
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397:
and pictographic tradition also described the history of the
348:, during the Epiclassic and the early Post-Classic period of
3703:
Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
2014:
Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain
1283:
Kowalski, Jeff Karl; Kristin-Graham, Cynthia, eds. (2011).
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The ancient Americas: a brief history and guide to research
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of Aztec myth. This tradition assumes that much of central
318:
309:
30:
This article is about the pre-Columbian culture. For the
1029:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. p. 22.
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Healan, Dan M.; Cobean, Robert H. (24 September 2012).
1265:, Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 1–2
777:
Toltec carving representing the Aztec eagle, found in
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when talking about the mythical place Zuyua (Tollan).
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Painting in the Americas before European colonization
1529:(1887). "Were the Toltecs an Historic Nationality?".
979:
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was synonymous with artist, artisan or wise man, and
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presence of stylistic traits associated with Tula in
352:, reaching prominence from 950 to 1150 CE. The later
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1820:(in Spanish). Mexico, DF: Siglo Veintiuno Editores.
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Book of the Gods and Rites and the Ancient Calendar
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Pre-columbian civilization in Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico
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1879:. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 579–617.
1570:
1287:. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.
710:. Florescano adds that the Mayan sources refer to
501:A contrary viewpoint is argued in a 2003 study by
2026:(eds., trans., notes and illus.) (translation of
1531:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
2082:Mesoamérica y el centro de México: Una antología
2028:Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España
1715:Graulich, Michel (2002). "Los reyes de Tollan".
1214:
428:between the archaeological site of Tula and the
1060:after the Decline of Teotihuacan A. D. 700-900
275:Arrival of Chichimec peoples who conquered Tula
3678:Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
3663:Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas
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2030: ed.). Santa Fe, NM and Salt Lake City:
418:the reasons behind the perceived similarities
401:, giving lists of rulers and their exploits.
56:Distribution and influence of the Toltecs in
8:
1848:Smith, Michael E.; Montiel, Lisa M. (2001).
1226:
813:Scholars such as Michel Graulich (2002) and
43:
1739:Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory
1730:Tula of the Toltecs: Excavations and Survey
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2263:
2249:
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2147:(2). Cambridge University Press: 183–232.
2068:Tula: The Toltec Capital of Ancient Mexico
1717:Revista Española de Antropología Americana
765:Toltec warriors represented by the famous
49:
3668:Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas
1797:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T058690
1432:
1399:
1190:
2272:Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures
1447:
729:and a Toltec ruler often referred to as
3781:19th-century archaeological discoveries
1471:
1459:
1363:
1351:
1252:
1250:
1178:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195390933.013.0026
1114:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195390933.013.0026
1099:
1097:
1095:
1093:
983:
936:
336:culture that ruled a state centered in
1854:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
1639:The History of the Indies of New Spain
1339:
1241:
488:, argue for the existence of a Toltec
389:(plural) came to take on the meaning "
384:
375:
362:
42:
1387:
1375:
1327:
1315:
1257:Smith, Michael E. (11 January 2016),
1202:
1012:
995:
623:Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg
7:
1818:Teotihuacan, capital de los Toltecas
1553:(1885). "La Civilisation Tolteque".
2696:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela
1573:The Toltecs: Until the Fall of Tula
3688:Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
2667:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia
287:American Museum of Natural History
25:
2679:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador
2650:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia
1778:. New Castle: Cambridge Scholars.
583:and eagles feast on human hearts.
3761:Pre-Columbian cultures of Mexico
3720:
2672:Archaeological sites in Colombia
2645:Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil
2228:
2072:. New York: Thames & Hudson.
914:
299:
260:
251:
242:
199:
186:
177:
156:
2655:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile
1828:; Heath-Smith, Cynthia (1980).
796:Mesoamerican Postclassic period
731:Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl
525:Material culture at Tula Grande
134:Mesoamerican Postclassic Period
3776:Classic period in the Americas
1656:Johns Hopkins University Press
1215:Smith & Heath-Smith (1980)
944:Smith, Michael Ernest (2012).
