147:(RSEI) model to identify hotspots from a score of 3 to 15, with higher scores indicating closer proximity to hazards. Individual states have also taken steps to improve identification and surveillance. California's AB 2588 Air Toxics “Hot Spots” Program, enacted in 1987, seeks to collect emission data, determine health risks, and notify local residents of major risks. By identifying hotspots regulators hope these tools will help them reduce pollution and inform nearby populations through the health risk assessments of individual pollutants and facilities that are summed in each zone to develop a total lifetime cancer risk. Air pollution hot spots are also at issue in pollution-trading programs, such as
152:
reduction credits from other firms, which leads to concentrated areas of pollution since facilities that sell their credits are “exporting” their pollution to firms more likely to buy credits. However, some studies have noted that these claims have not materialized. Evan
Ringquist, a professor at Indiana University of Public and Environmental Affairs, states that there is little empirical evidence to suggest the emergence of hotspots. A Cedars-Sinai study found that prolonged exposure to particulate matter in air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin triggered inflammation and the appearance of cancer-related genes in the brains of rats.
258:).This study involves citizens to actively collecting the samples of emissions from Chevron's refineries, especially during accidents, fires, leaks, and explosions. The “sniffers” alert the “samplers” to collect the air samples when they notice a problem. The “samplers” then contact the Coordinator to check the bucket and perform the paperwork before submitting the samples to the Laboratory, in which the results will be reported to CBE, an environmental justice organization. The “Bucket Brigades” did not only raise the awareness local citizens to fight against the air pollution in their area but also their participation.
119:
there may a combination of stationary sources (e.g. industrial facilities) and mobile sources (e.g. cars and trucks) of pollution. Emissions from these sources can cause respiratory disease, childhood asthma, cancer, and other health problems. A fine particulate matter such as diesel soot, which contributes to more than 3.2 million premature deaths around the world each year, is a significant problem. It is very small and can lodge itself within the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Diesel soot is concentrated in densely populated areas, and one in six people in the U.S. live near a diesel pollution hot spot.
242:
color. In North
Richmond, next to one of the nation’s largest refineries, 97 percent of residents are non-white and nearly one in four live in poverty”. Low-income communities have differential access to political power, and their collective political voice is often less able to contest decisions impacting industrial operations. The combination of poverty, poor access to clean air, and poor political power can result in inequality in which communities of color bear a disproportionate burden of pollution and, therefore, suffer from greater environmental health risks.
136:
from elevated exposure to pollutants than more privileged communities. Blacks and
Latinos generally face more pollution than whites and Asians, and low-income communities bear a higher burden of risk than affluent ones. Racial discrepancies are particularly distinct in suburban areas of the South and metropolitan areas of the West. Residents in public housing, who are generally low-income with poor access to health care and cannot move to healthier neighborhoods, are highly affected by nearby refineries and chemical plants.
218:(CBPR) and collaborated with West Oakland Environmental Indicators Project (WOEIP) in order to find effective and accurate findings to prove injustice and eventually spur reform in environmental policy. These research efforts can be used to document and communicate trends in air quality in West Oakland to policymakers. Effectiveness of efforts by these groups are multiplied by and increasing availability of environmental poverty lawyers who empower legislation in the legal system.
199:. Residents are more exposed to harmful pollutants compared to other areas of the Bay Area and Oakland and therefore more at risk for harmful health effects. Compared to the State of California, West Oakland produces 90 times more diesel emission particulates per square mile per day. These pollutants have detrimental health effects such as asthma and reduced life expectancy while putting children at higher susceptibility for health complications.
33:
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example, the production of PM 2.5 air pollution mainly comes from the consumption of good by white people while this pollution is disproportionally inhaled by communities of color. Hazardous land uses (toxic storage and disposal facilities, manufacturing facilities, major roadways) tend to be located where property values and income levels are low. Low socioeconomic status can be a proxy for other kinds of
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238:(an indicator of how polluted is air is) compared to national level. Air pollution emission from the Chevron refinery includes benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, xylene, nitrous dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, which are known to cause elevated cancer risks and respiratory illness. Rates of child and adult asthma are especially elevated among Richmond residents.
