Tort reform - Knowledge (XXG)

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the action to be penalised with a variety of sanctions. For example, Rule 11 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure provide in part: "By presenting to the court a pleading, written motion, or other paper--whether by signing, filing, submitting, or later advocating it--an attorney or unrepresented party certifies that to the best of the person's knowledge, information, and belief, formed after an inquiry reasonable under the circumstances: . . . (2) the claims, defenses, and other legal contentions are warranted by existing law or by a non-frivolous argument for extending, modifying, or reversing existing law or for establishing new law; (3) the factual contentions have evidentiary support or, if specifically so identified, will likely have evidentiary support after a reasonable opportunity for further investigation or discovery." If the court decides that the plaintiff has violated this rule, it has wide discretion to sanction the offending party, the party's attorney or both, including the discretion to dismiss the plaintiff's claim or claims, order the plaintiff, the plaintiff's attorney or both to pay money, reprimand the attorney and/or refer the offending attorney to the applicable disciplinary authorities, among other things. Ethical rules also forbid attorneys from filing "frivolous" lawsuits. State courts and bar associations typically publish sanctions imposed on attorneys for violations of these rules. A simple review of these published opinions demonstrates that courts take violations of their pleading and ethical rules seriously.

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other tort-based systems, such as automobile litigation or airplane crashes, that determine fault and compensate victims. Moreover, most patients that receive negligent care never receive any compensation. The Harvard Medical Practice Study found that only one malpractice claim was filed for every eight negligent medical injuries." Of the legal changes proposed by tort reformers, this study found that states capping payouts and restricting non-economic damages saw an average decrease of 17.1% in malpractice insurance premiums. However, more recent research provided by the insurance industry to the publication Medical Liability Monitor indicated that medical malpractice insurance rates had declined for four straight years. The decrease was seen in both states that had enacted tort reform and in states that had not, leading actuaries familiar with the data to suggest that patient safety and risk management campaigns had had a more significant effect. Similarly, Klick/Stratman (2005) found that capping economic damages saw an increase in doctors per capita.

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the basis that they ensure equal treatment of similarly situated victims, avoid the risk of conflicting judgments on similar issues, and allow an efficient resolution of a large number of claims. In the US, class actions have been used (and by some views abused) in order to overcome the differences applicable in different jurisdictions, including the perceived predispositions of judges, juries, and differences in substantive or procedural law. So if one claimant lives in State X, where courts and laws are unfavourable to their claim, but another claimant lives in the more favourable jurisdiction of State Y, they may bring a class action together in State Y. Strictly speaking, State Y must not adjudicate the claim unless it is found that the applicable law is similar or identical in both states, but as a practical matter this rule is often disregarded in favour of efficient resolution of claims. More broadly, addressing perceived

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find that the greatest ten per cent of the malpractice payments have grown at a smaller pace than the average payment for the years 1991 and 2003. This means that the "medical malpractice crisis" is not necessarily fueled by the growth in malpractice payments. Furthermore, malpractice pressure actually forces our hospitals to be technically more efficient. This implies that existence of the medical malpractice system is beneficial, and its strength should not be diluted by either putting caps on non-economic damages or by decreasing the statute of limitations." Some say that federal licensing is a better approach and a strong central regulatory body is the answer to deal with negligent physicians who cross state lines.

1290:(1970). Originally his proposal was the gradual abolition of tort actions, and its replacement with schemes like those for industrial injuries to cover for all illness, disability and disease, whether caused by people or nature. Such a system was developed in New Zealand following recommendations from the Royal Commission in 1967 for 'no fault' compensation scheme (see The Woodhouse Report). Over the 1980s Atiyah's views shifted. He still argued that the tort system should be scrapped. But instead of relying on the state, he argued people should have to take out compulsory first party insurance, like that available for cars, and this model should be spread progressively. 2029:. Even in these limited areas of tort law, there have been growing concerns about the juries' role. In particular, the disparity between awards in defamation cases (which invariably concern celebrities, politicians and the rich) and awards for personal injuries has been growing. A potential cause for the unpredictability of juries in tort cases is that individual jurors, unlike professional judges, are unfamiliar both with the law and with daily exposure to tragic accidents in tort litigation. When confronted with their first case they are thus likelier to award punitively high damages in order to 'teach' tortfeasors that "tort does not pay". 1372:. For example, one can make information requests that are potentially expensive and time-consuming for the other side to fulfill; respond to a discovery request with thousands of documents of questionable relevance to the case; file requests for protective orders to prevent the deposition of key witnesses; and take other measures that increase the difficulty and cost of discovery. It has been argued that although the goal of discovery is to level the playing field between the parties, the discovery rules instead create a 1994: 1743:(i.e. the principle that a respondent in a tort action cannot use the fact that a plaintiff has already been compensated as evidence) is another common proposal of tort reform advocates in jurisdictions where the rule exists. They argue that if the plaintiff's injuries and damages have already been compensated, it is unfair and duplicative to allow an award of damages against the respondent. As a result, numerous states have altered or partially abrogated the rule by 1626:

to be more at fault than the respondent. As a tort reform measure aimed at combatting the perceived unfairness of allowing a party to seek extra-contractual damages where they are primarily at fault, many common law jurisdictions have adopted a "modified" doctrine of comparative negligence in which a party may only recover damages if it bears less than half the liability or if the other party bears more than half the liability. More radically, the American states of

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corporations will decide that the cost of changing a wrongful practice would be greater than the cost of continuing it, unless there is the chance that the cost of continuing will be made greater by a successful lawsuit. In this view, the prospect of paying a small damage award would have little or no effect in correcting the wrongdoing, and would essentially allow the corporation to continue an unsafe practice unless state or federal regulators interceded.

1736:, often replacing it with a rule of proportionate liability. Of the forty-six states that had a joint and several liability rule, thirty-three states have abolished or limited the rule. Opponents of tort reform contend that the elimination of the rule would under-compensate people who had the misfortune to be hurt by more than one person, if at least one of the defendants does not have the financial means to pay his or her share of proportionate liability. 2081:, a progressive think tank: "Although TTP's estimate is widely cited by journalists, politicians, and business lobbyists, it is impossible to know what the company is actually measuring in its calculation of tort costs, and impossible to verify its figures, because TTP will not share its data or its methodology, which it claims are 'proprietary.'" Tort reform supporters claim that the Towers Perrin numbers are underestimates in many ways. 2275:

that lost statistical significance when looked at more closely—that is, correlation with other state-specific factors wiped out apparent increases in mortality from joint and several liability reform but also wiped out apparent decreases in mortality from capping economic damages and restrictions on contingency fees. The only tort reform effect that proved robust was a negative effect of collateral source reform on black infant mortality.

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provide that if a defendant relying on the truth of purportedly defamatory statement as an affirmative defence is only successful in proving the truth of part of the allegedly defamatory statement, the defence may still be available if the charges not proved do not materially injure the reputation of the plaintiff. Similarly, while is no corresponding provision in India, Indian courts treat this principle as persuasive precedent.

6801: 812: 33: 6815: 2200:(1) to avoid paying future damages, the creators of dangerous products or conditions may voluntarily make them safer; (2) where conduct is particularly egregious, courts may award punitive damages to deter that conduct in the future; (3) the process of gathering information prior to trial – called 'discovery' – can bring information to light that can be used by policy-makers to create new laws or regulations. 874:) or to reduce damages they can receive. Such changes are generally justified under the grounds that litigation is an inefficient means to compensate plaintiffs; that tort law permits frivolous or otherwise undesirable litigation to crowd the court system; or that the fear of litigation can serve to curtail innovation, raise the cost of consumer goods or insurance premiums for suppliers of services (e.g. 1124:

cents in 1998. Opponents of these liability-limiting measures contend that insurance premiums are only nominally reduced, if at all, in comparison to savings for insurance companies. Further, opponents claim that parties are still being injured at similar or higher rates, due to malpractice not being deterred by tort claims and the attraction of lower quality physicians to "tort reformed" states.

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on allegations of "low-ball payments on claims." As a reaction, a state senator introduced legislation (Senate Bill 1628) to reform hailstorm litigation. The bill represented "an almost visceral fight between the insurance industry, Texans for Lawsuit Reform and trial lawyers whose symbolic leader in storm-damage claims in Steve Mostyn of Houston." By 2014, there had been 2,000 lawsuits filed in

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damage awards relative to actual damages. In the United States, tort reform is a contentious political issue. US tort reform advocates propose, among other things, procedural limits on the ability to file claims, and capping the awards of damages. Opponents of tort reform argue that reformers have misstated the existence of any real factual issue and criticise tort reform as disguised

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the costs of litigation, would deter marginal lawsuits and tactical litigation, and would create proper incentives for litigation, and argue for reforms that would require compensation of winning defendants some or all the time. Certain proposed or implemented tort reforms adopt the English rule if the respondent should prevail but retain the American rule otherwise (e.g. California's

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be class actions with many more joined claims than the cases of decades ago. They also note that the choice of the 1992 start date is misleading, because the largest increase in the number of tort cases occurred between 1970 and 1992. They also argue that the use of the median, rather than the mean, is a misleading statistic for measuring the magnitude of the litigation problem.

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filed with the court within 120 days of the filing of the case. Failure to do so results in liability for the defendant's legal fees. Filing an action but failing to find a suitable expert or failure to file adequate reports within the time frame provided can result in hardship for a plaintiff who may already be crippled by physical injuries and bankrupted by medical fees.

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achieved more fairly and with greater efficiency under the existing civil justice system. In addition, experts have suggested that health courts would be inevitably biased towards physicians, and that the bureaucracy needed to introduce safeguards against such bias would negate any cost savings. Still, a number of groups and individuals have supported this proposal.

1535:. While tort compensation can often be accurately calculated for property damage, such as where damages are in the amount of repair or replacement value, it is difficult to quantify the injuries to a person's body and mind. There is no market for severed legs or sanity of mind, and so there is no price which a court can readily apply in compensation for the wrong. 2347:-related bankruptcies (by, for example, limiting compensation for non-economic damages to the victims or their survivors, or by denying awards of punitive damages), the effect on overall employment and the national unemployment rate in an economy with more than 130 million payroll jobs would have been imperceptible (a change of less than two-thousandths of 1%). 2343:) examined the economic impacts of the tort system in somewhat greater depth. But that paper, too, failed to demonstrate any employment effects of the tort system and made no prediction about the impact of tort law change. Even if we assume that asbestos liability legislation could somehow have prevented the loss of 2,500 jobs per year resulting from 1241:. Proponents of tort reform argue that the success of that system in guaranteeing compensation where the tort system would not is an indication that tort law is inefficient at securing compensation for victims. By contrast, critics of tort reform are uncomfortable with the idea of abandoning personal liability for injuries as this could result in 1962:." Patrick said that storm litigation rates had risen dramatically, causing insurance companies to increase premiums and reduce coverage. The bill would still allow hailstorm insurance claimants to sue their insurance company. It would allow plaintiffs to sue for either deceptive trade practices or unfair settlement, but not both. According to 1107:

spending. Other recent research suggests that malpractice pressure makes hospitals more efficient, not less so: "The recent focus by the American Medical Association and physicians about the dramatic increases in medical malpractice insurance premiums, and their suggestion of a cap on non-economic damages, deserves a closer look. According to

1314:. The difficulty in this area is to distinguish between public and private health care providers. In the UK, the cost was £1.6B a year as for 2014, increasing at 10%+ yearly Rising from £446m a year a decade earlier. The UK, however, has exceptionally low claims, as tort claims have been restricted, for instance in disallowing 1804:, where trial lawyers actively seek the magic combination of plaintiff, defendant, judge, and jury. Advocates of tort reform complain of unconstitutional regulation caused by litigation, and that litigation is used to circumvent the legislative process by achieving regulation that Congress is unwilling or unable to pass. 1666:

or failure; provided, however, that where the action is based upon the discovery of a foreign object in the body of the patient, the action may be commenced within one year of the date of such discovery or of the date of discovery of facts which would reasonably lead to such discovery, whichever is earlier....

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The American medical record in hospitals is poor, with around 195,000 deaths due to negligence per year, which itself leads to a higher number of claims. It is open to debate as to whether a change in the law of tort either way would lead to significant reductions in cost or changes in practice. According to

2017:(e.g. in India, Singapore, and most former British colonies in Africa) as an anachronistic institution that routinely introduced societal biases into the judicial process. Even in New Zealand and the United Kingdom, where juries are available in criminal cases, they are only permitted tort cases involving 1621:. Comparative negligence is a partial legal defence that reduces the amount of damages that a plaintiff can recover in a negligence-based claim based upon the degree to which the plaintiff's own negligence contributed to cause the injury, which progressively displaced the erstwhile traditional doctrine of 917:

failure to achieve one or more of these aims. In particular, the inefficiency of tort law at securing fair and equal compensation for similarly situated plaintiffs and the uncertainty, cost, and complexity it creates for economic actors averse to lawsuits are motivating factors for tort reform advocates.