1:
3771:Classic period in Mesoamerica
3599:Spanish Conquest of Guatemala
2660:Archaeological sites in Chile
591:Carved relief of a jaguar at
484:Some archaeologists, such as
143:
3693:Mesoamerican writing systems
2689:Archaeological sites in Peru
1983:University of Oklahoma Press
1890:Historia antigua de Mexico,
1886:Ancient America Rediscovered
1816:Séjournée, Laurette (1994).
1646:Florescano, Enrique (1999).
1579:University of Oklahoma Press
686:, which was taken to be the
532:Atlantean warrior sculptures
285:A Toltec-style clay vessel (
3589:Spanish Conquest of Yucatán
2032:School of American Research
1947:University of Chicago Press
1936:. Vol. 5. D. Appleton.
1791:. Oxford University Press.
1774:Morritt, Robert D. (2011).
1732:. University of Iowa Press.
1690:University of Arizona Press
1172:. Oxford University Press.
3797:
3615:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
3518:Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil
1418:Metropolitan Museum of Art
1263:The Encyclopedia of Empire
1227:Smith & Montiel (2001)
1127:Smith, Michael E. (1993).
783:Metropolitan Museum of Art
717:Many historicists such as
440:Origins of society at Tula
29:
3716:
3658:
3649:
3013:
2840:Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia)
2153:10.1017/S0956536100001954
1783:Nicholson, H. B. (2020).
1751:10.1007/s10816-017-9316-4
48:
3727:Civilizations portal
2684:Cultural periods of Peru
2036:University of Utah Press
1941:Carrasco, David (1982).
1648:The Myth of Quetzalcoatl
1527:Brinton, Daniel Garrison
921:Civilizations portal
557:Tula archaeological site
3621:Hernán Pérez de Quesada
2467:Mesoamerican chronology
1728:Healan, Dan M. (1989).
1652:El mito de Quetzalcóatl
1106:Oxford Handbooks Online
1025:Prem, Hanns J. (1997).
829:Furthermore, among the
631:Daniel Garrison Brinton
377:[toːɬˈteːkat͡ɬ]
350:Mesoamerican chronology
3766:Pre-Columbian cultures
2324:Archaeological periods
2009:de Sahagún, Bernardino
1866:10.1006/jaar.2000.0372
1413:"Eagle Relief, Toltec"
786:
770:
758:
746:
595:
584:
564:
490:archaeological horizon
481:
290:
3756:Mesoamerican cultures
3627:List of Conquistadors
3514:Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal
2925:Quebrada de Humahuaca
2344:Caddoan Mississippian
1928:Bancroft, Hubert Howe
781:, 10th–13th century.
776:
764:
757:is in the background.
752:
744:
619:Manuel Orozco y Berra
590:
570:
554:
476:
386:[toːɬˈteːkaḁ]
284:
3594:Francisco de Montejo
3522:Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I
2635:Andean civilizations
2562:Shaft tomb tradition
2237:at Wikimedia Commons
2024:Arthur J.O. Anderson
1555:Revue d'Ethnographie
1169:Tula and the Toltecs
672:Miguel León-Portilla
459:multiple ball courts
364:[ˈtoːlːãːn̥]
3560:Manco Inca Yupanqui
2865:Manteño-Huancavilca
2334:Ancestral Puebloans
2141:Ancient Mesoamerica
2114:Thames & Hudson
1789:oxfordartonline.com
1682:Gillespie, Susan D.
1517:Berit, Ase (2015).
694:was dominated by a
627:Francisco Clavigero
547:History of research
162:Tollan-Xicocotitlan
45:
3683:Columbian exchange
3673:Portal:Mesoamerica
2825:La Tolita (Tumaco)
2640:Indigenous peoples
2379:Hopewell tradition
2306:Indigenous peoples
1490:American Antiquity
819:Topiltzin Ce Acatl
815:Susan D. Gillespie
787:
771:
759:
747:
721:(2001 (1957)) and
612:Thomas the Apostle
596:
585:
565:
482:
291:
119:Geographical range
3738:
3737:
3734:
3733:
3708:Pre-Columbian art
3644:
3643:
3638:Francisco Pizarro
3604:Pedro de Alvarado
2920:Pucará de Tilcara
2233:Media related to
2172:online facsimile)
2161:Smith, Michael E.