362:– to prevent rust in the machinery. The water was stored between uses in unlined ponds, which allowed it to percolate into the groundwater. This severely contaminated the groundwater, affecting soil and contaminating water wells near the compressor station, with a plume approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) long and nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) wide.
312:
monitoring devices on the residential buildings in
Wilmington in order to prove that emissions from local oil refineries and diesel trucks to the ports pollute the air in Wilmington, disproportionately affecting Wilmington residents to suffer from health problems including lung diseases and respiratory diseases.
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Bonnoris noted, “The environmental justice movement posits that the distribution of environmental harms and benefits should be fairly apportioned among all communities”. As
Bonnoris argued, the burden of air pollution is disproportionally distributed among communities based on their racial, social or
135:
Studies show that patterns in race and income disparities not only indicate a higher exposure to pollution but also higher risk of adverse health outcomes. Communities characterized by low socioeconomic status and racial minorities can be more vulnerable to cumulative adverse health impacts resulting
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systems designed to control pollution. These programs can potentially exacerbate effects from air pollution hotspots if the differences in chemical hazards are ignored. These programs also cause pollution to be mitigated towards where credit-buying firms are located. Factories can purchase emissions
106:
in India, the world's worst chemical disaster, is a prime example of a significant toxic hotspot. The toxic gas leaked from the understaffed Union
Carbide plant killed up to 20,000 people and left 120,000 others chronically ill. Bhopal continues to face pollution problems from the abandoned factory
307:
due to emissions from diesel trucks from the ports of Los
Angeles and Long Beach. The risks associated with diesel are often underestimated since existing epidemiological studies cannot isolate exposure to diesel PM. However, exposure to diesel particulate matter can cause “irritation to the eyes,
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Wilmington, most of its residents are ethnic minorities, is possible to bear more environmental burden than other communities in Los
Angeles because it is located next to several sources of air pollution. For example, Wilmington has "the highest concentration of refineries in the State". Emissions
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Richmond residents have struggled to improve local air quality. The city has a significant non-white, low-income population. According to 2010 U.S. Census, of
Richmond's 103,701 person populations, “one in six residents lives below the federal poverty level, and more than eight in 10 are people of
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hotspots are areas where air pollution emissions expose individuals to increased negative health effects. Hotspots denote areas in which a population's exposure to pollution and estimated health risks are high. Air pollution hotspots are particularly common in highly populated, urban areas, where
657:
The Soviet Union conducted 456 nuclear tests at
Semipalatinsk from 1949 until 1989 with little regard for their effect on the local people or environment. The full impact of radiation exposure was hidden for many years by Soviet authorities and has only come to light since the test site closed in
261:
As the number of activists and participants grew in numbers, their position in the battle against environmental injustice was further fortified with the election Green-party mayor of Richmond, Gayle McLaughlin, as well as three new council members sympathetic to their cause in 2008. In July 2008,
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refinery, which opened in 1901 under the ownership of Pacific Coast Oil. The Chevron Refinery is a leading source of air quality violations in the state of California. Richmond residents are also exposed to pollution from the Santa Fe train line and the presence of heavy traffic and diesel trucks
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mainly comes from the production of goods consumed by white people while this pollution is disproportionally inhaled by communities of color. Therefore, these communities bear a disproportionate burden of environmental pollution known as pollution inequity and are more likely to face health risks
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Policy makers and researchers concerned with improving environmental justice for communities situated next to major sources of air pollution have developed a number of regulatory tools to identify air pollution hotspots. The EPA, for example, utilizes their Risk-Screening Environmental Indictors
