266:"submissive", "unassertive", which are naturally associated with smallness, while meanings such as "dangerous", "dominant", and "assertive" are associated with largeness. In most languages, the frequency code also serves the purpose of distinguishing questions from statements. It is universally reflected in expressive variation, and it is reasonable to assume that it has
532:"Huh?", meaning "what?" (that is, used when an utterance by another is not fully heard or requires clarification), is an essentially universal expression, but may be a normal word (learned like other words) and not paralanguage. If it is a word, it is a rare (or possibly even unique) one, being found with basically the same sound and meaning in almost all languages.
242:. Some words have homophonous partners; some of these homophones appear to have an implicit emotive quality, for instance, the sad "die" contrasted with the neutral "dye"; uttering the sound /dai/ in a sad tone of voice can result in a listener writing the former word significantly more often than if the word is uttered in a neutral tone.
345:, a gasp is often an automatic and unintentional act. Gasping is closely related to sighing, and the inhalation characterizing a gasp induced by shock or surprise may be released as a sigh if the event causing the initial emotional reaction is determined to be less shocking or surprising than the observer first believed.
553:
that differed along the criteria of lexical index (more or less "wordy") as well as neutral or emotional pronunciation; a higher hemodynamic response in auditory cortical gyri was found when more robust paralinguistic data was available. Some activation was found in lower brain structures such as the
219:
Paralinguistic cues such as loudness, rate, pitch, pitch contour, and to some extent formant frequencies of an utterance, contribute to the emotive or attitudinal quality of an utterance. Typically, attitudes are expressed intentionally and emotions without intention, but attempts to fake or to hide
473:
used in announcing one's presence upon entering the room or approaching a group. It is done by individuals who perceive themselves to be of higher rank than the group they are approaching and utilize the throat-clear as a form of communicating this perception to others. It can convey nonverbalized
523:
The "mhm" utterance is often used in narrative interviews, such as an interview with a disaster survivor or sexual violence victim. In this kind of interview, it is better for the interviewers or counselors not to intervene too much when an interviewee is talking. The "mhm" assures the interviewee
223:
Consequently, paralinguistic cues relating to expression have a moderate effect of semantic marking. That is, a message may be made more or less coherent by adjusting its expressive presentation. For instance, upon hearing an utterance such as "I drink a glass of wine every night before I go to
265:
as the "frequency code". This code works even in communication across species. It has its origin in the fact that the acoustic frequencies in the voice of small vocalizers are high, while they are low in the voice of large vocalizers. This gives rise to secondary meanings such as "harmless",
398:
Scientific studies show that babies sigh after 50 to 100 breaths. This serves to improve the mechanical properties of lung tissue, and it also helps babies to develop a regular breathing rhythm. Behaviors equivalent to sighing have also been observed in animals such as
198:
of different speakers differ in size. As children grow up, their organs of speech become larger, and there are differences between male and female adults. The differences concern not only size, but also proportions. They affect the pitch of the
285:, font and color choices, capitalization and the use of non-alphabetic or abstract characters. Nonetheless, paralanguage in written communication is limited in comparison with face-to-face conversation, sometimes leading to misunderstandings.
696:
Groen, W. B., Tesink, C., Petersson, K. M., Van Berkum, J., Van der Gaag, R. J., Hagoort, P. and
Buitelaar, J. K. (2010). Semantic, factual, and social language comprehension in adolescents with autism: an fMRI study.
115:
His work has served as a basis for all later research, especially those investigating the relationship between paralanguage and culture (since paralanguage is learned, it differs by language and culture). A good example is the work of
224:
sleep" is coherent when made by a speaker identified as an adult, but registers a small semantic anomaly when made by a speaker identified as a child. This anomaly is significant enough to be measured through
524:
that they are being heard and can continue their story. Observing emotional differences and taking care of an interviewee's mental status is an important way to find slight changes during conversation.
450:
Moaning and groaning both refer to an extended sound emanating from the throat, which is typically made by engaging in sexual activity. Moans and groans are also noises traditionally associated with
254:
of utterances reflect only the linguistically informative quality. The problem of how listeners factor out the linguistically informative quality from speech signals is a topic of current research.
211:. The organic quality of speech has a communicative function in a restricted sense, since it is merely informative about the speaker. It will be expressed independently of the speaker's intention.
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to clear one's throat when approaching a group on an informal basis; the basis of one's authority has already been established and requires no further reiteration by this ancillary
182:
Speech signals arrive at a listener's ears with acoustic properties that may allow listeners to identify location of the speaker (sensing distance and direction, for example).
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functions in a similar way also for non-speech sounds. The perspectival aspects of lip reading are more obvious and have more drastic effects when head turning is involved.