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However, design improvements to increase safety cannot be used against manufacturers in court to show that the product was unsafe. Rule 407 of the Federal Rule of Evidence specifically states, "evidence of the subsequent measures is not admissible to prove: negligence; culpable conduct; a defect in a

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wrote, "Windows were shattered. Hail knocked holes in rooftops. Unfortunate animals were beaten to death." Insurers paid out $ 556 million in claims to homeowners and $ 47 million to car owners. After the storms, thousands of lawsuits were filed against insurers and adjusters. The lawsuits were based

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are lawsuits where counsel for one or more claimants bring claims on behalf of similarly situated claimants. While class actions originated and are most common in the United States and Canada, similar procedures are increasingly common in other common law jurisdictions. Class actions are justified on

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An action for medical, dental or podiatric malpractice must be commenced within two years and six months of the act, omission or failure complained of or last treatment where there is continuous treatment for the same illness, injury or condition which gave rise to the said act, omission

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argument for a change in the law. More broadly, the term is also used to describe tort lawsuits where there is only a remote link between the conduct of the defendant and the injuries alleged by the plaintiff or where the damages sought are perceived to be too high for the purported tortious conduct.

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literature, there is consequently a debate as to whether liability and regulation are substitutes or complements and thus whether the enforcement of predictable regulation known to manufacturers in advance can adequately assure consumer safety while providing greater legal certainty for manufacturers

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There is no guarantee, however, that any savings from tort reform would be efficiently distributed. Tort reform in Texas during the 1990s created $ 600 million in savings for insurance companies while the fraction of policy dollars needed to cover losses fell from 70.1 cents in losses in 1993 to 58.2

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The effect of tort reform on medical outcomes has been studied with mixed results. A 2008 study found worse childbirth outcomes for mothers and infants in states with caps on non-economic damages. The Klick/Stratman paper cited above found several effects of specific tort reforms on infant mortality

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In 1972, New Zealand introduced the first universal no-fault insurance scheme for all accident victims, which provides benefit from the government-run Accident Compensation Corporation without respect to negligence. Its goal is to achieve equality of compensation, while reducing costs of litigation.

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report indicates that U. S. tort costs were up slightly in 2007, are expected to significantly increase in 2008, and shows trends dating back as far as 1950. More recent research from the same source has found that tort costs as a percentage of GDP dropped between 2001 and 2009, and are now at their

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would lead to more people being compensated, and to their receiving their money sooner. Critics of the health courts concept contend that it is ill-conceived, that it would be unfair to patients, that it would be unlikely to achieve its objectives, and that much of its goals as are reasonable can be

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over the twentieth century which had precluded any damages being awarded in cases in which the plaintiff was deemed to be even partially at fault. Under standard or "pure" comparative negligence, a plaintiff can seek damages regardless of the portion of liability they bear, even where they are found

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limited the situations in which punitive damages can be won in tort actions to where they are expressly authorised by a statute, where a defendant's action is calculated to make profit, or where an official of the state has acted arbitrarily, oppressively or unconstitutionally. In the United States,

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A large portion of tort reforms seek to limit the damages a plaintiff can be awarded. The rationale underlying these reforms is that, by limiting the profitability of tort lawsuits to plaintiffs, they will reduce the incentive to file frivolous lawsuits. There are several varieties of reforms to the

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and Chandra (2004), increases in premiums are not affected by past or present malpractice payments, but may increase due to other unrelated factors. Chandra, Nundy, and Seabury (2005) find that the rising cost of medical services may explain the bulk of the growth of "compensatory awards". They also

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For instance, in every American jurisdiction, if a defendant or the judge believes that a plaintiff has misrepresented the facts or the law or has brought a "frivolous" pleading, the defendant, or the court on its own initiative, may ask for the action to be thrown out and for the attorney bringing

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It is true, however, that the evidence could be introduced to prove "ownership, control, or the feasibility of precautionary measures." But, a lawyer representing the manufacturer could concede ownership and control, and thus prevent the evidence from being introduced for that purpose. And a lawyer

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Tort reform supporters argue that this precisely describes the problem: lawsuits over socially beneficial practices increase the costs of those practices, and thus improperly deter innovation and other economically desirable activity. They further suggest that small businesses are hurt worse by the

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growth of 9% in estimated annual tort costs between 1951 and 2007 as opposed to a 7% average annual growth in GDP—representing 2.2% of GDP in 2004 vs. just 0.6% in 1950 and 1.3% in 1970. More recent research from the same source has found that tort costs as a per centage of GDP dropped between 2001

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Tort reform advocates allege that these numbers are misleading. They claim that most liability costs come from pre-trial settlements, so the number of trials is irrelevant. Supporters further note that the number of "filings" is a misleading statistic, because modern filings are much more likely to

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in a British court, they were ordered to pay the defendants' $ 1.75 million in attorneys' fees. The "American rule" differs; in most cases, each party bears its own expense of litigation. Supporters of tort reform argue that loser-pays rules are fairer, would compensate winners of lawsuits against

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Proponents of tort reform also criticise the extent to which legal costs can approach or exceed the value of the compensation awarded in damages, especially in contrast with compensation allocated through insurance or social security systems. In Britain, for instance, it has been argued that 85p is

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actively combats, and attempts to settle all cases where potential negligence claims are at stake. While successful, the costs of litigation to the health system are steadily growing. In the United States, it is easier for victims of medical malpractice to seek compensation through the tort system.

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stated: "product liability is so extreme and uncertain as to retard innovation. The legal and regulatory climate places firms in constant jeopardy of costly and ... lengthy product suits. The existing approach goes beyond any reasonable need to protect consumers, as other nations have demonstrated

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School of Public Health argued that tort litigation was an important tool for the prevention of injuries. While Teret acknowledged that the primary purpose of tort lawsuits usually is to recover money damages for the injured persons, as compensation for their medical and other costs, he identified

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Proponents of the existing tort system contend that tort reform advocates exaggerate the costs and ignore the benefits of the current tort system. For example, consumer advocates and legal scholars contend that lawsuits encourage corporations to produce safer products, discourage them from selling

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lawsuits with nationwide plaintiffs be tried in federal courts, eliminating awards for pre-judgment interest. Many of these measures tend to benefit defendants; others, such as the English rule, sanctions for delay, and early-offer settlement requirements, could have benefits to plaintiffs in some

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each year are "frivolous" lawsuits. The term "frivolous lawsuit" has acquired a broader rhetorical definition in political debates about tort reform, where it is sometimes used by reform advocates to describe legally non-frivolous tort lawsuits that critics believe are without merit, or award high

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An additional rationale for tort reform is the ability of plaintiff's attorneys to use the discovery process of common law jurisdictions to impose costs on defendants in order to force settlements in unmeritorious cases to avoid the cost and inconvenience of discovery. The use of discovery in tort

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One argument focuses on the costs of litigation and how payment of compensation raises the cost of insurance. Because most tort claims will be paid from the pockets of insurance, and because the public generally pays into insurance schemes of all kinds, tort reform proponents assert that reducing

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has been cited as a model for tort reform in health care. Others deny that medical malpractice suits play a significant role in the cost of health care. Including legal fees, insurance costs, and payouts, the cost of all US malpractice suits comes to less than one-half of 1 per cent of health-care

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jurisdictions, torts are primarily created through judicial precedent rather than legislation, and tort reform centers on proposals for legislation altering the precedent-based rules of tort law. Scholars and lawyers have identified conflicting aims for the law of tort, to some extent reflected in

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supported the bill on the grounds that) the plaintiffs were trying to "sue out of existence" by forcing them to incur $ 250 million in legal defence expenses, while gun control supporters argued that the legislation took "away the right of victims to be able to have their day in court," that the

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there is no evidence that expanded liability for design choices has been a significant cause of the passenger safety improvements witnessed since World War II. Graham concludes by endorsing reform, noting that case studies of the current product liability system "suggest that manufacturers may be

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since the civil justice system in many countries does not accord defendants the procedural protections present in the criminal justice system thus penalising an individual without allowing them the ordinary procedural protections that are present in a criminal trial. The rationale for restricting

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Some courts have developed scales of damages awards, benchmarks for compensation, which relate to the severity of the injury. For instance, in the United Kingdom, the loss of a thumb is compensated at £18,000, for an arm £72,000, for two arms £150,000, and so on. Even more difficult to reckon are

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in most common law jurisdictions and the European Union. If a product is faulty, and injures somebody who has come across it (whether they are the buyer or not) then the manufacturer will be responsible for compensating the victim regardless of whether it can be shown that the manufacturer was at

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One rationale for tort reform is the purported ineffectiveness of tort law in securing equal compensation. If someone has an accident then they have a statistical 8% chance of finding a tortfeasor responsible for their injury. If they are lucky enough to have been injured by someone else's fault,

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In Indian tort law, the principle of absolute liability provides that "where an enterprise is engaged in a hazardous or inherently dangerous activity", the enterprise has an absolute and unrestricted obligation to provide compensation any harm caused in any way by the activity. Unlike the related

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The case studies provide little evidence that expanded product liability risk was necessary to achieve the safety improvements that have been made. In the absence of liability risk, the combined effects of consumer demand, regulation, and professional responsibility would have been sufficient to

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argued that tort reform actually saved tens of thousands of lives because "lower expected liability costs result in lower prices, enabling consumers to buy more risk-reducing products such as medicines, safety equipment, and medical services, and as consumers take additional precautions to avoid

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are not recognised as a defence, is severely criticised especially since it disregards the "generally accepted parameter of minimum competence and reasonable care" and endangers the growth of science and technical industries, as investors have to take the risk of liability given that there is no

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In Texas, tort reform measures have imposed a requirement in medical malpractice cases that only a physician practising or teaching in the same specialty as the defendant can serve as an expert witness in the matter. Additionally, a report from that witness showing evidence of negligence must be

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According to a 2004 study of medical malpractice costs, "program administration—defence and underwriting costs—accounts for approximately 60 per cent of total malpractice costs, and only 50 per cent of total malpractice costs are returned to patients. These costs are high even when compared with

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Another type of procedural reform is to modify the criteria related to a defendant's state of mind in order to increase the burden of proof imposed on the plaintiff. Tort reform in Texas changed the definition of negligence in the context of emergency room treatment to include only "willful and

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Over the course of the twentieth and twenty first century, tort reform in the area of defamation law has resulted in an expansion of defences, including affirmative defences, available to defendants. For instance, the United Kingdom's Defamation Act 1952 and Singapore's Defamation Act 1957 both

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notes four possible bases on which different torts rested: appeasement, justice, deterrence and compensation. As a result of the wide range of rationales upon which the tort system is based and the variety of distinct purposes it aims to serve, criticism of tort law is generally targeted at its

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and other restrictions on plaintiff's traditional rights will reduce corporate accountability. Because corporations typically engage in a cost-benefit analysis before considering whether to stop a wrongful action (such as polluting or not enacting proper measures for safety), they contend that

2013:. Many state constitutions have similar clauses to protect the right to a jury trial in state court proceedings. This is in stark contrast to continental Europe and the majority of Asian, African, and Latin American jurisdictions in which juries either never existed or were abolished following 1115:

According to economist Reed Neil Olsen, "...tort law generally and medical malpractice specifically serve two legitimate purposes. First, the law serves to compensate victims for their losses. Second, the threat of liability serves to deter future accidents." Tort reformers maintain that the

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has had a negative influence on innovation. It has held back new designs, consumed resources that might otherwise have been directed at design improvement, and added on costs to the consumer. ... n Western European countries ... liability risks are low and the marketplace pays a premium for

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in hail litigation, as reports of lawyers employing contractors and insurance adjusters to drum up clients have continued to surface the past several years." The bill would also prevent plaintiffs from suing their individual insurance agent. An identical bill (HB 1774) was introduced in the

1820:. Forty-two per cent of respondents reported that they had taken steps to restrict their practice in the previous 3 years, including eliminating procedures prone to complications, such as trauma surgery, and avoiding patients who had complex medical problems or were perceived as litigious. 1021:

has become a focus of tort reform. While similar reforms may be proposed for all these areas of tort law, the debate surrounding each tends to remain separate, with the debate surrounding purported abuse of the defamation tort system generally discussed separately by policymakers addressing

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aims to address this issue by pausing all discovery between the time the motion is filed and the judge's ruling on the motion. Presently, most jurisdictions regard the prosecution of "frivolous" lawsuits as grounds for disciplinary proceedings against attorneys and potential ground for

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Proponents of tort reform argue that the open-ended discovery process of common law jurisdictions enables plaintiffs arguing in bad faith to initiate frivolous tort lawsuits and coerce defendants into agreeing to legal settlements in otherwise unmeritorious actions. Strictly defined, a

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until they abandon their criticism or opposition. As a result, many jurisdictions (especially in North America) have enacted legislation incorporating elements of common tort reform proposals specifically with regard to lawsuits brought against individuals purportedly exercising

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For example, in 1999, a Los Angeles County jury awarded $ 4.8 billion in punitive damages against General Motors to a group of six burn victims whose 1979 Chevrolet Malibu was rear-ended by a drunk driver, causing it to catch fire. That was later reduced to $ 1.2 billion by the

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accidents." They also concluded that "caps on noneconomic damages, a higher evidence standard for punitive damages, product liability reform, and prejudgment interest reform lead to fewer accidental deaths, while reforms to the collateral source rule lead to increased deaths."