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Los Angeles is known for the nation's worst air quality and its “sharp inequalities in environmental exposures”. Wilmington, Los Angeles is a neighborhood located on the southern part of Los Angeles, California. 54,512 people live in Wilmington, the median household income is $ 40,627, about 86
202:
Inequitable economic, residential, and environmental conditions in this low-income community of color leave residents of West Oakland with poor and inequitable health outcomes. African-American and Latino children of 10–18 years in West Oakland are more susceptible to onset lung defects such as
311:
Several NGOs have worked to improve the accuracy of Wilmington air quality data and air quality in order to protect approximately 1400 children who live or visit schools or childcare facilities at Wilmington. The environmental group “Coalition For a Safe Environment” installed an air pollution
93:
are locations where emissions from specific sources such as water or air pollution may expose local populations to elevated health risks, such as cancer. These emissions contribute to cumulative health risks of emissions from other sources nearby. Urban, highly populated areas around pollutant
245:
Because Richmond is an air pollution hotspot, Richmond residents have applied different strategies since the 1980s to try to improve local air quality. The first EJ movement in the area started in the late 1980s, when the activist tried to stop construction of a garbage incinerator near North
122:
While air pollution hotspots affect a variety of populations, some groups are more likely to be located in hotspots. Previous studies have shown disparities in exposure to pollution by race and/or income (cite one of the early readings from our syllabus, e.g. Mohai & Pellow, or Saha). For
229:, located in the San Francisco Bay Area, is an evolving, multi-cultural community that has transformed itself from an over-polluted industrial town to a pioneer in an environmental justice movement. The city has been host to numerous oil refineries, including the
456:
were conducted there, many of which were of extremely high yield. While the Marshall Islands testing composed 14% of all U.S. tests, it composed nearly 80% of the total yields of those detonated by the U.S., with an estimated total yield of around 210
273:
10 times less than before. On top of that, Chevron has invested $ 150 million for building gas turbine in order to reduce air emission, increase energy efficiency, as well as provide most electrical and steam power Chevron requires to operate.
172:. West Oakland's close proximity to highways and the Port of Oakland leave residents highly exposed to pollutants caused by moving and stationary sources of diesel pollution, thus leaving them at higher risk for health complications such as
845:
Tessum, Christopher W.; Apte, Joshua S.; Goodkind, Andrew L.; Muller, Nicholas Z.; Mullins, Kimberley A.; Paolella, David A.; Polasky, Stephen; Springer, Nathaniel P.; Thakrar, Sumil K.; Marshall, Julian D.; Hill, Jason D. (2019-03-26).
262:
despite the council failing to halt the Chevron's plan to build more refineries in the area due to rising gasoline prices during that time, the council succeeded to acquire $ 61 million from the oil company for community programs.
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The Nevada Test Site contains 28 areas, 1,100 buildings, 400 miles (640 km) of paved roads, 300 miles of unpaved roads, ten heliports, and two airstrips. The most recent test was a sub-critical test of the properties of
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in Hinkley for natural gas transmission pipelines. The natural gas has to be re-compressed approximately every 350 miles (560 km), and the station uses large cooling towers to cool the gas after it has been compressed.
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economic status. Disproportion distribution of air pollution among communities can be a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Constitution because it violates equal protection of residents’ public health.
700:
265:
Due to great forces from the local communities and fellow EJ activists in Richmond area, Chevron has been making progress to embrace cleaner environment. In 2005, local activists managed to convince
918:
Drury, Richard; Belliveau, Michael; Kuhn, J Scott; Shipra, Bansal (Spring 1999). "Pollution Trading and Environmental Justice: Los Angeles' Failed Experiment in Air Pollution Policy".
127:, including race, a lack of ability to influence regulatory permitting and a lack of ability to move to neighborhoods with less environmental pollution. For example, the production of
565:, such as leukemia, lymphoma, thyroid cancer, breast cancer, melanoma, bone cancer, brain tumors, and gastrointestinal tract cancers, were reported from the mid-1950s through 1980.