1123:
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on language and social identity, which specifically describes paralinguistic differences between participants in intercultural interactions. The film
Gumperz made for
1043:
Dietrich, S., Hertrich, I., Kai, A., Ischebeck, A., Ackermann, H. (2008). Understanding the emotional expression of verbal interjections: a functional MRI study.
616:
Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1990). Notes in the history of intercultural communication: The
Foreign Service Institute and the mandate for intercultural training.
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is between a literal language and movement, by making a noise "hmm" or "mhm", to make a pause for the conversation or as a chance to stop and think.
1509:
798:
683:
Van Berkum, J. J., Van den Brink, D., Tesink, C. M., Kos, M., & Hagoort, P. (2008). The neural integration of speaker and message.
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395:, a sigh is often an automatic and unintentional act. In literature, a sigh is often used to signify that the person producing it is lovelorn.
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In text messages and internet chat rooms, or in comic books, a sigh is usually represented with the word itself, 'sigh', possibly within
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paradigm to observe brain states brought about by adjustments of paralinguistic information. One such study investigated the effect of
1073:, 2nd ed., U. Ammon, N. Dittmar, K. Mattheier, P. Trudgill (eds.), Vol. 1, pp. 653–665. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York.
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842:
1923:
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445:
1059:
Cook, Guy (2001) The
Discourse of Advertising. (second edition) London: Routledge. (chapter 4 on paralanguage and semiotics).
261:, are paralinguistic or pre-linguistic in origin. A most fundamental and widespread phenomenon of this kind is described by
1472:
1918:
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128:, does a particularly good job of demonstrating cultural differences in paralanguage and their impact on relationships.
499:, the throat-clear is acceptable only to signal that a formal business meeting is about to start. It is not acceptable
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321:. A gasp may indicate difficulty breathing and a panicked effort to draw air into the lungs. Gasps also occur from an
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454:, and their supposed experience of suffering in the afterlife. They are sometimes used to indicate displeasure.
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383:, such as dismay, dissatisfaction, boredom, or futility. A sigh can also arise from positive emotions such as
1828:
1704:
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959:"Is 'Huh?' a Universal Word? Conversational Infrastructure and the Convergent Evolution of Linguistic Items"
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235:
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379:, sometimes associated with a guttural glottal breath exuded in a low tone. It often arises from a
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352:(a.k.a. apneusis), are gasps related to the brain damage associated with a stroke or other trauma.
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and higher-ranking chimps to lower-ranking ones and signals a mild warning or a slight annoyance.
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that may modify meaning, give nuanced meaning, or convey emotion, by using techniques such as
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is a kind of paralinguistic respiration in the form of a deep and especially audible, single
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Traunmüller, H. (2005) "Paralinguale Phänomene" (Paralinguistic phenomena), chapter 76 in:
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Paralanguage: a linguistic and interdisciplinary approach to interactive speech and sounds
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Ohala, J. J. (1984) An ethological perspective on common cross-language utilization of F
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of air out of the mouth or nose, that humans use to communicate emotion. It is a voiced
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that lies behind the large difference in pitch between average female and male adults.
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Book of
Etiquette and Manners, Chapter 3, by Nimeran Sahukar & Prem P. Bhalla.
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1071:
SOCIOLINGUISTICS An
International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society
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238:, itself paralinguistic information, has been shown to affect the resolution of
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232:. Autistic individuals have a reduced sensitivity to this and similar effects.
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799:"UCLA and Stanford researchers pinpoint origin of sighing reflex in the brain"
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A labor of love: a complete guide to childbirth for the mind, body, and soul
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Dingemanse, Marse; Torreira, Francisco; Enfield, N. J. (November 8, 2013).
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Emotions revealed: recognizing faces and feelings to improve communication
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Question
Authority: Think for Yourself, Estren & Potter, 2012:122.
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has some paralinguistic as well as linguistic properties that can be
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Communication of additional meaning, nuance, or emotion in speech
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Some of the linguistic features of speech, in particular of its
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Organizational
Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications
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121:
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The healing effect of storytelling, Gabriele
Rosenthal 2003
629:
Trager, G. L. (1958). Paralanguage: A first approximation.
112:. Trager published his conclusions in 1958, 1960 and 1961.
1066:(2nd Canadian ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
712:
Resolution of lexical ambiguity by emotional tone of voice
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Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified
277:
In text-only communication such as email, chatrooms and
88:. His colleagues at the time included Henry Lee Smith,
433:"Moan" and "Groan" redirect here. For other uses, see
1076:
Matthew McKay, Martha Davis, Patrick
Fanning (1995)
655:
Trager, G. L. (1961). The typology of paralanguage.
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710:Nygaard, L. C., Lunders, E. R. (2002).
554:pons, perhaps indicating an emotional response.