1098:. This would reduce the number of unnecessary tests and procedures, typically performed under patient request, thereby reducing the costs of medical care in general. As an argument against the current system, tort reformers link the rising costs of premiums for physicians' 2251:

for the manufacturer could seek to prevent the introduction of the evidence to show feasibility of precautionary measures if he/she argued such evidence would violate Rule 403 of the Federal Rules of evidence. Rule 403 bars evidence that is relevant, but overly prejudicial.

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A wide variety of tort reforms have been implemented or proposed in different jurisdictions, each attempting to address a particular deficiency perceived in the system of tort law. Generally, these can be broken down into two categories: reforms limiting

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damages for the pain and suffering of an injury. But while a scale may be consistent, the award itself is arbitrary and there is no objective basis for the setting of amounts or objective justification for their not being substantially higher or lower.

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who loses an arm suffers a loss to his future job prospects and in the case of fatal accidents, financially dependent relatives may be compensated for the loss of money that their loved one would have provided. Known as "bereavement damages" under the

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that gave immunity to gun manufacturers in certain lawsuits because such lawsuits were "nothing more than thinly veiled attempts to circumvent the legislative process and achieve gun control through litigation"; reform supporters complained that (and

932:. Typical harms can include loss of income (while the person recovers); medical expenses; payment for pain, suffering, or even loss of a body part; or loss of future income (assuming that said loss can be proven to be reasonably likely to occur. See 878:

insurance), and increase legal costs for businesses. Tort reform has primarily been prominent in common law jurisdictions, where criticism of judge-made rules regarding tort actions manifests in calls for statutory reform by the legislature.

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by plaintiffs who seek out jurisdictions with harsher defamation laws and little connection to either the plaintiff, the respondent, or the particular instance of alleged defamation. In response to this trend, the United States adopted the

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Discovery, unique to common law jurisdictions, essentially grants powers to private parties and their counsel which are "functionally equivalent" to the power to issue self-executing administrative subpoenas. Consequently, commentators in

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Critics of tort reform also contend that the real purpose of the proposed changes is to shield businesses, especially large corporations, from having to pay just compensation to consumers, patients and clients for the harm incurred from

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Tort reform is also proposed as one solution to rapidly increasing health care costs in the United States. In a study published in 2005 in the Journal of the American Medical Association, 93% of physicians surveyed reported practicing

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that favours the party that is in control of the information needed by the other party. Instead of encouraging discovery, the rules are described as encouraging lawyers to find new ways to manipulate and distort or conceal information.

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as it may cause consumers to under-invest in care and disregard product safety prior to making a purchase. Furthermore, requiring manufacturers to internalise costs they would otherwise externalise increases the price of goods and, in

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product or its design; or a need for a warning or instruction." This means that evidence of changing the design of a product after an accident cannot be used in court against the manufacturer to prove it is liable for the damage.

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Critics of tort reform contend that the real purpose of the proposed changes is to shield businesses, especially large corporations, from having to pay just compensation to consumers, patients and clients for damages incurred from

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Another argument is that the costs of the tort system, and in particular medical malpractice suits, raise the costs of health care. This argument is most often encountered in relation to litigation in countries that do not have

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has proposed creating specialised medical courts (similar to distinct tax courts) where medically trained judges would evaluate cases and subsequently render precedent-setting decisions. Proponents believe that giving up

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countries as well as certain American states, the losing party must pay for the court costs of the winning party. The English rule Is also a prevailing norm in European civil law jurisdictions. For example, after authors

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Some advocates of tort reform also complain of regulation through litigation, the idea that litigation is being used to achieve regulatory ends that advocates would not be able to achieve through the democratic process.

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Proponents of tort reform counter by pointing to data from New Zealand, which has abolished its medical tort system but has medical error rates close to those in the United States. Tort reform advocates, including

2061:(DOJ), found that the number of civil trials dropped by 47% between 1992 and 2001. The DOJ also found that the median inflation-adjusted award in all tort cases dropped 56.3% between 1992 and 2001 to $ 28,000. 1520:

A common element of tort reform is to try to limit the amount of damages that an injured party may recover from a defendant, even if the injured party is left inadequately compensated as a result of the camp.

1812:, or " clinical behavior because of the threat of malpractice liability." Of physicians surveyed, 43% reported using digital imaging technology in clinically unnecessary circumstances, which includes costly 1329:, "Study after study shows that costs associated with malpractice lawsuits make up 1% to 2% of the nation's $ 2.5 trillion annual health-care bill and that tort reform would barely make a dent in the total." 1434:, is a major objective of tort reform. Opponents of tort reform argue that summary judgment in such cases adequately addresses those issues. In common law jurisdictions which allow for extensive pre-trial 2493:, "that sum of money which will put the party who has been injured in the same position as he would have been if he had not sustained the wrong for which he is now getting his compensation or reparation." 2048:

Opponents of tort reform deny that there has been a "litigation explosion" or "liability crisis", and contend that the changes proposed by tort reform advocates are unjustified. Records maintained by the

1787:

Tort reform advocates argue that the present tort system is too expensive, that meritless lawsuits clog up the courts, that per capita tort costs vary significantly from state to state, and that trial

1349:. It can be argued that strict liability deters innovation, because manufacturers could be reluctant to test out new products for fear that they could be subjecting themselves to massive tort claims. 4693:

Jearey, J. (1961). Trial by Jury and Trial with the Aid of Assessors in the Superior Courts of British African Territories: II. Journal of African Law, 5(1), 36-47. doi:10.1017/S0021855300002941)

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innovative technology in safety as well as other areas. As a result, most safety-related advances in recent years have come from European manufacturers and, more recently, from the Japanese. ...

4858: 2005:

It is argued that extraordinary damage awards in the United States are a result of the jury system. In federal courts in the United States, the right to a jury trial in most civil cases is

1233:

Personal injury law is one of the most controversial topics in tort reform. In New Zealand, the tort system for the majority of personal injuries was scrapped with the establishment of the

2744:

doctrine was applied where someone slipped on yogurt in a supermarket. An employer may have failed to properly fence off some dangerous machinery, which exposes workers to risk of injury.

2041:(ATRA) claims that "The cost of the U.S. tort system for 2003 was $ 246 billion, or $ 845 per citizen or $ 3,380 for a family of four" and "The Growth of U.S. tort costs have exceeded the 2989: 3086: 1217:, price-sensitive markets, price increases cause some consumers to seek substitutes for that product. As a result, manufacturers may not produce the socially optimal level of goods. 4874: 4387: 1613:

In addition to reforms aimed at limiting plaintiff's abilities to claim particular categories of compensation, tort reform measures aimed at reducing the prevalence of lawsuits for

3225: 2489:

In other words, the idea underpinning the law of tort is that if someone harms someone else, they should make up for it. Compensation should be, in the words of Lord Blackburn in

3792:"Rule 11. Signing Pleadings, Motions, and Other Papers; Representations to the Court; Sanctions | Federal Rules of Civil Procedure | LII / Legal Information Institute" 1073:

or dismiss which, if successful, would terminate the lawsuit and allow the party to recover its legal costs from the plaintiff. Another concern with defamation torts is alleged

36:

Lawyer jokes from 1900. Top-hatted lawyer to workman falling off scaffolding: "Take this card, my man, and if you're not killed call on me and I'll recover big damages for you."

5445:

report. October 2003. This report looks at the origins, strategy and tactics of the tort reform movement and its ties to core conservative-movement funders and organisations.

3194:

Klick, Jonathan; Stratmann, Thomas (2003). ""Does Medical Malpractice Reform Help States Retain Physicians and Does it Matter?" by Jonathan Klick and Thomas Stratman (2005)".

2010: 4484: 3279: 1890:

sometimes weighs in on tort reform debates, but here too, the justices do not always vote according to their predicted ideological stereotypes. In the seminal case of

2233:

achieve improved safety. In some cases, however, liability seemed to cause safety improvements to occur more quickly than they would have in the absence of liability.

970:). Consequently, compensation recoverable through tort suits vary even in circumstances where the injury itself is identical, especially when the "at fault" party is 3058: 5347: 3962: 1286: 1942:, "By May , there had been 5,972 lawsuits filed, with Mostyn and members of his firm filing 1,612 of them." Mostyn "had pioneered" lawsuits for storm damage after 2311:

Some supporters of tort reform posit that reforms can significantly reduce the costs of doing business, thus benefiting consumers and the public in the long run.

1883: 1035: 1023: 2748:

1 All ER 870, on the application of the Factories Act 1961, s.14, saying "every dangerous part of any machinery... shall be securely fenced." A manufacturer of

1527:

place limits on noneconomic damages and collecting lawsuit claim data from malpractice insurance companies and courts in order to assess any connection between

4198: 5242: 4773: 967: 95: 3766: 2535:

This figure is disputed, because there is no easy method for accounting for transaction costs, particularly when pre-litigation settlements are considered.

1762:, or litigation funding more generally; is another aspect of procedural policies and reforms designed to reduce the number of cases filed in civil court. 4413: 974:

or merely negligent rather than intentional in causing the purported harm. Consequently, some legal scholars propose to replace tort compensation with a

963: 235: 3293:

Kolstad, Charles D.; Ulen, Thomas S.; Johnson, Gary V. (1990). "Ex Post Liability for Harm vs. Ex Ante Safety Regulation: Substitutes or Complements?".

5559:

Report of the Tort Policy Working Group on the Causes, Extent and Policy Implications of the Current Crisis in Insurance Availability and Affordability

3063:. Annual Meeting of the Economics of Population Health: Inaugural Conference of the American Society of Health Economists. Madison, Wis. Archived from 2559: 5480: 4805: 2328:

to look at the effects of bankruptcies from asbestos litigation on workers in the asbestos industry; the study estimated that 52,000 jobs were lost.

2072:, a major consultant to the insurance industry. In 2008, Towers Perrin reported that the cost of liability litigation has outpaced the growth of the 6782: 2609: 2448: 1650:

Procedural reforms to the tort system aim to dissuade or prevent litigants from filing suit without directly altering the damages they may receive.

3531: 1558:

punitive damages is that such damages encourage a vindictive, revenge seeking state of mind in the claimant and society more generally. In the UK,

5465: 4984:"The frivolous case for tort law change: Opponents of the legal system exaggerate its costs, ignore its benefits | Economic Policy Institute" 3320:

Ewerhart, Christian; Schmitz, Patrick W. (1998). "Ex Post Liability for Harm vs. Ex Ante Safety Regulation: Substitutes or Complements? Comment".

2331:

Critics of the tort reform movement dispute the claim that the current tort system has a significant impact on national or global economies. The

1478:

and enabling the court system to exert inordinate power over the legislative and executive branches of government. For instance, the emergence of

5396: 4374: 4261: 3432: 2995: 1103: 170: 1863:

should be abolished, and there is a healthy debate over whether it would be beneficial to further restrict the ability of attorneys to charge

5415: 4855: 3624: 3226:""Bush Calls Himself Reformer; the Record Shows the Label May Be a Stretch" by Richard A Oppel Jr. and Jim Yardley, NY Times, March 20, 2000" 1879: 1871: 1671: 3254: 4461: 4222: 2857:

Jamie Cassels, "Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation in India: Attempting the Impossible" (1989) 37 Am. J. Comp. L. 495 at 509.

1200:

applies. Proponents of tort reform argue that liability serves to increase the cost of goods for customers and that it serves to encourage

5590: 3614: 2883: 2798: 2428: 2133: 1490:

However, opponents of tort reform assert that public interest litigation in India has served to secure "social and distributive justice."

4539: 4353: 5602: 4747: 4640: 2926: 2174:

threat of litigation than large corporations are, because the legal expenses from a single lawsuit can bankrupt a small businessperson.

2058: 1353:

spent on litigation for every £1 of compensation paid. In contrast, the social security system costs 8p or 12p for every £1 delivered.

1094:

Tort reform advocates argue that by limiting the threat of frivolous lawsuits, the medical industry would migrate away from practising

4612: 1442:

is applied) cost of litigation are not necessarily addressed by summary judgment. In particularly oppressive defamation lawsuits, the

1439: 1066: 1048:

Defamation suits, particularly when brought by a large organisation or wealthy individual against a less wealthy critic, may serve to

842: 1878:

torts, contrary to the general assumption that tort reform is a primarily Republican or conservative issue, is a popular cause among

1642:

continue to use contributory negligence, thus precluding a party who is even partly at fault from recovering damages for negligence.

6208: 5766: 5665: 5380: 5276: 4172: 3931: 3743: 3706: 3566: 2601: 2511: 2412: 2377: 2090: 1843:

for defendants faced with bankruptcy, "venue reform", which limits the jurisdictions within which one can file a lawsuit, limits on

1531:

settlements and premium rates. Such caps can be general or limited to a particular category of cases. Non-economic damages include

1234: 2577:

For example, the American federal government has instituted a $ 250,000 cap on non-economic damages for medical malpractice claims.