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asthma. According to Alameda County Vital Statistics, an African American child born in West Oakland is expected to live 14 fewer years than a white child born in the more wealthy
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along the Richmond Parkway. However, residents are most concerned with air pollution health impacts from the Chevron Refinery. In 1999, Richmond measure significantly higher on
2183:
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is home to mainly low-income African American and Latino residents who are exposed to a disproportionate amount of airborne toxins as compared to the rest of the surrounding
484:
759 million has been paid to Marshall Islanders as compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear testing. Following the Castle Bravo accident, $ 15.3 million was paid to
661:
From 1996 to 2012, a secret joint operation of Kazakh, Russian, and American nuclear scientists and engineers secured the waste plutonium in the tunnels of the mountains.
43:
1115:"Prolonged exposure to air pollution leads to genetic changes in rat brains, study finds: Insight into potential health effects of dirty air in the Los Angeles basin"
576:
protests were held at the Nevada Test Site involving 37,488 participants and 15,740 arrests, according to government records. Those arrested included the astronomer
1462:"Linking exposure assessment science with policy objectives for environmental justice and breast cancer advocacy: the northern California household exposure study"
179:
High emissions of toxic chemicals and airborne particulate matter in West Oakland that cause health issues are due to diesel fuels used for transportation in the
2167:
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in the Yucca Flats/Nevada Test Site. Winds routinely carried the fallout of these tests directly through St. George and southern Utah. Marked increases in
476:, and many of those who were living on the islands at the time of testing has suffered from an increased incidence of various health problems. Through the
2003:
McDougal, Myres S. and Schlei, Norbert A. "The Hydrogen Bomb Tests in Perspective: Lawful Measures for Security". In Myres S. McDougal, et al. (1987),
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groups and organizations in the Bay Area that encourage community participation in pursuing environmental justice. For example, data is collected by a
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266:
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experienced noticeable seismic effects, and the distant mushroom clouds, which could be seen from the downtown hotels, became tourist attractions.
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Richmond. Sixteen years later, local citizen utilizes “Bucket Brigades” to document a handful of criteria air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO
1364:"List of Air Emissions That Chevron's Richmond Refinery Project Could Increase If Mitigation Is Not Required According To The Revised Draft EIR*"
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215:
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There are multiple efforts and strategies to spur legislation for equitable environmental conditions in low-income communities. There are many
2027:
1656:
1571:
2153:
1034:
Lerner, Steve (2010). "Port Arthur, Texas: Public Housing Residents Breathe Contaminated Air from Nearby Refineries and Chemical Plants".
207:. Children 5 and under in west Oakland visit the emergency room for asthma three times more often than children in the county as a whole.
477:
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Community groups and academic researchers have argued the unequal distribution of pollution on the poor and communities of color is an “
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2012:
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to tighten the air pollution regulations by increasing the frequency of fines of facility incidents. Since then, Chevron has been
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59:
705:
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1172:"Community-Based Participatory Research and Policy Advocacy to Reduce Diesel Exposure in West Oakland, California"
1271:
Cole, Luke (1992). "Empowerment as the Key to Environmental Protection: The Need for Environmental Poverty Law".
941:
433:. The Trust Territory is composed of 2,000 islands spread over 3,000,000 square miles (7,800,000 km) of the
337:
304:
2164:
1747:"Community Environmental Policing: Assessing New Strategies of Public Participation in Environmental Regulation"
1598:"Community environmental policing: Assessing new strategies of public participation in environmental regulation"
1511:
The Justice of Environmental Justice: Reconciling Equity, Recognition, and Participation in a Political Movement
828:
650:
with most of the nuclear tests taking place at various sites further to the west and south, some as far as into
2104:
Johnson, Carl (1984). "Cancer Incidence in an Area of Radioactive Fallout Downwind From the Nevada Test Site".
643:
449:
1316:
609:
569:
376:
1967:
848:"Inequity in consumption of goods and services adds to racial–ethnic disparities in air pollution exposure"
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342:
1944:
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percentage of them are Latino and only 5.1% of Wilmington residents 25 or older have a four-year degree.
1801:(2nd ed.). Chicago, Ill.: American Bar Association, Section of Environment, Energy, and Resources.