488:, this utterance is a sign of rank, directed by
61:properties only. Paralanguage may be expressed
1082:, Second Edition, New Harbinger Publications,
642:Trager, G. L. (1960). Taos III: Paralanguage.
281:, paralinguistic elements can be displayed by
57:, etc. It is sometimes defined as relating to
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145:) but not to the arbitrary conmodality. Even
8:
1019:"Huh Means the Same Thing in Every Language"
421:Sighing is also a reflex, governed by a few
289:Specific forms of paralinguistic respiration
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360:"Sigh" redirects here. For other uses, see
298:"Gasp" redirects here. For other uses, see
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536:Physiology of paralinguistic comprehension
131:Paralinguistic information, because it is
80:in the 1950s, while he was working at the
1642:Social (pragmatic) communication disorder
992:
982:
135:, belongs to the external speech signal (
1510:Basic interpersonal communicative skills
674:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
348:As a symptom of physiological problems,
1079:Messages: The Communication Skills Book
609:
72:The study of paralanguage is known as
1372:High-context and low-context cultures
203:and to a substantial extent also the
7:
1721:Computer processing of body language
1736:List of facial expression databases
1726:Emotion recognition in conversation
1062:Robbins, S. and Langton, N. (2001)
843:"Why We Moan and Scream During Sex"
207:, which characterize the different
841:Ben-Zeév, Aaron (April 16, 2019).
824:"What Our Sex Sounds Say About Us"
313:in the form of a sudden and sharp
25:
1620:Childhood disintegrative disorder
1016:Olga Khazan (November 12, 2013).
685:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
822:Altman, Mara (August 21, 2018).
446:Female copulatory vocalizations
126:Multiracial Britain: Cross talk
545:Several studies have used the
96:as a model for paralanguage),
1:
984:10.1371/journal.pone.0078273
929:Primatology, Delmar 1984:46.
865:www.nonverbal-dictionary.org
589:Metacommunicative competence
309:is a kind of paralinguistic
173:Aspects of the speech signal
1637:Nonverbal learning disorder
1215:Speech-independent gestures
1188:Facial Action Coding System
657:Anthropological Linguistics
644:Anthropological Linguistics
618:Quarterly Journal of Speech
92:(working with him on using
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1377:Interpersonal relationship
1178:Body-to-body communication
913:"the definition of verbal"
899:"ahem – Onomatopoeia List"
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220:emotions are not unusual.
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82:Foreign Service Institute
1929:Sociological terminology
1792:Behavioral communication
569:Intercultural competence
1924:Nonverbal communication
1232:Interpersonal synchrony
1133:Nonverbal communication
668:Gumperz, J. J. (1982).
505:nonverbal communication
252:phonetic transcriptions
236:Emotional tone of voice
94:descriptive linguistics
1829:Monastic sign lexicons
1520:Emotional intelligence
716:Memory & Cognition
631:Studies in Linguistics
564:Business communication
515:
439:Groan (disambiguation)
350:apneustic respirations
226:electroencephalography
1819:Impression management
594:Prosody (linguistics)
435:Moan (disambiguation)
362:Sigh (disambiguation)
300:Gasp (disambiguation)
137:Ferdinand de Saussure
1834:Verbal communication
1787:Animal communication
1705:Targeted advertising
1222:Haptic communication
1047:, 19(18), 1751–1755.
671:Discourse strategies
377:pharyngeal fricative
178:Perspectival aspects
76:and was invented by
37:, is a component of
1919:Human communication
1843:Non-verbal language
1731:Gesture recognition
1578:Further information
1468:Emotion recognition
1419:Silent service code
975:2013PLoSO...878273D
701:, 20(8), 1937–1945.
465:is a metamessaging
317:of air through the
205:formant frequencies
86:Department of State
1869:Art and literature
1824:Meta-communication
1812:Passive-aggressive
1741:Sentiment analysis
1442:Non-verbal leakage
770:Fernando Poyatos,
584:Meta-communication
501:business etiquette
270:given rise to the
246:Linguistic aspects
215:Expressive aspects
184:Sound localization
90:Charles F. Hockett
39:meta-communication
1934:Social philosophy
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1292:Emotional prosody
1198:Subtle expression
1183:Facial expression
1098:, pp. 63–67.
1096:978-1-57224-592-1
901:. 10 August 2013.
797:Schmidt, Elaine.
774:(1993), page 330.
757:Rachel Broncher,
741:10.1159/000261706
718:, 30(4), 583–593.