1574: 3644: 2053:

show that population-adjusted tort filings declined from 1992 to 2001. The average change in tort filings was a 15% decrease. The

6322: 6191: 5289: 4492: 2613: 2407: 2050: 2038: 981:

Proposals for tort reform primarily centre on addressing perceived deficits in four areas of tort law: personal injury lawsuits,

5223: 4830: 3489: 3136:""The Medical Malpractice 'Crisis': Recent Trends And The Impact Of State Tort Reforms" by Kenneth E. Thorpe (January 21, 2004)" 946:(restoration to original state). However, since the emphasis under tort law is on the violation by an individual of a purported 6777: 6124: 6025: 5026: 561: 5493: 6284: 5918: 2832: 1972: 4647: 3631:

Faced with grinding discovery demands that distract employees from operating the business, even blameless defendants settle.

4287: 4105: 5637: 3449: 3064: 2728:

For instance, a supermarket may not have been safe enough for its customers to shop in by failing to mop up a spillage of

5460: 2045:(GDP) by 2-3 per centage points in the past 50 years". This claim is based on a 2002 study by Tillinghast-Towers Perrin. 6444: 5923: 5449: 4514: 2340: 2054: 1795:

in tort cases. (The typical contingent fee arrangement provides for the lawyer to retain one-third of any recovery.) A

351: 5575:

Black et al. Do Defendants Pay What Juries Award? Post-Verdict Haircuts in Texas Medical Malpractice Cases, 1988–2003,

4006:

Joni Hersch and W. Kip Viscusi, "Punitive Damages: How Judges and Juries Perform," 33 J. Legal Stud. 1 (January 2004),

2077:

and 2009, and are now at their lowest level since 1984. The Tillinghast/Towers Perrin study has been criticised by the

6439: 5392: 2605: 2141: 1887: 1733: 1565:

though rarely awarded in tort cases, punitive damages are available, and are sometimes quite staggering when awarded.

1368:

litigation favours the wealthier side in a lawsuit by enabling parties to drain each other's financial resources in a

567: 5509: 4587: 3919:

P N Bhagwati, "The Role of the Judiciary in the Democratic and Judicial Restraint" (1992) 18 CommwLBull 1262 at 1266.

2068:

Supporters frequently base their claims of an "explosion" in the costs of tort litigation based on annual studies by

1800:

lowest level since 1984. High-profile tort cases are often portrayed by the media as the legal system's version of a

4195: 2941: 1851:

of "loser pays" (the defeated party must pay both the plaintiff's and the defendant's expenses), and requiring that

6414: 5913: 5566:

Zeiler et al. Physicians' Insurance Limits and Malpractice Payments: Evidence from Texas Closed Claims, 1990–2003,

5246: 2300: 1955: 1860: 1832: 1471: 950:, compensation is determined to a large extent by the extent to which the "at fault" party violated the applicable 341: 5438: 5410:, Chapter Four (Section 4.05: "Juror Attitudes About Lawsuits and Tort Reform". New York: American Lawyer Media. 4780: 2099:

Australia and the United Kingdom drew up proposals for similar no-fault schemes, but they were never implemented.

1573:

Another possible modification of tort law, in jurisdictions where it is not already the norm, is to implement the

6497: 4927: 3770: 2637: 2332: 2283:, also argue that litigation has driven from the US marketplace many useful and safe medical advances, including 2116: 2078: 1859:

Not all tort reform supporters support all proposed tort reforms. For example, there is a split over whether the

1828: 1759: 1524: 1475: 656: 505: 5557: 3834:"Preamble: A Lawyer's Responsibilities - Professional Guidelines and Rules of Conduct - Professional Guidelines" 1708: 1397:, and insofar as discovery may be able to facilitate the creation of new rights, that is the prerogative of the 1169:

as it enables unpredictable events to give rise to liability. The strictness of this approach, under which even

6292: 6274: 5534: 4924:

The frivolous case for tort law change: Opponents of the legal system exaggerate its costs, ignore its benefits

2773: 2259: 2192: 1951: 1598: 1550: 1467: 1460: 1443: 1382: 1070: 689: 673: 240: 200: 5943: 4410: 4218: 1874:, both support of and opposition to tort reform is found across the political spectrum in America. Reform of 1332:

Another argument is that tort liability may stunt innovation. This argument usually comes in connection with

6667: 6454: 5928: 5434: 2734: 2312: 1993: 1622: 1578: 1389:

and as "a private inquisition." Civil law countries see the underlying objectives of discovery as properly

1274: 554: 379: 346: 4704: 4235: 3899: 1486:. Controversy further arose when judges began to read such obligations of the state into Article 21 of the 954:

with regard to the plaintiff rather than solely by the harm purportedly suffered and distinguishes between

6722: 6707: 5442: 4809: 4020: 2465: 2397: 2320:

through more pragmatic approaches." A commission by the American Insurance Association and co-authored by

2042: 1740: 1654: 1618: 1587: 1394: 1325: 1214: 942: 888: 835: 750: 572: 483: 326: 271: 175: 70: 3991: 1393:

in order to maintain the rule of law: the investigative objective of discovery is the prerogative of the

928:, requiring the party "at fault" for a particular harm to provide compensation, typically in the form of 6826: 6419: 6097: 5908: 5553: 5421: 5372: 4718: 3541: 3135: 2897: 2225: 2120: 2026: 1967: 1931: 1755: 1487: 1319: 1311: 710: 684: 603: 493: 488: 450: 245: 205: 192: 1503:

recoverable by a plaintiff and procedural reforms limiting the ability of plaintiffs to file lawsuits.

5502: 5180:""First Do No Harm? Tort Reform and Birth Outcomes" by Janet Currie and W. Bentley MacLeod (May 2008)" 6547: 5893: 4002:$ 4.8 billion was the largest non-class action judgment for punitive damages according to one study. 2754: 2568:

bill gave unprecedented immunity to a single industry, and claimed that the law was unconstitutional.

2518:. Its goal is to achieve equality of compensation, while reducing costs of litigation. In the 1970s, 2417: 2402: 2069: 1342: 1259: 182: 122: 4895: 4636: 2758:

AC 580, where a decomposed snail was found in a soft drink, see Lord Atkin's judgment in particular.

1470:

suits in America are frequently criticised as examples of regulation through litigation. Similarly,

6860: 6702: 5842: 5759: 5519: 5004: 2752:

may have allowed a bottle it sells to have become contaminated, which has made a consumer ill. See

2435: 2382: 2361: 2255: 2187:, and encourage more safe and effective medical practices. Beginning in the early 1980s, Professor 2162: 2006: 1909: 1373: 1263: 1099: 982: 933: 891:

for actions—not arising from a contract—that cause a claimant to suffer loss or harm, resulting in

875: 547: 541: 500: 437: 260: 61: 5153: 5092: 4159: 4158:, see N.Y. CPLR § 214-a, which can be found under money CVP, Article 2, LIMITATIONS OF TIME, at 3588:"GAO Study, Medical Malpractice, Implications of Raising Premiums on Access to Medical Care, 2003" 2242:

inclined to delay design improvements when they fear that improvements will be used against them .

1345:, is lower in other injury cases, so that a victim would have to prove that a tortfeasor had been 1298:

Another rationale for tort reform is the distortionary impact tort litigation has on the economy.

1102:

insurance to the rising cost of personal and group policy health insurance coverage. California's

6517: 6176: 6030: 6015: 5993: 5737: 5717: 5670: 5660: 5202: 5175: 5129:"Rule 403. Excluding Relevant Evidence for Prejudice, Confusion, Waste of Time, or Other Reasons" 5059: 4469: 3877: 3692: 3610: 3372: 3329: 3302: 3111: 3011:"Congressional Budget Office (January 8, 2004) "Limiting Tort Liability for Medical Malpractice"" 2507: 2217: 2209: 2126: 2022: 1935: 1896:, the court ruled that the Constitution placed limits on punitive damages, with liberal justices 1809: 1717: 1532: 1238: 1137: 1095: 1010: 913: 790: 677: 608: 577: 468: 432: 408: 364: 147: 89: 5537: 4436:"Defensive Medicine Among High-Risk Specialist Physicians in a Volatile Malpractice Environment" 4214: 1916:, some expect the court to be more likely to take cases that could resolve tort reform debates. 1422:

in frivolous lawsuits are a nuisance for individuals against whom such litigation is brought in

17: 4332: 3391: 2905: 1196:. In most common law jurisdictions and in member states of the European Union, the doctrine of 6855: 6502: 6424: 6262: 6005: 6000: 5953: 5878: 5872: 5712: 5630: 5411: 5405: 5376: 5272: 4025: 3996: 3854: 3833: 3739: 3733: 3702: 3677: 3620: 3562: 3414: 3364: 3207: 3155: 2740: 2453: 2365: 2316: 1920: 1901: 1781: 1592: 1483: 1479: 1406: 1369: 1333: 1221: 1193: 1183: 1143: 1108: 1062: 1018: 1014: 986: 959: 921: 905: 828: 735: 730: 720: 715: 531: 510: 374: 320: 307: 255: 215: 5599: 4751: 4651: 3696: 3211: 1725:

wanton" acts. This has been interpreted as including only acts intended to harm the patient.

6507: 6474: 5973: 5837: 5832: 5797: 5487: 5483:(study asserting that corporations are the most frequent initiators of litigation in the US) 5453: 5194: 4733: 4443: 3976: 3679:

Double Billing: A Young Lawyer's Tale of Greed, Sex, Lies, and the Pursuit of a Swivel Chair

3406: 3356: 3199: 3147: 2625: 2621: 2458: 2441: 2392: 2288: 2266: 2205: 2166: 1984: 1840: 1836: 1824: 1658: 1560: 1546: 1542: 1427: 1337: 1197: 1187: 1150: 1069:

and Ontario's Protection of Public Participation Act do so by enabling defendants to make a

951: 909: 725: 598: 526: 478: 427: 360: 302: 210: 187: 129: 117: 3112:""The Efficiency of Medical Malpractice Law: Theory and Empirical Evidence" (October 2000)" 1687:

are lawsuits where a group of claimants band together to bring similar claims all at once.

6756: 6729: 6717: 6697: 6631: 6626: 6609: 6589: 6584: 6564: 6429: 6409: 6404: 6307: 6267: 5978: 5903: 5827: 5812: 5732: 5606: 5498: 4862: 4417: 4202: 3935: 2629: 2325: 1946:. He made over $ 86 million in legal fees. In February 2017, a bill was introduced in the 1844: 1583: 1435: 1419: 1362: 1166: 1158: 975: 892: 402: 331: 314: 5320: 5227: 4676: 4435: 3928: 3347:

Shavell, Steven (1984). "A Model of the Optimal Use of Liability and Safety Regulation".

5429: 2335:

wrote that the effect on the economy of job loss resulting from lawsuits is negligible:

6833: 6641: 6559: 6148: 6114: 6065: 6050: 5822: 5727: 5707: 5697: 5476: 5401: 5364: 5149: 5146: 5088: 5085: 3554: 2814: 2523: 2221: 2108: 2014: 1905: 1897: 1864: 1751: 1693: 1635: 1431: 1390: 1315: 1281: 1270: 1074: 971: 780: 536: 418: 336: 138: 84: 79: 32: 5296: 5243:"The Cutter Incident: A Legal Tale of Unintended Consequences for Vaccine Development" 4834: 3410: 1082:

which expressly limits the enforceability of offshore judgements in defamation cases.

6849: 6687: 6646: 6532: 6512: 6484: 6434: 6399: 6373: 6368: 6361: 6312: 6252: 6092: 6082: 6040: 5963: 5958: 5888: 5847: 5771: 5529: 5514: 5505:(article discussing US Chamber of Commerce's use of newspaper to promote tort reform) 5206: 3536: 3493: 2617: 2188: 2112: 1998: 1943: 1938:’ to remind homeowners that they had to file a claim within two years." According to 1925: 1796: 1776: 1713: 1701: 1162: 1116:

present tort system is an expensive and inefficient way to compensate those injured.

1057: 1043: 859: 745: 620: 5524: 5510:

testimony about Small Business Liability Reform Act before House Judiciary Committee

5033: 3791: 2608:, which granted civil immunity to telecommunications companies that cooperated with 1775:

Tort reform advocates frequently contend that too many of the lawsuits filed in the

1208:. Conversely, proponents of tort reform argue that strict liability creates risk of 6819: 6569: 6537: 6492: 6230: 6225: 6196: 6109: 6087: 6055: 5988: 5968: 5862: 5802: 5792: 5744: 5702: 5680: 5623: 5171: 4225:

by Betsy McCaughey The Wall Street Journal, August 24, 2005, accessed Aug. 2, 2006.