211:
140:
1991:
1724:
942:"Understanding the Cumulative Impacts of Inequalities in Environmental Health: Implications for Policy"
355:
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on many of the islands, including several which were inhabited, and some that had not been evacuated.
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340:(PG&E) and a multimillion-dollar settlement in 1996. The legal case was dramatized in the film
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321:
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Many of the islands which were part of the Pacific Proving Grounds continue to be contaminated by
2187:
1895:"Diesel Particulate Matter Exposure Assessment Study for the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach"
1837:
1779:
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1545:
1114:
1100:
940:
Morello-Frosch, Rachel; Zuk, Miriam; Jerrett, Michael; Shamasunder, Bhavna; Kyle, Amy D. (2011).
691:
651:
638:. The scientific buildings for the test site were located around 150 km west of the town of
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350:
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55:
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The Semipalatinsk Test Site, also known as "The Polygon", was the primary testing venue for the
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at various times between 1946 and 1962. In July 1947, after the first atomic weapons testing at
534:, covering approximately 1,360 square miles (3,500 km) of desert and mountainous terrain.
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2008:
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1016:
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1799:
Law of environmental justice : theories and procedures to address disproportionate risks
358:, the water used in these cooling towers contained hexavalent chromium – now recognized as a
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2165:
Plutonium Mountain: Inside the 17-Year Mission to Secure a Legacy of Soviet Nuclear Testing
1460:
Brody, Julia Green; Morello-Frosch R; Zota A; Brown P; PĂ©rez C; Rudel RA. (November 2009).
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473:
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184:
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103:
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on 27 January 1951. Many of the iconic images of the nuclear era come from the NTS.
1725:"Environmental Justice for All: A Fifty State Survey of Legislation, Policies and Cases"
1341:
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from atmospheric tests could be seen for almost 100 mi (160 km). The city of
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at the Nevada Test Site began with a 1-kiloton-of-TNT (4.2 TJ) bomb dropped on
183:
and surrounding highways. Traffic and transportation-related air pollutants include
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635:
615:
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573:
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From 1986 through 1994, two years after the United States put a hold on full-scale
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462:
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401:
The Pacific Proving Grounds was the name used to describe a number of sites in the
386:
192:
165:
128:
1088:. California Environmental Protection Agency Air Resources Board. 9 October 2013.
94:
emitters such as old factories and waste storage sites are often toxic hotspots.
1861:
California Environmental Protection Agency Air Resources Board (November 2013).
1038:
Sacrifice Zones: The Front Lines of Toxic Chemical Exposure in the United States
445:
329:
1824:
The Quest for Environmental Justice: Human Rights and the Politics of Pollution
2068:
National Nuclear Security Administration / Nevada Site Office (January 2011).
1388:
960:
631:
627:
577:
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359:
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nose, throat and lungs”, asthma, “exhaust immunological effects”, and cancer.
17:
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and even shorter life expectancy than surrounding neighborhoods averages.
1086:"Overview of the Air Toxics "Hot Spots" Information and Assessment Act"
300:
1775:
1626:
1572:"'We are Richmond.' A beleaguered community earns multicultural clout"
1526:"Discrimination and the political economy of environmental inequality"
530:, the site was established on 11 January 1951 for the testing of
506:
Mushroom cloud from the Nevada Test Site seen from downtown Las Vegas.
623:
562:
519:
173:
1657:"We are Richmond. A Beleaguered Community Earns Multicultural Clout"
1101:"Emissions trading doesn't cause pollution 'hot spots,' study finds"
639:
501:
485:
380:
1541:
1925:. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 29 January 2013
719:
701:
List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration
987:"Racial and Socioeocnomic Disparities in Residential Proximity"
825:"Global Toll of Air Pollution: Over 3 Million Deaths Each Year"
1902:
California Environmental Protection Agency Air Resources Board
1870:
California Environmental Protection Agency Air Resources Board
1863:"Community Air Quality Monitoring: Special Studies Wilmington"
26:
1221:"Clearing the Air: Reducing Diesel Pollution in West Oakland"
42:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
1439:"State & County QuickFacts: Richmond (city), California"
441:
announced the establishment of the Pacific Proving Grounds.