2091:978-968-6038-26-2
2062:Diehl, Richard A.
2020:Charles E. Dibble
1826:Smith, Michael E.
1603:. Dumbarton Oaks.
1597:Diehl, Richard A.
1294:978-0-88402-372-2
955:978-1-4051-9497-6
833:peoples the word
767:Atlantean figures
704:Laurette Séjourné
702:". Archaeologist
571:Stucco relief at
561:Atlantean figures
279:
278:
272:Cause of collapse
231:League of Mayapan
166:
61:
16:(Redirected from
3788:
3725:
3724:
3723:
3647:
3633:Spanish Conquest
3610:Spanish Conquest
3585:Spanish Conquest
3574:Spanish Conquest
3016:
3015:
2265:
2258:
2251:
2242:
2232:
2217:
2173:
2156:
2135:
2095:
2073:
2071:
2057:
2016:, 13 vols. in 12
2004:
1968:
1937:
1914:
1892:book 1, ch. 1-23
1880:
1869:
1844:
1834:
1821:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1799:. Archived from
1785:"Mixteca–Puebla"
1779:
1770:
1733:
1724:
1711:
1677:
1642:
1630:
1615:. Translated by
1604:
1592:
1576:
1562:
1546:
1537:(126): 229–241.
1522:
1513:
1475:
1469:
1463:
1457:
1451:
1445:
1436:
1433:Gillespie (1989)
1430:
1424:
1423:
1409:
1403:
1400:Séjournée (1994)
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1361:
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1270:
1254:
1245:
1239:
1230:
1224:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1191:Nicholson (2020)
1188:
1182:
1181:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1101:
1088:
1087:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1022:
1016:
1010:
999:
993:
987:
981:
968:
967:
941:
919:
918:
917:
563:are on its apex.
503:Michael E. Smith
388:
379:
366:
328:
327:
324:
323:
320:
317:
314:
311:
308:
305:
264:
255:
246:
203:
190:
181:
164:
160:
148:
145:
55:
53:
46:
21:
3796:
3795:
3791:
3790:
3789:
3787:
3786:
3785:
3741:
3740:
3739:
3730:
3721:
3719:
3712:
3654:
3645:
3635:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3601:
3597:
3591:
3587:
3576:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3531:Quemuenchatocha
3529:
3520:
3516:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3460:
3329:
3238:
3212:
3201:
3148:Human Sacrifice
3145:
3137:Human Sacrifice
3134:
3108:
3081:Mayan Languages
3009:
2621:
2453:
2310:
2291:Genetic history
2274:
2269:
2225:
2220:
2167:
2159:
2138:
2124:
2098:
2092:
2078:Kirchhoff, Paul
2076:
2060:
2046:
2018:. vols. I-XII.