4061: 3951:(2006), which lay out the standard figures, up to £200,000 for severe brain damages 3010: 2888: 2597: 2564: 2555: 2472:(concerning reform of patent law, which pits similar interests against one another) 2469: 2422: 2296: 1947: 1913: 1852: 1848: 1688: 1680: 1554: 1242: 1209: 947: 798: 785: 775: 740: 694: 280: 3812: 1341:

fault. The standard, which originated in the twentieth century with cases such as

5128: 5110: 4083: 2129:(Royal Commission on Civil Liability and Compensation for Personal Injuries) 1979 1577:

whereby the losing party to a case covers the victorious party's legal costs. In

6800: 6741: 6682: 6672: 6469: 6464: 6302: 6203: 6119: 6078: 6045: 6010: 5933: 5857: 5807: 5722: 5198: 4962: 4554: 4291: 3938:, National Conference of State Legislatures, May 1, 2006, accessed Aug. 3, 2006. 2768: 2749: 2510:

scheme for all accident victims, which provides benefit from the government-run

2503: 2321: 1959: 1892: 1791:

too often receive an overly large percentage of the punitive damages awarded to

1528: 1398: 1386: 1002: 811: 384: 250: 165: 4940: 3508: 2818:(1978) by the "Royal Commission on Civil Liability and Compensation for Injury" 2640:

opposes many tort reform measures, arguing that litigation can be used to keep

1553:

jurisdictions, punitive damages are unavailable and are considered contrary to

6805: 6734: 6614: 6552: 6297: 6218: 6213: 6171: 6153: 6141: 6102: 5948: 5938: 5898: 5883: 5867: 5817: 5754: 5749: 4377:, 352 S.E.2d 73, 80 (W.Va. 1986) ("the standard contingent fee is 33 percent") 4040: 2991:

The Tort of Defamation: An Analysis of the Law in India and the United Kingdom

2515: 2357: 2280: 2196:

several ways that litigation can also enhance safety for everyone, including:

2158: 2018: 1875: 1729: 1697: 1614: 1602: 1448: 1414: 1346: 1170: 1079: 1053: 1049: 1039: 990: 955: 925: 896: 871: 863: 816: 760: 663: 615: 285: 226: 152: 44: 5032:. Johns Hopkins University Center for Gun Policy and Research. Archived from 4447: 3418: 3368: 3178: 2526:

drew up proposals for similar no-fault schemes but they were later abandoned.

2262:, claimed safety (and other) innovations were inhibited by fear of lawsuits: 6712: 6677: 6619: 6594: 6459: 6356: 6344: 6329: 6317: 6245: 6163: 6136: 6020: 5354: 5288:

Stiglitz, Joseph E.; Orszag, Jonathan M.; Orszag, Peter R. (December 2002).

4262:"Closing Arguments: Is Wisconsin's collateral-source rule worth preserving?" 3878:"Virginia State Bar - Professional Regulation - Disciplinary System Actions" 2519: 2284: 1792: 1684: 1423: 1410: 1303: 794: 5530:

Economic Policy Institute response to response of Tillinghast/Towers Perrin

3159: 3587: 3151: 2287:(the withdrawal of which has led to a doubling of hospital admissions for 6761: 6746: 6449: 6334: 6131: 5675: 5135:. Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School. 2011-11-30. 5117:. Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School. 2011-11-30. 3949:

Guidelines for the Assessment of General Damages in Personal Injury Cases

3698:

Rights and Retrenchment: The Counterrevolution Against Federal Litigation

2975: 2800:

Medical malpractice - an international perspective of tort system reforms

2633: 2344: 2184: 1817: 1639: 1631: 770: 630: 393: 290: 112: 5369:

The Liability Maze: The Impact of Liability Law on Safety and Innovation

5179: 5027:"Litigation Is an Important Tool for Injury and Gun Violence Prevention" 3203: 1884:

lawsuits brought by wealthy corporations and individuals against critics

6651: 6599: 6579: 6527: 6339: 6257: 6073: 6035: 5983: 4983: 4923: 3376: 3306: 2387: 2292: 2216:

Tort reform advocates cite a 1990 study of auto safety improvements by

1801: 1744: 1627: 1500: 1006: 929: 901: 625: 593: 473: 295: 5543: 4918: 4916: 3333: 6751: 6604: 6349: 6240: 6235: 6181: 5852: 5594: 3900:"LA Times (October 21, 2005) "Bill to Shield Gun Makers Is Approved"" 3433:"Understanding the Real Life Issues Underlying Tort Reform Proposals" 2729: 2641: 1788: 1728:

Tort reformers have had the most legislative success in limiting the

668: 635: 4183: 3360: 2686: 5574: 5565: 5063: 4007: 3057:

Bagga, Shalini; Khan, M. Mahmud; Dhankhar, Praveen (June 4, 2006).

3032: 1950:

that would aim "at ending hailstorm lawsuit abuse." Texas Lt. Gov.

6692: 6636: 6542: 6383: 6186: 5685: 4930:, May 17, 2005 (EPI Briefing Paper #157), retrieved March 31, 2007 2632:

has often criticised products liability law; and the conservative

2353: 2165:

or other legitimate tort claims. They contend that limitations on

2154: 1992: 998: 445: 31: 1192:

A large portion of the debate surrounding tort reform focuses on

978:

framework that serves victims without respect to cause or fault.

6574: 6522: 6378: 5776: 5692: 4239: 4021:"GM Files Appeal of $ 1.2-Billion Verdict, Calling Trial Unfair" 3490:"In Hospital Deaths from Medical Errors at 195,000 per Year USA" 3060:

Medical Malpractice: Examining its Effect on Hospital Efficiency

2893: 1988: 1617:, the most commonly alleged tort, aim to revise the doctrine of 1409:

is one that cannot reasonably be supported under existing legal

867: 866:

countries that aim to reduce the ability of plaintiffs to bring

459: 52: 5619: 5290:

The Impact of Asbestos Liabilities on Workers in Bankrupt Firms

3735:

Failures of American Civil Justice in International Perspective

2254:

Another presenter at the same Brooking Institution conference,

1653:

One type of procedural reform is to reduce the time to sue—the

1302:

tort litigation and payouts will benefit everyone who pays for

5646: 4361: 3450:"Medical negligence costs 'threat' to National Health Service" 2901: 2687:"Punitive Damages as Aggravated Damages: The Case of Contract" 2073: 1934:, Texas. "One local attorney had erected a billboard ‘evoking 1813: 1679:

Another type of procedural reform is imposing restrictions on

1269:

then they can get full compensation (if the tortfeaser is not

1696:

has become a contentious aspect of tort reform, notably with

1426:. Curtailing frivolous lawsuits, especially those brought by 4313:

Bogus, Carl T. (2008). "Introduction: Genuine Tort Reform".

4084:"The Litigation Explosion - Strict Liability for Lawyering" 1823:

A few of the changes frequently advocated include limits on

4333:"Public Citizen Debunks myths propounded by Tort Reformers" 1056:, and silence critics by burdening them with the cost of a 4613:"Hailstorm lawsuit reform bill introduced in Texas Senate" 4205:

Philip G. Peters, Jr., Boston University Law Review, 2008.

1204:. Opponents of tort reform argue that it would negatively 5494:"What Is Tort Reform - and Why Is It Bad for the Public?" 2001:

is unusual in almost all countries for non-criminal cases

4831:"Civil Trial Cases and Verdicts in Large Counties, 2001" 4750:. American Tort Reform Association. 2007. Archived from 4748:"Facts About Tort Liability And Its Impact On Consumers" 3616:

Second-Best Justice: The Virtues of Japanese Private Law

2834:

The Concept of Strict and Absolute Liability: A Critique

1954:

supported the bill (Senate Bill 10) and said during his

1165:, or a third party's mistake. Consequently, it creates 5615: 5338:

Dobbs, Dan B., Hayden, Paul T., and Bublick, Ellen M.

3738:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 151. 940:

for proved harm. This is known under the Latin phrase

900:

the different types of damages awarded by the courts:

4186:, Mehlman, Maxwell and Nance, Dale A., April 1, 2007. 3701:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 70. 3392:"On the joint use of liability and safety regulation" 5488:

Tort Laws on Trial: Lawsuit Liability Measures, 2004

4388:"Towers Perrin 2008 Update on U.S. Tort Cost Trends" 4221:

USA Today, July 4, 2005, accessed Aug. 3, 2006; and

3727: 3725: 2797:

For a speech by High Court judge Michael Kirby, see

2616:, the Democrats' vice presidential nominee, Senator 1870:

While tort reform is frequently associated with the

1683:

lawsuits in jurisdictions where they are available.

6770: 6660: 6483: 6392: 6283: 6162: 6064: 5785: 5653: 2011:

Seventh Amendment of the United States Constitution

1882:and liberals more generally who are concerned with 4238:. American Tort Reform Association. Archived from 3280:M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak Case) 3255:"Despite Counsel, Victim Is Hindered by Tort Laws" 2339:In an April 2002 paper, the CEA (President Bush's 1482:has been criticised as an undemocratic example of 1201: 5342:. Eighth edition. West Academic Publishing, 2017. 4875:"Towers Perrin report on tort costs through 2007" 4833:. US Bureau of Justice Statistics. Archived from 4268:. The Daily Reporter Publishing Co. 10 March 2016 4041:"Blog reports on Texas adoption of Loser Pay Law" 2870:Noor Mahmmad Usmanbhai Mansuri v State of Gujarat 2620:, was a leading supporter of tort reform; former 924:, tort law is based on the principle of fault or 5397:"The Economics of U.S. Tort Liability: A Primer" 4406: 4404: 3492:. Medical News Today. 2004-08-09. Archived from 1839:, elimination of elections for judges, reducing 895:for the person who commits the tortious act. In 2264: 2239: 2230: 2198: 1663: 1157:, absolute liability does not defences such as 936:). The classical purpose of tort is to provide 27:Legal reforms aimed at reducing tort litigation 5324:Sourcewatch: Center for Justice and Democracy. 5007:. American Association for Justice. 2014-02-26 4375:"Hayseeds, Inc. v. State Farm Fire & Cas." 3992:"Judge Cuts Award Against GM to $ 1.2 Billion" 3960:see generally, Patrick Atiyah and Peter Cane, 2942:"Protection of Public Participation Act, 2015" 2667: 2665: 2663: 2661: 1958:, "Hailstorm litigation is the newest form of 1036:Strategic lawsuit against public participation 5631: 5481:"Corporate Hypocrisy in Accessing the Courts" 4963:"Walter Olson summary, with links (May 2005)" 4223:Health Courts Endorsed in Wall Street Journal 4106:"An Economic Case for Comparative Negligence" 3645:"Discovery Abuse: Appointing Special Masters" 2715:Williams, G. "The Aims of the Law of Tort", 1923:in Texas was hit with two severe hailstorms. 1474:in India has been criticised for undermining 836: 8: 5348:Atiyah's Accidents, Compensation and the Law 4705:"Lee Kuan Yew's Opposition to Trial by Jury" 4588:"A Hail of a Storm Is Brewing in the Senate" 4160:The New York State Assembly official website 3963:Atiyah's Accidents, Compensation and the Law 3619:. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 3248: 3246: 3087:"To Curb Malpractice, Try Federal Licensing" 2303:, which kills one hundred infants per year. 968:intentional infliction of emotional distress 96:Intentional infliction of emotional distress 5295:(Report). Sebago Associates. Archived from 4440:Journal of the American Medical Association 4104:Cooter, Robert D.; Ulen, Thomas S. (1986). 3813:"LIS > Code of Virginia > 8.01-271.1" 3672: 3670: 1716:and scheduling noneconomic damages such as 5638: 5624: 5616: 4719:"section 16, Senior Courts Act 2016 No 48" 3966:(2006) 6th Ed., Cambridge University Press 3682:(New York: William Morrow, 1998), 125–126. 3146:. Content.healthaffairs.org: W4–20–W4–30. 2853: 2851: 2596:For instance, while serving as a senator, 2033:Dispute over "litigation explosion" claims 964:negligent infliction of emotional distress 843: 829: 236:Negligent infliction of emotional distress 39: 5461:The Impact of Medical Malpractice Reforms 4236:"Joint and Several Liability Rule Reform" 3399:International Review of Law and Economics 3189: 3187: 2445:(concerning $ 67m for a judge's trousers) 1280:This was the basis for much of Professor 6783:History of the American legal profession 5439:The Attack on Trial Lawyers and Tort Law 5111:"Rule 407. Subsequent Remedial Measures" 2826: 2824: 2449:Private Securities Litigation Reform Act 5466:Annual Review of Law and Social Science 5407:Courtroom Psychology and Trial Advocacy 4922:Lawrence Chimerine and Ross Eisenbrey, 4430: 4428: 4426: 3466:3 All ER 138 on the increase of damages 3181:Medscape Medical News, October 5, 2011. 2865: 2863: 2657: 2482: 2307:Controversy over the impact on business 758: 702: 643: 585: 518: 458: 417: 392: 359: 270: 225: 137: 104: 69: 51: 4941:"Economic Policy Institute (May 2005)" 4485:"November Election A Lawyer's Delight" 3532:"The Truth About Malpractice Lawsuits" 3179:Rising Insurance Premiums? Yes and No. 1590:lost their plagiarism litigation over 1154: 1104:Medical Injury Compensation Reform Act 5538:response to Economic Policy Institute 5005:"Promote Accountability & Safety" 4581: 4579: 4577: 4575: 1205: 870:litigation (particularly actions for 7: 5544:Tort Law Reform in the United States 5459:Liu, Jing; Hyman, David A. (2020). " 5269:The Competitive Advantage of Nations 5193:(2). Mitpressjournals.org: 795–830. 4513:Kinsley, Michael (August 28, 2005). 4315:Roger Williams University Law Review 3559:The Competitive Advantage of Nations 3253:Aaronson, Becca (January 24, 2013). 2882:Rafsanjani, Nazanin (2 April 2010). 1385:regard discovery destructive of the 5241:Offit, Paul A. (January 23, 2009). 5064:"Tort Reform and Accidental Deaths" 3767:"The Myth Of The Frivolous Lawsuit" 1287:Accidents, Compensation and the Law 5600:Legal- Civil Trials and Tort Costs 5577:Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 5503:"Advocacy Groups Blur Media Lines" 4806:"National Center for State Courts" 1549:awardable to a plaintiff. In most 1067:California Code of Civil Procedure 1009:). Additionally, the emergence of 25: 5767:Restitution and unjust enrichment 5492:Justinian Lane, 2003 30 October, 5430:"Rule of Law: Ambush In Angleton" 4483:Fisher, Daniel (11 August 2008). 4411:U.S. Tort Cost Trends 2010 Update 4173:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 2602:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 2512:Accident Compensation Corporation 2429:Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants 2413:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 2378:Accident Compensation Corporation 2368:or other legitimate tort claims. 2091:Accident Compensation Corporation 1672:N.Y. Civil Practice Law and Rules 1284:'s scholarship as articulated in 1235:Accident Compensation Corporation 6814: 6813: 6799: 5450:"Beware of 'Junk Lawsuits' Hype" 4808:. Ncsconline.org. Archived from 4184:"The Case Against Health Courts" 3769:. Tortdeform.com. Archived from 3509:"Medical Negligence and the NHS" 2408:American Tort Reform Association 2142:NHS Redress (Wales) Measure 2007 2051:National Center for State Courts 2039:American Tort Reform Association 1912:dissenting. Under Chief Justice 920:With regard to torts other than 810: 18:Tort reform in the United States 6778:History of the legal profession 5448:Jeff Milchen, 2004 27 October, 4721:. Parliamentary Counsel Office. 3929:Medical Malpractice Tort Reform 3530:Arnst, Catherine (2009-09-16). 2976:Defamation Act 1957 (Singapore) 2965:Defamation Act, 1952 (England). 2946:Legislative Assembly of Ontario 2506:introduced the first universal 1277:, particularly in New Zealand. 562:Ex turpi causa non oritur actio 5187:Quarterly Journal of Economics 4586:Ratcliffe, R.G. (2015-04-29). 4468:. May 10, 2005. Archived from 4110:New York University Law Review 3033:"The Medical Malpractice Myth" 2928:Cal. Code of Civil Procedure § 2786:Livingstone v Rawyards Coal Co 2612:operations. Similarly, in the 2558:(D-VA) argued in support of a 2491:Livingstone v Rawyards Coal Co 1973:Texas House of Representatives 1966:, "The bill also seeks to end 1829:limits on non-economic damages 1: 5456:of the American legal system) 4779:. 19 May 2005. Archived from 4555:"The nominee is John Roberts" 4162:. Accessed January 24, 2009. 3990:Hong, Peter Y. (1999-08-27). 3898:Simon, Richard (2005-10-21). 3794:. Law.cornell.edu. 2011-11-30 3411:10.1016/s0144-8188(00)00037-5 3349:The RAND Journal of Economics 2691:Canadian Business Law Journal 2301:Group B Streptococcal disease 2204:In contrast, a 2006 study by 1919:In March and April 2012, the 1904:in the majority and Justices 1754:; as well as rules regarding 1455:Regulation through litigation 1202:regulation through litigation 672:(term used for torts in some 5068:Journal of Law and Economics 4961:Olson, Walter (2005-05-26). 4731:the words of Lord Devlin in 4553:Frank, Ted (July 20, 2005). 4515:"Taking Vioxx -- for Plenty" 4064:. PointofLaw.com. 2004-05-21 3507:A. Towse; P. Danson (1999). 3390:Schmitz, Patrick W. (2000). 3322:The American Economic Review 3295:The American Economic Review 3031:Klein, Ezra (11 July 2006). 2432:(the McDonald's coffee case) 2341:Council of Economic Advisors 2055:Bureau of Justice Statistics 1438:, the burden and (where the 1155:product liability litigation 5393:Congressional Budget Office 5367:and Robert E. Litan, eds., 5199:10.1162/qjec.2008.123.2.795 4677:"Singapore - The Judiciary" 4611:Yates, David (2017-02-13). 4288:"Collateral source reforms" 4019:Malnic, Eric (2000-12-07). 3732:Maxeiner, James R. (2011). 3134:Thorpe, Kenneth E. (2004). 2610:NSA warrantless wiretapping 2183:dangerous products such as 1888:United States Supreme Court 1766:Tort reform by jurisdiction 1734:joint and several liability 1428:lawyers acting in bad faith 858:consists of changes in the 568:Joint and several liability 6877: 6445:International legal theory 5924:International slavery laws 5919:International human rights 5914:International criminal law 5074:. Emory Law and Economics. 4219:'Health courts' offer cure 2614:2000 presidential election 2237:Graham further notes that 2208:professors Paul Rubin and 2106: 2088: 1982: 1979:Punitive awards and juries 1956:State of the State address 1861:collateral source doctrine 1833:collateral source doctrine 1472:public interest litigation 1458: 1418:The costs associated with 1360: 1257: 1181: 1141: 1135: 1033: 342:Comparative responsibility 6793: 6498:Administration of justice 5535:Tillinghast/Towers Perrin 5525:"Tort Reform Saves Lives" 5133:Federal Rules of Evidence 5115:Federal Rules of Evidence 4928:Economic Policy Institute 4861:October 25, 2007, at the 4856:Tillinghast/Towers Perrin 4462:"Give the Lawyer His Cut" 4335:. Citizen.org. 2010-12-03 3475:see, Sir Liam Donaldson, 2988:Ayesha (6 October 2010), 2638:Center for a Just Society 2333:Economic Policy Institute 2191:and other faculty at The 2117:Claims management company 2079:Economic Policy Institute 2070:Tillinghast/Towers Perrin 1835:, use of court-appointed 1760:champerty and maintenance 1609:Changes to negligence law 1545:caps limit the amount of 1525:Non-economic damages caps 1476:parliamentary sovereignty 1374:multi-level playing field 1249:Rationale for tort reform 657:Non-economic damages caps 6275:Basic structure doctrine 6125:Natural and legal rights 6006:Public international law 5568:Journal of Legal Studies 4648:École Normale Supérieure 4448:10.1001/jama.293.21.2609 4043:. Americancourthouse.com 3695:; Farhang, Sean (2017). 3283:AIR 1987 SC 1086 Para 32 3196:Journal of Legal Studies 2884:"SLAPP Back: Transcript" 2774:Fatal Accidents Act 1976 2738:1 All ER 219, where the 2560:2005 federal tort reform 2260:University of Birmingham 2224:for a conference at the 2193:Johns Hopkins University 1841:appeal bond requirements 1599:special motion to strike 1468:Private attorney general 1461:Private attorney general 1444:special motion to strike 1391:monopolised by the state 1237:, a universal system of 1071:special motion to strike 690:Private attorney general 644:Other topics in tort law 272:Principles of negligence 201:Alienation of affections 6455:Principle of typicality 5929:International trade law 5547:(subscription required) 5212:(subscription required) 4290:. NAMIC. Archived from 3643:Lord, Miles W. (1986). 2735:Ward v Tesco Stores Ltd 2685:Chapman, Bruce (1990). 2502:For instance, In 1972, 2313:Harvard Business School 1921:Lower Rio Grande Valley 1661:law now requires that: 1623:contributory negligence 1383:civil law jurisdictions 555:Volenti non fit injuria 380:Ultrahazardous activity 347:Contributory negligence 5340:Torts and Compensation 4641:"Lay Justice in India" 4152:For the full section, 3980:AC 1129, 1 All ER 367 3902:. Articles.latimes.com 3544:on September 23, 2009. 2872:(1997) 1 GujLH 49 at . 2788:(1880) 5 App Cas 25,39 2776:in the United Kingdom. 2717:Current Legal Problems 2466:Software patent debate 2398:United States tort law 2349: 2272: 2244: 2235: 2202: 2138:(2003) Crown Copyright 2043:Gross Domestic Product 2002: 1847:, the adoption of the 1741:collateral source rule 1677: 1655:statute of limitations 1619:comparative negligence 1326:Bloomberg Businessweek 1225:than strict liability 943:restitutio in integrum 573:Market share liability 506:Shopkeeper's privilege 484:Statute of limitations 327:Restitutio ad integrum 176:Intrusion on seclusion 71:Trespass to the person 37: 6450:Principle of legality 6209:Delegated legislation 5909:Intellectual property 5554:Reagan Administration 5373:Brookings Institution 5230:on February 23, 2009. 4543:, 517 U.S. 559 (1996) 4354:"Debunking the Myths" 4266:Wisconsin Law Journal 3880:. Vsb.org. 2012-02-01 3836:. Vsb.org. 2008-11-09 3152:10.1377/hlthaff.w4.20 3013:. Cbo.gov. 2004-01-08 2898:National Public Radio 2337: 2226:Brookings Institution 2121:Compensation Act 2006 2059:Department of Justice 2027:malicious prosecution 1996: 1739:The abolition of the 1707:Tort reform advocate 1494:Categories of reforms 1459:Further information: 1320:Medical Defence Union 1312:universal health care 1254:Equality in treatment 1174:defence to the rule. 1142:Further information: 685:Conflict of tort laws 451:Tortious interference 206:Criminal conversation 193:Malicious prosecution 35: 6668:Barristers' chambers 6610:Legal representation 6548:Justice of the peace 5894:Financial regulation 5443:Commonweal Institute 5371:. Washington, D.C.: 4681:www.country-data.com 4472:on January 23, 2009. 