1413:
Manuel Pastor; James Sadd; Rachel Morello-Frosch (2007).
1248:. Sierra Club: San Francisco Bay Chapter. Archived from
522:, about 65 miles (105 km) northwest of the city of
421:, the United States entered into an agreement with the
51:
985:; Lantz, PM; Morenoff, J; House, JS; Mero, RP (2009).
935:
933:
1797:
Gerrard, Michael B.; Sheila R. Foster, eds. (2008).
557:, received the brunt of the fallout of above-ground
336:
starting in 1952, resulting in a legal case against
2184:
Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs
1994:
California Environmental Protection Agency, 9/10/08
1945:"Wilmington Study - Reason for Choosing Wilmington"
1732:
University of California Hasting College of the Law
1035:
1530:Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy
1246:"Advancing environmental justice in the Bay Area"
1161:
1159:
1157:
1155:
852:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1968:"Monitoring air pollution, one home at a time"
1148:. Bay Area Environmental Health Collaborative.
1888:
1886:
600:, conducted underground on December 7, 2012.
250:), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO
40:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
2142:Global Fission:The Battle Over Nuclear Power
1947:. California Environmental Protection Agency
1680:"Richmond Council Oks Chevron Refinery Plan"
2107:Journal of the American Medical Association
1391:. Richmond Community Air Monitoring Program
1389:"Fenceline Monitoring Chemical Definitions"
642:(later renamed Semey), near the border of
2190:, 15 August 2013, accessed 21 August 2013
1765:
1754:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
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1605:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
1485:
1408:
1406:
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1308:
1195:
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1010:
920:Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum
889:
871:
710:Three Mile Island accident health effects
303:. Wilmington has higher concentration of
78:Learn how and when to remove this message
267:Bay Area Air Quality Management District
1596:O'rourke, Dara; Gregg P. Macey (2003).
1591:
1589:
913:
911:
909:
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465:shot of 1954 which spread considerable
2154:Western Shoshone spiritual leader dies
2007:, p. 766. New Haven: New Haven Press.
1826:. Sierra Club Books. pp. 108–124.
1723:Bonorris, Steven (February 15, 2010).
1655:Jane Kay; Cheryl Katz (June 5, 2012).
1369:. Communities for a Better Environment
1322:. Communities for a Better Environment
439:United States Atomic Energy Commission
427:Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
397:, parts of which were still inhabited.
291:from refineries in Wilmington include
216:Community-based participatory research
2044:"50 Facts About U.S. Nuclear Weapons"
1745:O’Rourke, Dara; Macey, G. P. (2003).
7:
840:
838:
514:reservation located in southeastern
1838:"Wilmington Profile - Mapping L.A."
1822:Bullard, Robert (October 1, 2005).
1415:"Still toxic after all these years"
1143:"Still Toxic After All These Years"
478:Radiation Exposure Compensation Act
461:, with the largest being the 15 Mt
1099:Indiana University (23 May 2011).
827:. Switchboard NRDC. Archived from
823:Pettit, David (14 December 2014).
512:United States Department of Energy
25:
1992:PG&E Hinkley Chromium Cleanup
1524:Morello-Frosch, Rachel A (2002).
1466:American Journal of Public Health
1176:American Journal of Public Health
991:American Journal of Public Health
803:"Glossary of Air Pollution Terms"
740:"Glossary of Air Pollution Terms"
510:The Nevada Test Site (NTS), is a
2120:10.1001/jama.1984.03340260034023
1678:Jones, Carolyn (July 18, 2008).
31:
1966:Maio, Pat (February 26, 2014).
1317:"Richmond Health Survey Report"
1570:Cheryl Katz; Jane Kay (2012).
1291:"The Early Years: 1902 - 1914"
634:), south of the valley of the
1:
2005:Studies in World Public Order
1441:. United States Census Bureau
405:and a few other sites in the
1923:"Diesel Particulate Matter"
1893:Di, Pingkuan (April 2006).