2007:
1993:
1971:
1957:
1945:. Chicago, IL:
1940:
1926:
1922:
1920:Further reading
1917:
1903:
1883:
1872:
1847:
1832:
1824:
1815:
1806:
1804:
1782:
1776:Olde New Mexico
1773:
1736:
1727:
1714:
1700:
1680:
1666:
1645:
1633:
1627:
1607:
1595:
1589:
1565:
1551:Charnay, Desiré
1549:
1525:
1516:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1470:
1466:
1458:
1454:
1448:Graulich (2002)
1446:
1439:
1431:
1427:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1398:
1394:
1386:
1382:
1374:
1370:
1362:
1358:
1350:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1326:
1322:
1314:
1310:
1295:
1282:
1281:
1277:
1268:
1266:
1259:"Toltec Empire"
1256:
1255:
1248:
1240:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1213:
1209:
1201:
1197:
1189:
1185:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1126:
1125:
1121:
1103:
1102:
1091:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1037:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1002:
994:
990:
982:
971:
956:
943:
942:
938:
934:
929:
915:
913:
910:
739:
737:Toltecs as myth
719:H. B. Nicholson
680:H. B. Nicholson
600:Dominican friar
549:
527:
471:
442:
302:
298:
196:Mezcala culture
147: 950–1168
146:
97:Toltec Religion
62:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3794:
3792:
3784:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3751:Toltec history
3743:
3742:
3736:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3710:
3705:
3700:
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3650:
3642:
3641:
3630:
3607:
3582:
3571:
3567:
3566:
3545:
3524:
3511:
3494:
3493:Notable Rulers
3490:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3465:
3464:
3462:Neo-Inca State
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3436:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3411:
3410:
3405:
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3395:
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3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
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2867:
2862:
2857:
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2837:
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2812:
2807:
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2797:
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2787:
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2554:
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2245:
2239:
2238:
2224:
2223:External links
2221:
2219:
2218:
2190:10.2307/482619
2157:
2136:
2122:
2096:
2090:
2074:
2058:
2044:
2011:(1950–1982) .
2005:
1991:
1969:
1955:
1938:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1915:
1901:
1881:
1870:
1860:(3): 245–284.
1845:
1822:
1813:
1803:on 4 June 2018
1780:
1771:
1734:
1725:
1719:(in Spanish).
1712:
1698:
1678:
1664:
1643:
1631:
1625:
1605:
1593:
1587:
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1547:
1523:
1514:
1502:10.2307/281648
1496:(2): 291–307.
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1476:
1472:Anawalt (1990)
1464:
1460:Morritt (2011)
1452:
1437:
1425:
1404:
1392:
1380:
1378:, p. 274.
1368:
1364:Charnay (1885)
1356:
1352:Brinton (1887)
1344:
1332:
1320:
1308:
1293:
1275:
1246:
1231:
1219:
1207:
1195:
1183:
1158:
1145:10.2307/482182
1139:(1): 143–144.
1119:
1089:
1076:10.2307/482182
1050:
1035:
1017:
1000:
988:
984:Iverson (2017)
969:
954:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
924:
923:
909:
906:
844:Chichimecayotl
738:
735:
668:David Carrasco
644:Désiré Charnay
548:
545:
526:
523:
470:
467:
441:
438:
380:(singular) or
295:Toltec culture
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36:Toltec (album)
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3579:Hernán Cortés
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2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2627:South America
2624:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2450:
2449:Weeden Island
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2424:Poverty Point
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2389:Mississippian
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2316:North America
2313:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2286:Paleo-Indians
2284:
2283:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2266:
2261:
2259:
2254:
2252:
2247:
2246:
2243:
2236:
2231:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2178:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2123:0-500-05068-6
2119:
2115:
2111:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2069:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2045:0-87480-082-X
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1992:0-8061-1505-X
1988:
1984:
1980:
1979:
1974:
1973:Davies, Nigel
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1956:0-226-09487-1
1952:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1924:
1919:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1902:1-55517-479-5
1898:
1894:
1891:
1887:
1882:
1878:
1877:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1745:(1): 90–116.