4420:Towers Watson, 2010. 4215:National Law Journal 4155:including exceptions 2837:, Lawyers Club India 2755:Donoghue v Stevenson 2418:Compensation culture 2403:Asbestos and the law 2132:Sir Liam Donaldson, 2057:, a division of the 1480:constitutional torts 1343:Donoghue v Stevenson 1260:Distributive justice 1206:impact public safety 1015:constitutional torts 183:Breach of confidence 6703:Election commission 6415:Expressive function 5944:Landlord–tenant law 5843:Consumer protection 5520:Wall Street Journal 5426:Wall Street Journal 5359:The Damages Lottery 5302:on 26 February 2009 5267:Michael E. Porter, 5249:on January 23, 2009 5176:MacLeod, W. Bentley 5060:Shepherd, Joanna M. 4774:"Location Selector" 4637:Jean-Louis Halpérin 4519:The Washington Post 4495:on January 23, 2009 4294:on 12 December 2017 4143:Dobbs 2017, p. 297. 4134:Dobbs 2017, p. 298. 3855:"FRANCES F. VINSON" 3693:Burbank, Stephen B. 3204:10.2139/ssrn.453481 2812:in the UK, see the 2673:The Damages Lottery 2671:P.S. Atiyah (1997) 2606:FISA Amendments Act 2514:without respect to 2436:Medical malpractice 2383:Australian tort law 2362:medical malpractice 2163:medical malpractice 1910:Ruth Bader Ginsburg 1569:Attorney fee awards 1512:system of damages. 1488:Indian Constitution 1264:Equality of outcome 1229:Personal injury law 1100:medical malpractice 1090:Medical malpractice 983:medical malpractice 934:speculative damages 876:medical malpractice 678:mixed legal systems 548:Respondeat superior 542:Vicarious liability 501:Defence of property 438:Insurance bad faith 352:Attractive nuisance 171:Invasion of privacy 6661:Legal institutions 6528:Lawsuit/Litigation 6518:Dispute resolution 6323:Catholic canon law 6031:State of emergency 5994:Will and testament 5718:Law of obligations 5671:Constitutional law 5661:Administrative law 5605:2007-09-28 at the 5523:, 2005 8 October, 5428:, 2005 22 August, 5160:. pp. 220–21. 5158:The Liability Maze 5097:The Liability Maze 4877:. Towersperrin.com 4703:George P. Landow. 4559:www.pointoflaw.com 4416:2012-01-28 at the 4390:. Towersperrin.com 4364:on August 6, 2011. 4201:2013-05-10 at the 4091:www.pointoflaw.com 4008:available on SSRN. 3934:2009-05-20 at the 3815:. Leg1.state.va.us 3676:Cameron Stracher, 3649:Hamline Law Review 3259:The New York Times 2554:For example, Rep. 2508:no-fault insurance 2218:Harvard University 2210:Joanna M. Shepherd 2127:Pearson Commission 2023:false imprisonment 2003: 1948:Texas state Senate 1936:fire and brimstone 1810:defensive medicine 1718:pain and suffering 1646:Procedural reforms 1533:pain and suffering 1507:Reforms to damages 1399:legislative branch 1239:no-fault insurance 1138:Absolute liability 1132:Absolute liability 1096:defensive medicine 1011:absolute liability 914:Glanville Williams 912:. British scholar 578:Transferred intent 469:Assumption of risk 433:Restraint of trade 409:Rylands v Fletcher 241:Employment-related 90:False imprisonment 38: 6843: 6842: 6503:Constitutionalism 6425:Law and economics 6263:Act of parliament 6001:Product liability 5954:Legal archaeology 5879:Environmental law 5873:Entertainment law 5713:International law 5579:4:3 (March 2007). 5570:36:S2 (June 2007) 5416:978-0-9705970-9-0 4639:(25 March 2011). 4026:Los Angeles Times 3997:Los Angeles Times 3626:978-0-226-28199-5 3611:Ramseyer, J. Mark 2998:on 1 October 2011 2904:). Archived from 2741:res ipsa loquitur 2454:Product liability 2366:product liability 2317:Michael E. Porter 1902:John Paul Stevens 1782:corporate welfare 1593:The Da Vinci Code 1484:judicial activism 1407:frivolous lawsuit 1357:Cost of discovery 1334:product liability 1222:law and economics 1194:product liability 1184:Product liability 1178:Product liability 1167:legal uncertainty 1144:Tort law in India 1063:freedom of speech 987:product liability 960:intentional torts 938:full compensation 922:intentional torts 887:Tort actions are 853: 852: 726:England and Wales 681: 532:Last clear chance 527:Intentional torts 511:Neutral reportage 494:Defense of others 442: 375:Product liability 321:Res ipsa loquitur 308:Reasonable person 216:Breach of promise 65: 16:(Redirected from 6868: 6818: 6817: 6816: 6804: 6803: 6627:Question of fact 6508:Criminal justice 5838:Construction law 5833:Conflict of laws 5798:Agricultural law 5640: 5633: 5626: 5617: 5548: 5454:corporate abuses 5435:David C. Johnson 5326: 5318: 5312: 5311: 5309: 5307: 5301: 5294: 5285: 5279: 5265: 5259: 5258: 5256: 5254: 5245:. 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Archived from 4350: 4344: 4343: 4341: 4340: 4329: 4323: 4322: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4299: 4284: 4278: 4277: 4275: 4273: 4258: 4252: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4242:on 3 August 2010 4232: 4226: 4212: 4206: 4196:"Health Courts?" 4193: 4187: 4181: 4175: 4169: 4163: 4150: 4144: 4141: 4135: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4123: 4121: 4101: 4095: 4094: 4088: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4070: 4069: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4049: 4048: 4037: 4031: 4030: 4016: 4010: 4001: 3987: 3981: 3977:Rookes v Barnard 3973: 3967: 3958: 3952: 3945: 3939: 3926: 3920: 3917: 3911: 3910: 3908: 3907: 3895: 3889: 3888: 3886: 3885: 3874: 3868: 3867: 3865: 3864: 3859: 3851: 3845: 3844: 3842: 3841: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3820: 3809: 3803: 3802: 3800: 3799: 3788: 3782: 3781: 3779: 3778: 3763: 3757: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3729: 3720: 3719: 3717: 3715: 3689: 3683: 3674: 3665: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3640: 3634: 3633: 3607: 3601: 3600: 3598: 3597: 3592: 3584: 3578: 3577:Cane (2006) 466; 3575: 3569: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3540:. 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Chung 2393:English tort law 2289:morning sickness 2206:Emory University 2178:Impact on safety 2167:punitive damages 1985:Punitive damages 1872:Republican Party 1845:contingency fees 1837:expert witnesses 1825:punitive damages 1675: 1674:(CPLR) § 214-a. 1561:Rookes v Barnard 1547:punitive damages 1543:Punitive damages 1395:executive branch 1370:war of attrition 1338:strict liability 1294:Economic effects 1198:strict liability 1188:Strict liability 1151:strict liability 952:standard of care 845: 838: 831: 815: 814: 671: 440: 303:Standard of care 188:Abuse of process 98: 59: 40: 21: 6876: 6875: 6871: 6870: 6869: 6867: 6866: 6865: 6846: 6845: 6844: 6839: 6812: 6798: 6789: 6766: 6757:Political party 6730:Legal education 6718:Law enforcement 6698:Court of equity 6656: 6632:Question of law 6585:Practice of law 6565:Judicial review 6479: 6430:Legal formalism 6410:Comparative law 6405:Contract theory 6388: 6308:Legal pluralism 6279: 6268:Act of Congress 6192:Executive order 6158: 6060: 5979:Nationality law 5904:Immigration law 5828:Competition law 5781: 5649: 5644: 5607:Wayback Machine 5587: 5546: 5542:Donald Harris, 5499:Washington Post 5422:Richard Epstein 5389: 5387:Further reading 5335: 5330: 5329: 5319: 5315: 5305: 5303: 5299: 5292: 5287: 5286: 5282: 5266: 5262: 5252: 5250: 5240: 5239: 5235: 5224:"Medical Error" 5222: 5221: 5217: 5211: 5182: 5170: 5169: 5165: 5147:Graham, John D. 5145: 5144: 5140: 5127: 5126: 5122: 5109: 5108: 5104: 5086:Graham, John D. 5084: 5083: 5079: 5057: 5056: 5052: 5042: 5040: 5036: 5029: 5025: 5024: 5020: 5010: 5008: 5003: 5002: 4998: 4989: 4987: 4982: 4981: 4977: 4968: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4955: 4946: 4944: 4939: 4938: 4934: 4921: 4914: 4905: 4903: 4894: 4893: 4889: 4880: 4878: 4873: 4872: 4868: 4863:Wayback Machine 4854: 4850: 4840: 4838: 4837:on 22 July 2009 4829: 4828: 4824: 4815: 4813: 4804: 4803: 4799: 4789: 4787: 4783: 4776: 4772: 4771: 4767: 4757: 4755: 4754:on 31 July 2010 4746: 4745: 4741: 4730: 4726: 4717: 4716: 4712: 4702: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4688: 4675: 4674: 4670: 4660: 4658: 4654: 4643: 4635: 4634: 4630: 4621: 4619: 4617:SE Texas Record 4610: 4609: 4605: 4596: 4594: 4585: 4584: 4573: 4563: 4561: 4552: 4551: 4547: 4537: 4533: 4523: 4521: 4512: 4511: 4507: 4498: 4496: 4482: 4481: 4477: 4460: 4459: 4455: 4434: 4433: 4424: 4418:Wayback Machine 4409: 4402: 4393: 4391: 4386: 4385: 4381: 4373: 4369: 4358:www.justice.org 4352: 4351: 4347: 4338: 4336: 4331: 4330: 4326: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4297: 4295: 4286: 4285: 4281: 4271: 4269: 4260: 4259: 4255: 4245: 4243: 4234: 4233: 4229: 4213: 4209: 4203:Wayback Machine 4194: 4190: 4182: 4178: 4170: 4166: 4151: 4147: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4129: 4119: 4117: 4103: 4102: 4098: 4086: 4082:Olson, Walter. 4081: 4080: 4076: 4067: 4065: 4060: 4059: 4055: 4046: 4044: 4039: 4038: 4034: 4018: 4017: 4013: 3989: 3988: 3984: 3974: 3970: 3959: 3955: 3946: 3942: 3936:Wayback Machine 3927: 3923: 3918: 3914: 3905: 3903: 3897: 3896: 3892: 3883: 3881: 3876: 3875: 3871: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3853: 3852: 3848: 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2811: 2807: 2796: 2792: 2784: 2780: 2766: 2762: 2746:Summers v Frost 2727: 2723: 2714: 2710: 2700: 2698: 2684: 2683: 2679: 2670: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2648: 2644:off the market. 2630:Michael Kinsley 2595: 2591: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2572: 2553: 2549: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2501: 2497: 2488: 2484: 2479: 2374: 2326:Joseph Stiglitz 2309: 2267:trict liability 2180: 2150: 2123: 2105: 2093: 2087: 2035: 1991: 1981: 1964:SE Texas Record 1865:contingent fees 1831:, limiting the 1773: 1768: 1752:contingent fees 1676: 1670: 1648: 1611: 1584:Michael Baigent 1571: 1518: 1509: 1496: 1463: 1457: 1432:contingent fees 1365: 1363:Discovery (law) 1359: 1296: 1266: 1256: 1251: 1231: 1190: 1182:Main articles: 1180: 1159:mistake of fact 1146: 1140: 1134: 1092: 1046: 1034:Main articles: 1032: 1019:Indian tort law 976:social security 893:legal liability 885: 849: 809: 703:By jurisdiction 403:Public nuisance 332:Rescue doctrine 315:Proximate cause 227:Negligent torts 139:Dignitary torts 94: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6874: 6872: 6864: 6863: 6858: 6848: 6847: 6841: 6840: 6838: 6837: 6830: 6823: 6809: 6806:Law portal 6794: 6791: 6790: 6788: 6787: 6786: 6785: 6774: 6772: 6768: 6767: 6765: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6738: 6737: 6727: 6726: 6725: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6664: 6662: 6658: 6657: 6655: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6642:Trial advocacy 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6623: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6556: 6555: 6550: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6489: 6487: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6396: 6394: 6390: 6389: 6387: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6365: 6364: 6354: 6353: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6326: 6325: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6289: 6287: 6281: 6280: 6278: 6277: 6272: 6271: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6250: 6249: 6248: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6222: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6201: 6200: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6179: 6174: 6172:Ballot measure 6168: 6166: 6160: 6159: 6157: 6156: 6151: 6149:Legal treatise 6146: 6145: 6144: 6139: 6129: 6128: 6127: 6117: 6115:Letters patent 6112: 6107: 6106: 6105: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6076: 6070: 6068: 6066:Sources of law 6062: 6061: 6059: 6058: 6053: 6051:Unenforced law 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5997: 5996: 5991: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5823:Commercial law 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5789: 5787: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5763: 5762: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5741: 5740: 5735: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5689: 5688: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5657: 5655: 5651: 5650: 5645: 5643: 5642: 5635: 5628: 5620: 5614: 5613: 5597: 5586: 5585:External links 5583: 5582: 5581: 5572: 5563: 5550: 5540: 5532: 5527: 5512: 5506: 5496: 5490: 5486:Rachel Weiss, 5484: 5477:Public Citizen 5474: 5457: 5446: 5432: 5419: 5402:Richard Waites 5399: 5388: 5385: 5384: 5383: 5362: 5352: 5343: 5334: 5331: 5328: 5327: 5313: 5280: 5260: 5233: 5215: 5178:(2012-05-02). 5163: 5138: 5120: 5102: 5099:. p. 184. 5077: 5050: 5018: 4996: 4975: 4953: 4932: 4912: 4887: 4866: 4848: 4822: 4797: 4786:on 19 May 2005 4765: 4739: 4724: 4710: 4695: 4686: 4668: 4628: 4603: 4571: 4545: 4531: 4505: 4475: 4453: 4442:. 2005-06-01. 4422: 4400: 4379: 4367: 4345: 4324: 4305: 4279: 4253: 4227: 4207: 4188: 4176: 4164: 4145: 4136: 4127: 4096: 4074: 4053: 4032: 4011: 3982: 3968: 3953: 3940: 3921: 3912: 3890: 3869: 3846: 3825: 3804: 3783: 3758: 3744: 3721: 3707: 3684: 3666: 3635: 3625: 3602: 3579: 3570: 3555:Michael Porter 3547: 3522: 3499: 3496:on 2011-04-23. 3481: 3468: 3455: 3441: 3424: 3405:(3): 371–382. 3382: 3355:(2): 271–280. 3339: 3312: 3301:(4): 888–901. 