1659:. Environmental Health News
1574:. Environmental Health News
671:Health effects of pollution
132:such as cancer or asthma.
98:Soil contamination hotspots
54:, discuss the issue on the
2232:
2025:The evacuation of Rongelap
1509:Schlosberg, David (2003).
1342:"Richmond, CA Air Quality"
706:Three Mile Island accident
696:Chernobyl disaster effects
607:
495:
374:
338:Pacific Gas & Electric
2216:Radioactive contamination
961:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0153
681:Japanese nuclear disaster
437:. On July 23, 1947, the
366:Radioactive contamination
316:Groundwater contamination
305:diesel particulate matter
236:Air Quality Indices (AQI)
1478:10.2105/ajph.2008.149088
1188:10.2105/ajph.2010.196204
1066:. EPA. 26 September 2013
1003:10.2105/ajph.2007.131383
782:"Air pollution hot spot"
644:East Kazakhstan Province
526:. Formerly known as the
156:West Oakland, California
1972:Orange Counter Register
1513:. Cambridge: MIT Press.
873:10.1073/pnas.1818859116
622:. It is located on the
610:Semipalatinsk Test Site
604:Semipalatinsk Test Site
570:nuclear weapons testing
377:Pacific Proving Grounds
371:Pacific Proving Grounds
278:Wilmington, Los Angeles
1472:(Suppl 3): S600–S609.
545:During the 1950s, the
528:Nevada Proving Grounds
507:
398:
164:, the neighborhood of
111:Air pollution hotspots
1273:Ecology Law Quarterly
1166:Gonzalez, Priscilla;
505:
431:trusteeship territory
384:
356:Between 1952 and 1966
212:environmental justice
141:environmental justice
1219:Palaniappan, Meena.
715:Cuban Missile Crisis
389:test of 1954 spread
349:PG&E operates a
346:, released in 2000.
222:Richmond, California
160:Located in the East
129:PM 2.5 air pollution
125:social vulnerability
60:create a new article
52:improve this article
1226:. Pacific Institute
864:2019PNAS..116.6001T
435:North Pacific Ocean
334:hexavalent chromium
322:Hinkley, California
231:Chevron Corporation
2211:Soil contamination
2188:Harvard University
2170:2016-12-06 at the
2140:Falk, Jim (1982).
2030:2007-02-13 at the
1704:. Chevron Richmond
1293:. Chevron Richmond
692:Chernobyl disaster
652:Karagandy Province
582:Kris Kristofferson
508:
480:of 1990, at least
399:
351:compressor station
332:contaminated with
197:particulate matter
1841:Los Angeles Times
1776:10.1002/pam.10138
1627:10.1002/pam.10138
1182:(S1): S166–S175.
1168:Minkler, Meredith
1064:"Risk Assessment"
858:(13): 6001–6006.
761:"Bhopal Disaster"
648:Pavlodar Province
324:, located in the
162:San Francisco Bay
88:
87:
80:
62:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
2223:
2191:
2180:David E. Hoffman
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2101:
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2079:. Archived from
2074:
2070:"Miss Atom Bomb"
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2046:. Archived from
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748:
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736:
722:nuclear meltdown
687:Goiânia accident
555:St. George, Utah
498:Nevada Test Site
492:Nevada Test Site
403:Marshall Islands
395:Marshall Islands
189:nitrogen dioxide
83:
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35:
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1315:Lopez, Andrea.
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1103:. ScienceDaily.
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733:
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620:nuclear weapons
612:
606:
580:and the actors
559:nuclear testing
547:mushroom clouds
536:Nuclear testing
532:nuclear devices
500:
494:
474:nuclear fallout
467:nuclear fallout
429:as a strategic
415:nuclear testing
391:nuclear fallout
379:
373:
368:
343:Erin Brockovich
318:
280:
257:
254:), and ozone (O
253:
249:
224:
185:carbon monoxide
181:Port of Oakland
158:
113:
104:Bhopal disaster
100:
84:
73:
67:
64:
49:
36:
32:
23:
22:
15:
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1914:
1882:
1853:
1829:
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1808:978-1604420838
1807:
1789:
1760:(3): 383–414.