1744:
1740:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1699:0-8165-1095-4
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1665:0-8018-7101-8
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1626:0-8061-0889-4
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1588:0-8061-1394-4
1584:
1580:
1575:
1574:
1568:
1567:Davies, Nigel
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1486:
1485:
1480:
1473:
1468:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1426:
1421:
1419:
1414:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1345:
1341:
1340:Veytia (2000)
1336:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1321:
1317:
1312:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1290:
1286:
1279:
1276:
1264:
1260:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1242:Healan (1989)
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1184:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1170:
1162:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1123:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1054:
1051:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1036:0-585-13359-X
1032:
1028:
1021:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
992:
989:
985:
980:
978:
976:
974:
970:
965:
961:
957:
951:
947:
940:
937:
931:
926:
922:
912:
911:
907:
905:
903:
899:
893:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
870:
865:
861:
860:
855:
850:
846:
845:
840:
836:
832:
827:
824:
820:
816:
811:
807:
805:
801:
797:
792:
784:
780:
775:
768:
763:
756:
751:
743:
736:
734:
732:
728:
724:
720:
715:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
696:Toltec Empire
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
664:
662:
658:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
632:
628:
624:
620:
615:
613:
608:
604:
601:
594:
589:
582:
578:
574:
569:
562:
558:
553:
546:
544:
540:
536:
533:
524:
522:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
499:
496:
491:
487:
486:Richard Diehl
480:
479:Tula, Hidalgo
477:Pyramid C at
475:
468:
466:
464:
460:
454:
450:
447:
439:
437:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
414:
412:
407:
402:
400:
399:Toltec Empire
396:
393:". The Aztec
392:
387:
383:
378:
374:
370:
365:
361:
360:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
332:
331:pre-Columbian
326:
296:
288:
283:
274:
270:
267:
263:
258:
254:
249:
245:
240:
236:
232:
229:
225:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
197:
193:
189:
184:
180:
176:
172:
169:
163:
159:
155:
151:
142:
138:
135:
132:
128:
124:
121:
117:
114:
110:
107:
105:
101:
98:
95:
93:
89:
86:
82:
78:
74:
73:Coyotlatelcas
71:
69:
65:
59:
52:
47:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3718:
3651:
3501:Moctezuma II
3458:Inca history
3383:Andean Music
3327:Architecture
3322:Architecture
3317:Architecture
3312:Architecture
3308:Architecture
3302:Gender Roles
3047:Tenochtitlan
2970:Timoto–Cuica
2965:Tierradentro
2750:Casma–Sechin
2591:
2482:Chalcatzingo
2181:
2177:Ethnohistory
2175:
2144:
2140:
2108:
2100:Miller, Mary
2081:
2067:
2027:
2012:
1977:
1942:
1932:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1875:
1857:
1853:
1840:
1837:Anthropology
1836:
1817:
1805:. Retrieved
1801:the original
1788:
1775:
1742:
1738:
1729:
1720:
1716:
1685:
1651:
1647:
1638:
1635:Duran, Diego
1617:Doris Heyden
1612:
1609:Duran, Diego
1600:
1572:
1558:
1554:
1534:
1530:
1521:. Routledge.
1518:
1493:
1489:
1467:
1455:
1428:
1416:
1407:
1395:
1388:Smith (2007)
1383:
1376:Diehl (1993)
1371:
1359:
1347:
1335:
1328:Duran (1971)
1323:
1316:Duran (2010)
1311:
1284:
1278:
1267:, retrieved
1262:
1222:
1210:
1203:Diehl (1993)
1198:
1186:
1168:
1161:
1136:
1133:Ethnohistory
1132:
1122:
1105:
1067:
1064:Ethnohistory
1063:
1059:
1053:
1026:
1020:
1013:Smith (2007)
996:Berit (2015)
991:
945:
939:
901:
897:
894:
867:
857:
854:Quetzalcoatl
848:
842:
838:
834:
828:
823:Quetzalcoatl
812:
808:
803:
799:
788:
727:Quetzalcoatl
723:Nigel Davies
716:
712:Chichén Itzá
676:Nigel Davies
665:
657:Chichén Itzá
651:
648:Chichén Itza
640:Tezcatlipoca
636:Quetzalcoatl
616:
597:
541:
537:
528:
511:Tenochtitlan
500:
495:Chichén Itzá
483:
455:
451:
443:
434:Chichén Itzá
422:architecture
415:
406:mythological
403:
381:
372:
358:
334:Mesoamerican
294:
292:
239:Azcapotzalco
217:Chichen Itza
40:
32:Jon Anderson
3564:Túpac Amaru
3548:Manco Cápac
3497:Moctezuma I
3408:Agriculture
3403:Agriculture
3398:Agriculture
3389:Agriculture
3332:Road System
3221:Mathematics
3086:Muysc Cubun
2940:San Agustín
2890:Monte Verde
2567:Teotihuacan
2459:Mesoamerica
2354:Coles Creek
2339:Anishinaabe
2296:Archaeology
1843:(2): 15–50.