3285: 3271: 3242: 3230:New York Times 3217: 3183: 3171: 3140:Health Affairs 3126: 3103: 3091:New York Times 3078: 3049: 3023: 3002: 2980: 2967: 2958: 2933: 2919: 2908:on 21 May 2013 2874: 2859: 2847: 2820: 2815:Pearson Report 2805: 2790: 2778: 2760: 2732:on the floor. 2721: 2708: 2677: 2656: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2647: 2646: 2600:voted for the 2589: 2579: 2570: 2547: 2537: 2528: 2524:United Kingdom 2495: 2481: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2474: 2473: 2463: 2462: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2438: 2433: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2405: 2395: 2390: 2388:Alimony reform 2385: 2380: 2373: 2370: 2308: 2305: 2222:John D. Graham 2179: 2176: 2149: 2146: 2145: 2144: 2139: 2130: 2109:Patrick Atiyah 2104: 2103:United Kingdom 2101: 2089:Main article: 2086: 2083: 2034: 2031: 2015:decolonisation 1980: 1977: 1932:Hidalgo County 1906:Antonin Scalia 1898:Stephen Breyer 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1750:Regulation of 1694:forum shopping 1668: 1647: 1644: 1636:North Carolina 1610: 1607: 1570: 1567: 1517: 1514: 1508: 1505: 1495: 1492: 1456: 1453: 1361:Main article: 1358: 1355: 1316:loss of chance 1295: 1292: 1282:Patrick Atiyah 1271:judgment proof 1255: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1230: 1227: 1179: 1176: 1136:Main article: 1133: 1130: 1091: 1088: 1075:forum shopping 1031: 1030:Defamation law 1028: 972:judgment proof 884: 881: 851: 850: 848: 847: 840: 833: 825: 822: 821: 820: 819: 817:Law portal 804: 803: 802: 801: 788: 783: 778: 773: 765: 764: 756: 755: 754: 753: 748: 743: 738: 733: 731:European Union 728: 723: 718: 713: 705: 704: 700: 699: 698: 697: 692: 687: 682: 666: 661: 660: 659: 646: 645: 641: 640: 639: 638: 633: 628: 623: 618: 613: 612: 611: 606: 601: 588: 587: 583: 582: 581: 580: 575: 570: 565: 558: 551: 544: 539: 537:Eggshell skull 534: 529: 521: 520: 516: 515: 514: 513: 508: 503: 498: 497: 496: 486: 481: 476: 471: 463: 462: 456: 455: 454: 453: 448: 443: 441:(American law) 435: 430: 422: 421: 419:Economic torts 415: 414: 413: 412: 405: 397: 396: 390: 389: 388: 387: 382: 377: 369: 368: 357: 356: 355: 354: 349: 344: 339: 337:Duty to rescue 334: 329: 324: 317: 312: 311: 310: 300: 299: 298: 293: 288: 275: 274: 268: 267: 266: 265: 264: 263: 258: 248: 243: 238: 230: 229: 223: 222: 221: 220: 219: 218: 213: 208: 203: 195: 190: 185: 180: 179: 178: 168: 163: 162: 161: 158: 150: 142: 141: 135: 134: 133: 132: 127: 126: 125: 120: 107: 106: 105:Property torts 102: 101: 100: 99: 92: 87: 82: 74: 73: 67: 66: 56: 55: 49: 48: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6873: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6836: 6835: 6831: 6829: 6828: 6824: 6822: 6821: 6810: 6808: 6807: 6802: 6796: 6795: 6792: 6784: 6781: 6780: 6779: 6776: 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6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6374:Statutory law 6372: 6370: 6369:Socialist law 6367: 6363: 6362:Byzantine law 6360: 6359: 6358: 6355: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6324: 6321: 6320: 6319: 6316: 6315: 6314: 6313:Religious law 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6290: 6288: 6286: 6285:Legal systems 6282: 6276: 6273: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6255: 6254: 6253:Statutory law 6251: 6247: 6244: 6243: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6206: 6205: 6202: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6184: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6169: 6167: 6165: 6161: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6134: 6133: 6130: 6126: 6123: 6122: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6104: 6101: 6100: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6083:Statutory law 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6071: 6069: 6067: 6063: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6041:Transport law 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5986: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5959:Legal fiction 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5889:Financial law 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5848:Corporate law 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5790: 5788: 5784: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5772:Statutory law 5770: 5768: 5765: 5761: 5758: 5757: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5730: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5687: 5684: 5683: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5658: 5656: 5654:Core subjects 5652: 5648: 5641: 5636: 5634: 5629: 5627: 5622: 5621: 5618: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5592: 5589: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5578: 5573: 5571: 5569: 5564: 5561: 5560: 5555: 5551: 5545: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5522: 5521: 5516: 5515:Paul H. Rubin 5513: 5511: 5508:Carl Geiger, 5507: 5504: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5491: 5489: 5485: 5482: 5479:, 2004 Oct., 5478: 5475: 5473:(1): 405–419. 5472: 5468: 5467: 5462: 5458: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5420: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5408: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5394: 5391: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5381:0-8157-3760-2 5378: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5363: 5360: 5356: 5353: 5350: 5349: 5344: 5341: 5337: 5336: 5332: 5325: 5322: 5321:"Tort Reform" 5317: 5314: 5298: 5291: 5284: 5281: 5278: 5277:0-684-84147-9 5274: 5270: 5264: 5261: 5248: 5244: 5237: 5234: 5229: 5225: 5219: 5216: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5172:Currie, Janet 5167: 5164: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5148: 5142: 5139: 5134: 5130: 5124: 5121: 5116: 5112: 5106: 5103: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5081: 5078: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5054: 5051: 5035: 5028: 5022: 5019: 5006: 5000: 4997: 4985: 4979: 4976: 4964: 4957: 4954: 4942: 4936: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4919: 4917: 4913: 4901: 4897: 4891: 4888: 4876: 4870: 4867: 4864: 4860: 4857: 4852: 4849: 4836: 4832: 4826: 4823: 4812:on 2010-03-09 4811: 4807: 4801: 4798: 4782: 4775: 4769: 4766: 4753: 4749: 4743: 4740: 4736: 4735: 4728: 4725: 4720: 4714: 4711: 4706: 4699: 4696: 4690: 4687: 4682: 4678: 4672: 4669: 4657:on 3 May 2014 4653: 4649: 4642: 4638: 4632: 4629: 4618: 4614: 4607: 4604: 4593: 4592:Texas Monthly 4589: 4582: 4580: 4578: 4576: 4572: 4560: 4556: 4549: 4546: 4542: 4541: 4535: 4532: 4520: 4516: 4509: 4506: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4479: 4476: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4457: 4454: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4431: 4429: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4412: 4407: 4405: 4401: 4389: 4383: 4380: 4376: 4371: 4368: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4349: 4346: 4334: 4328: 4325: 4320: 4316: 4309: 4306: 4293: 4289: 4283: 4280: 4267: 4263: 4257: 4254: 4241: 4237: 4231: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4211: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4197: 4192: 4189: 4185: 4180: 4177: 4174: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4156: 4149: 4146: 4140: 4137: 4131: 4128: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4100: 4097: 4092: 4085: 4078: 4075: 4063: 4057: 4054: 4042: 4036: 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1986: 1978: 1976: 1974: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1960:lawsuit abuse 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1944:Hurricane Ike 1941: 1940:Texas Monthly 1937: 1933: 1928: 1927: 1926:Texas Monthly 1922: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1894: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1857: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1821: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1805: 1803: 1798: 1797:Towers Perrin 1794: 1790: 1785: 1783: 1778: 1777:United States 1771:United States 1770: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1735: 1731: 1726: 1722: 1719: 1715: 1710: 1705: 1703: 1702:libel tourism 1699: 1695: 1690: 1689:Class actions 1686: 1682: 1673: 1667: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1645: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1608: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1595: 1594: 1589: 1588:Richard Leigh 1585: 1580: 1576: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1562: 1556: 1555:public policy 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1515: 1513: 1506: 1504: 1502: 1493: 1491: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1462: 1454: 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Retrieved 2694: 2690: 2680: 2672: 2622:New Republic 2604:and for the 2598:Barack Obama 2592: 2582: 2573: 2565:the Pentagon 2556:Rick Boucher 2550: 2540: 2531: 2498: 2490: 2485: 2470:Patent troll 2440: 2427: 2423:Junk science 2350: 2338: 2330: 2310: 2297:Lyme disease 2277: 2273: 2265: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2215: 2203: 2199: 2181: 2172: 2151: 2134: 2098: 2094: 2067: 2063: 2047: 2036: 2004: 1963: 1939: 1924: 1918: 1914:John Roberts 1891: 1869: 1858: 1853:class action 1849:English Rule 1822: 1806: 1786: 1774: 1749: 1738: 1727: 1723: 1706: 1685:Mass actions 1681:class action 1678: 1664: 1657:of actions. 1652: 1649: 1612: 1591: 1579:Commonwealth 1575:English rule 1572: 1559: 1541: 1537: 1523: 1519: 1516:Damages caps 1510: 1497: 1464: 1430:or charging 1403: 1379: 1366: 1351: 1331: 1324: 1308: 1300: 1297: 1285: 1279: 1275:Commonwealth 1267: 1243:moral hazard 1232: 1219: 1210:moral hazard 1191: 1149:doctrine of 1147: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1093: 1084: 1047: 994: 980: 948:duty of care 941: 937: 919: 902:compensatory 889:civil claims 886: 855: 854: 776:Criminal law 695:Class action 651: 560: 553: 546: 489:Self-defense 407: 385:Deep pockets 319: 281:Duty of care 43:Part of the 29: 6742:Legislature 6673:Bureaucracy 6470:Rule of man 6465:Rule of law 6440:Libertarian 6303:Chinese law 6204:Legislation 6154:Regulations 6142:Law reports 6120:Natural law 6016:Reparations 6011:Refugee law 5934:Jurimetrics 5875:(Media law) 5813:Banking law 5808:Amnesty law 5786:Disciplines 5723:Private law 5591:Tort reform 5452:(discusses 5365:Peter Huber 5150:Peter Huber 5089:Peter Huber 4896:"Economist" 4540:BMW v. Gore 4298:11 December 4272:11 December 4120:5 September 3264:January 25, 2974:Section 8, 2803:(11.9.2000) 2750:ginger beer 2504:New Zealand 2322:Nobel Prize 2228:found that 2085:New Zealand 1952:Dan Patrick 1893:BMW v. Gore 1714:jury trials 1709:Common Good 1529:malpractice 1413:or under a 1387:rule of law 1336:, which is 1318:cases. The 1171:acts of God 1153:applied to 1003:false light 856:Tort reform 652:Tort reform 286:Trespassers 251:Malpractice 246:Entrustment 166:False light 6861:Law reform 6850:Categories 6735:Law school 6615:Prosecutor 6553:Magistrate 6340:Jewish law 6298:Common law 6219:Rulemaking 6214:Regulation 6164:Law making 6103:Divine law 6079:Legal code 6026:Sports law 5949:Law of war 5899:Health law 5884:Family law 5868:Energy law 5818:Bankruptcy 5755:Punishment 5750:Public law 5271:, p. 649, 4990:2012-06-28 4969:2012-06-28 4947:2012-06-28 4906:2012-06-28 4881:2012-06-28 4816:2012-06-28 4622:2017-04-14 4597:2017-04-14 4499:2009-01-11 4394:2012-06-28 4339:2012-06-28 4068:2012-06-28 4047:2012-06-28 3906:2012-06-28 3884:2012-06-28 3863:2012-06-28 3840:2012-06-28 3819:2012-06-28 3798:2012-06-28 3777:2012-06-28 3596:2012-06-28 3561:, p. 649, 3236:2012-06-28 3165:2012-06-28 3120:2012-06-28 3097:2012-06-28 3017:2012-06-28 2841:12 October 2652:References 2516:negligence 2358:negligence 2315:professor 2281:Paul Offit 2220:professor 2159:negligence 2107:See also: 2019:defamation 2007:entrenched 1983:See also: 1876:defamation 1793:plaintiffs 1730:common law 1700:cases and 1698:defamation 1615:negligence 1603:defamation 1449:disbarment 1415:good-faith 1258:See also: 1080:SPEECH Act 1054:intimidate 1040:SPEECH Act 1026:lawsuits. 991:defamation 926:negligence 906:aggravated 897:common law 883:Background 872:negligence 864:common law 862:system in 761:common law 664:Quasi-tort 616:Injunction 609:Incidental 428:Conspiracy 153:Defamation 130:Conversion 45:common law 6713:Judiciary 6708:Executive 6683:The bench 6620:Solicitor 6595:Barrister 6475:Sociology 6460:Pseudolaw 6400:Anarchist 6357:Roman law 6345:Parsi law 6330:Hindu law 6318:Canon law 6293:Civil law 6246:Concordat 6137:Precedent 6046:Trust law 6021:Space law 5858:Drugs law 5728:Procedure 5666:Civil law 5404:. (2003) 5355:PS Atiyah 5253:April 11, 5207:154702008 5043:April 11, 5011:April 11, 4986:. Epi.org 4943:. Epi.org 4900:Economist 4171:see now, 3419:0144-8188 3369:0741-6261 2697:: 269–280 2520:Australia 2285:Bendectin 2148:Criticism 1880:Democrats 1818:CAT scans 1789:attorneys 1551:civil law 1436:discovery 1424:bad faith 1420:discovery 1411:precedent 1347:negligent 1304:insurance 956:negligent 771:Contracts 711:Australia 519:Liability 479:Necessity 367:liability 291:Licensees 211:Seduction 6856:Tort law 6820:Category 6762:Tribunal 6747:Military 6590:Attorney 6560:Judgment 6420:Feminist 6335:Jain law 6132:Case law 5853:Cyberlaw 5760:Corporal 5738:Criminal 5708:Evidence 5698:Doctrine 5676:Contract 5603:Archived 5306:11 April 5062:(2007). 4859:Archived 4841:11 April 4790:11 April 4758:11 April 4564:11 April 4414:Archived 4246:11 April 4199:Archived 3932:Archived 3613:(2015). 3198:. 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