497:metacommunication
337:. Like a sigh, a
279:instant messaging
272:sexual dimorphism
240:lexical ambiguity
16:(Redirected from
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165:, e.g. by the
147:vocal language
98:Edward T. Hall
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1850:Sign language
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1695:Freudian slip
1693:
1691:
1690:Lie detection
1688:
1686:
1683:
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1680:
1676:
1670:
1669:Mirror neuron
1667:
1665:
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1660:Limbic system
1658:
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1626:
1625:Rett syndrome
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1555:Social skills
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1530:People skills
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1515:Communication
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1451:Multi-faceted
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1362:Display rules
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1332:Voice quality
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1169:Body language
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1088:1-57224-592-1
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1045:Brain Imaging
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871:on 2016-09-17
870:
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803:UCLA Newsroom
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733:Phonetica, 41
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551:interjections
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495:As a form of
493:
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471:communication
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209:speech sounds
206:
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197:
196:speech organs
189:
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172:
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168:
164:
160:
159:McGurk effect
156:
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119:
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107:
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68:
67:unconsciously
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
18:Tone of voice
1685:Cold reading
1678:Applications
1652:Neuroanatomy
1297:Paralanguage
1296:
1077:
1070:
1063:
1044:
1039:
1029:December 29,
1027:. Retrieved
1024:The Atlantic
1023:
1011:
969:(11). PLOS.
966:
962:
952:
943:
934:
925:
916:
907:
893:
884:
873:. Retrieved
869:the original
864:
855:
836:
817:
806:. Retrieved
802:
792:
784:
783:Paul Ekman,
779:
771:
766:
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692:
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669:
664:
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579:Meta message
544:
541:fMRI studies
531:
522:
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368:
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347:
306:
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276:
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234:
222:
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193:
181:
162:
161:), and even
150:
141:
130:
125:
114:
84:of the U.S.
73:
71:
34:
31:Paralanguage
30:
29:
1939:Online chat
1664:Limbic lobe
1429:Unconscious
1412:Missed call
1382:Social norm
1357:Conventions
1247:Eye contact
646:, 2, 24–30.
633:, 13, 1–12.
490:alpha males
476:disapproval
311:respiration
155:lip reading
108:developing
100:developing
63:consciously
59:nonphonemic
1913:Categories
1797:Aggressive
1767:Paul Ekman
1750:Key people
1714:Technology
1700:Poker tell
1545:Social cue
1352:Chronemics
1302:Intonation
1146:Modalities
875:2016-09-10
808:2019-02-01
731:of voice.
605:References
483:chimpanzee
444:See also:
418:, *sigh*.
373:exhalation
315:inhalation
263:John Ohala
133:phenomenal
55:intonation
1802:Assertive
1610:Fragile X
1595:Aprosodia
1588:Disorders
1535:Semiotics
1463:Deception
1269:Proxemics
1259:Olfaction
1242:Oculesics
1227:Imitation
599:Proxemics
467:nonverbal
416:asterisks
283:emoticons
250:Ordinary
124:in 1982,
102:proxemics
1632:Dyssemia
1478:Intimacy
1398:Emoticon
1307:Loudness
1237:Laughter
1173:Kinesics
1164:Blushing
1157:Physical
1003:24260108
963:PLOS ONE
735:, 1–16.
574:Kinesics
558:See also
469:form of
327:surprise
228:, as an
169:method.
110:kinesics
35:vocalics
1886:Subtext
1807:Passive
1776:Related
1367:Habitus
1312:Prosody
1264:Posture
1205:Gesture
994:3832628
971:Bibcode
423:neurons
405:monkeys
391:, or a
341:, or a
335:disgust
323:emotion
259:prosody
43:prosody
1860:Tadoma
1605:Autism
1560:Unsaid
1525:Nunchi
1402:Smiley
1322:Stress
1317:Rhythm
1287:Affect
1279:Speech
1094:
1086:
1001:
991:
452:ghosts
409:horses
407:, and
385:relief
167:Tadoma
142:parole
104:, and
51:volume
1391:Other
356:Sighs
331:shock
319:mouth
294:Gasps
201:voice
47:pitch
1876:Mime
1327:Tone
1210:List
1092:ISBN
1084:ISBN
1031:2021
999:PMID
828:Time
547:fMRI
528:Huh?
437:and
401:dogs
393:moan
389:yawn
369:sigh
343:moan
339:yawn
307:gasp
230:N400
194:The
163:felt
151:seen
989:PMC
979:doi
737:doi
517:Mhm
511:Mhm
481:In
333:or
325:of
139:'s
122:BBC
65:or
1915::
1662:/
1400:/
1171:/
1090:,
1022:.
997:.
987:.
977:.
965:.
961:.
915:.
863:.
845:.
826:.
801:.
748:^
714:.
507:.
478:.
425:.
411:.
403:,
367:A
329:,
305:A
157:,
69:.
53:,
49:,
45:,
1125:e
1118:t
1111:v
1033:.
1005:.
981::
973::
967:8
919:.
878:.
849:.
830:.
811:.
743:.
739::
729:0
441:.
364:.
302:.
153:(
20:)
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