1481:Works cited
1462:, p. .
1450:, p. .
1435:, p. .
1402:, p. .
1390:, p. .
1366:, p. .
1354:, p. .
1342:, p. .
1330:, p. .
1318:, p. .
1244:, p. .
1217:, p. .
1205:, p. .
1193:, p. .
1015:, p. .
998:, p. .
839:Toltecayotl
791:historicity
708:Teotihuacán
603:Diego Durán
507:Teotihuacan
469:Archaeology
426:iconography
235:Totonacapan
227:Followed by
183:Teotihuacan
174:Preceded by
168:Huapalcalco
153:Major sites
123:Mesoamerica
58:Mesoamerica
34:album, see
3745:Categories
3535:Tisquesusa
3509:Cuauhtémoc
3505:Cuitláhuac
2835:Lauricocha
2805:Gran Chaco
2795:Cupisnique
2780:Chinchorro
2755:Chachapoya
2745:Caral–Supe
2587:Tlaxcaltec
2577:Teuchitlán
2492:Chupícuaro
2419:Plum Bayou
2414:Plaquemine
2384:Marksville
2349:Chichimeca
2112:. London:
2104:Karl Taube
1965:0226094871
1767:1188163515
1688:. Tucson:
1070:(1): 143.
946:The Aztecs
927:References
869:Q'uq'umatz
802:(known as
521:workshop.
209:Chupícuaro
165:(capital),
77:Chichimeca
3556:Atahualpa
3552:Pachacuti
3527:Nemequene
3393:Chinampas
3215:Astronomy
3204:Astronomy
3184:Mythology
3179:Mythology
3174:Mythology
3169:Mythology
3165:Mythology
2995:Wankarani
2985:Tuncahuán
2875:Marajoara
2830:Las Vegas
2716:Atacameño
2612:Xochipala
2552:Purépecha
2512:Epi-Olmec
2502:Cuicuilco
2444:Troyville
2434:St. Johns
2214:145142543
2198:0014-1801
1759:1573-7764
1723:: 87–114.
1637:(2010) .
1611:(1971) .
1303:916484803
1153:0014-1801
1084:0014-1801
964:741355736
932:Citations
755:ballcourt
700:Cholollan
607:Topiltzin
373:Tōltēkatl
85:Nonoalcas
3652:See also
3570:Conquest
3543:Zoratama
3210:Calendar
3199:Calendar
3194:Calendar
3190:Calendar
3159:Religion
3154:Religion
3143:Religion
3132:Religion
3128:Religion
3117:Numerals
3111:Numerals
3072:Language
3052:Multiple
2990:Valdivia
2975:Tiwanaku
2935:Saladoid
2930:Quimbaya
2820:Kuhikugu
2800:Diaguita
2790:Chorrera
2607:Veraguas
2602:Veracruz
2582:Tlatilco
2394:Mogollon
2301:Cultures
2279:Americas
2163:(1984).
2132:27667317
2106:(1993).
2064:(1983).
2034:and the
1975:(1980).
1930:(1876).
1911:45203586
1807:10 March
1708:60131674
1684:(1989).
1674:39313429
1569:(1977).
1269:12 March
1045:43476754
908:See also
888:and the
859:Kukulkan
779:Veracruz
769:in Tula.
519:obsidian
463:pyramids
446:Nonoalca
432:site of
382:Tōltēkah
329:) was a
257:Ecatepec
192:Calakmul
104:Language
92:Religion
3539:Tundama
3468:Peoples
3453:History
3448:History
3443:History
3439:History
3433:Cuisine
3428:Cuisine
3423:Cuisine
3418:Cuisine
3414:Cuisine
3272:Warfare
3267:Warfare
3262:Warfare
3258:Warfare
3252:Society
3247:Economy
3236:Society
3231:Society
3227:Society
3097:Writing
3091:Quechua
3076:Nahuatl
3043:Capital
2980:Toyopán
2960:Tairona
2870:Mapuche
2785:Chiripa
2760:Chancay
2731:Cañaris
2706:Amotape
2701:El Abra
2617:Zapotec
2597:Totonac
2572:Tepanec
2557:Quelepa
2527:Mezcala
2517:Huastec
2487:Cholula
2477:Capacha
2472:Acolhua
2429:Sinagua
2404:Patayan
2374:Hohokam
2364:Fremont
2001:5103377
1420:website
892:Mayas.
886:Kʼicheʼ
874:Kʼicheʼ
864:Yucatec
835:Tolteca
661:Mayapán
581:jaguars
577:coyotes
391:artisan
369:Nahuatl
342:Hidalgo
248:Acolhua
109:Nahuatl
18:Toltecs
3482:Muisca
3477:Mayans
3472:Aztecs
3106:Script
3101:Script
3061:Bacatá
3032:Muisca
2915:Pucará
2910:Piaroa
2905:Paiján
2900:Omagua
2855:Lupaca
2850:Lokono
2815:Kalina
2810:Huetar
2770:Chavín
2765:Chango
2740:Nariño
2736:Capulí
2726:Calima
2721:Aymara
2711:Arawak
2592:Toltec
2542:Olmecs
2537:Nicoya
2532:Mixtec
2507:Diquis
2409:Picosa
2399:Oshara
2369:Glades
2359:Dorset
2235:Toltec
2212:
2206:482619
2204:
2196:
2130:
2120:
2088:
2054:276351
2052:
2042:
1999:
1989:
1963:
1953:
1909:
1899:
1765:
1757:
1706:
1696:
1672:
1662:
1623:
1585:
1561:: 281.
1543:983071
1541:
1510:281648
1508:
1301:
1291:
1151:
1082:
1043:
1033:
962:
952:
902:Toltec
898:Toltec
884:, the
849:Tollan
831:Nahuan
821:and a
800:Tollan
692:Mexico
688:Tollan
652:Toltec
625:, and
515:empire
359:Tōllān
346:Mexico
266:Chalco
130:Period
81:Nahuas
44:Toltec
3487:Incas
3378:Music
3373:Music
3368:Music
3364:Music
3297:Women
3292:Women
3287:Women
3283:Women
3241:Trade
3122:Quipu
3066:Cusco
3057:Hunza
3022:Aztec
2955:Taíno
2950:Sican
2945:Shuar
2895:Nazca
2885:Mollo
2880:Moche
2860:Luzia
2775:Chimú
2547:Pipil
2522:Izapa
2497:Coclé
2439:Thule
2329:Adena
2202:JSTOR
1888:[
1833:(PDF)
1650:[
1539:JSTOR
1506:JSTOR
890:Itza'
882:Aztec
354:Aztec
205:Otomi
140:Dates
113:Otomi
3277:Army
3059:and
3037:Inca
3027:Maya
3005:Zenú
3000:Wari
2845:Lima
2210:OCLC
2194:ISSN
2128:OCLC
2118:ISBN
2086:ISBN
2050:OCLC
2040:ISBN
2022:and
1997:OCLC
1987:ISBN
1961:OCLC
1951:ISBN
1907:OCLC
1897:ISBN
1809:2020
1763:OCLC
1755:ISSN
1704:OCLC
1694:ISBN
1670:OCLC
1660:ISBN
1621:ISBN
1583:ISBN
1299:OCLC
1289:ISBN
1271:2022
1149:ISSN
1080:ISSN
1041:OCLC
1031:ISBN
960:OCLC
950:ISBN
878:UCLA
866:and
856:(or
804:Tula
684:Tula
678:and
638:and
593:Tula
573:Tula
509:and
461:and
430:Maya
424:and
411:Tula
395:oral
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