1737:
1734:(4th Edition).
1715:
1693:
1670:
1647:
1611:(3): 383–414.
1585:
1562:
1536:(4): 477–496.
1516:
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1026:
974:
955:(5): 879–887.
949:Health Affairs
929:
905:
834:
831:on 8 May 2014.
815:
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689:
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673:
666:
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608:Main article:
605:
602:
540:Frenchman Flat
496:Main article:
493:
490:
425:to govern the
423:United Nations
409:, used by the
375:Main article:
372:
369:
367:
364:
317:
314:
297:sulfur dioxide
293:carbon dioxide
279:
276:
255:
251:
247:
223:
220:
170:Alameda County
157:
154:
112:
109:
99:
96:
91:Toxic hotspots
86:
85:
46:of the subject
44:worldwide view
39:
37:
30:
24:
18:Toxic hotspots
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2228:
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2207:
2206:Air pollution
2204:
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2100:
2097:
2086:on 2012-03-03
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2050:on 2006-03-07
2049:
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2014:
2013:0-89838-900-3
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1703:
1702:"Environment"
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1274:
1267:
1264:
1252:on 2014-03-30
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1049:9780262014403
1045:
1042:. MIT Press.
1040:
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649:
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640:Semipalatinsk
637:
633:
629:
626:in northeast
625:
621:
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611:
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454:nuclear tests
451:
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412:
411:United States
408:
407:Pacific Ocean
404:
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326:Mojave Desert
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205:Oakland Hills
200:
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195:, and diesel
194:
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186:
182:
177:
175:
171:
167:
163:
155:
153:
150:
149:cap-and-trade
144:
142:
137:
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130:
126:
120:
117:
116:Air pollution
110:
108:
105:
97:
95:
92:
82:
79:
71:
68:November 2017
61:
57:
53:
47:
45:
38:
29:
28:
19:
2176:Eben Harrell
2160:
2149:
2141:
2136:
2114:(2): 230–6.
2111:
2105:
2099:
2088:. Retrieved
2081:the original
2076:
2063:
2052:. Retrieved
2048:the original
2038:
2020:
2004:
1999:
1987:
1975:. Retrieved
1971:
1961:
1949:. Retrieved
1939:
1927:. Retrieved
1917:
1905:. Retrieved
1901:
1873:. Retrieved
1869:
1856:
1844:. Retrieved
1840:
1832:
1823:
1817:
1798:
1792:
1757:
1753:
1740:
1731:
1718:
1706:. Retrieved
1696:
1684:. Retrieved
1673:
1661:. Retrieved
1650:
1638:. Retrieved
1608:
1604:
1576:. Retrieved
1565:
1553:. Retrieved
1542:10.1068/c03r
1533:
1529:
1519:
1510:
1504:
1469:
1465:
1455:
1443:. Retrieved
1433:
1421:. Retrieved
1393:. Retrieved
1383:
1371:. Retrieved
1358:
1346:. Retrieved
1336:
1324:. Retrieved
1295:. Retrieved
1285:
1276:
1272:
1266:
1254:. Retrieved
1250:the original
1240:
1228:. Retrieved
1214:
1179:
1175:
1122:. Retrieved
1119:ScienceDaily
1118:
1109:
1094:
1080:
1068:. Retrieved
1058:
1037:
1029:
994:
990:
977:
952:
948:
923:
919:
855:
851:
829:the original
818:
806:. Retrieved
797:
785:. Retrieved
776:
764:. Retrieved
755:
743:. Retrieved
734:
660:
656:
636:Irtysh River
616:Soviet Union
613:
594:
590:Robert Blake
586:Martin Sheen
574:anti-nuclear
567:
544:
527:
509:
471:
463:Castle Bravo
443:
419:Bikini Atoll
400:
387:Castle Bravo
348:
341:
320:The town of
319:
310:
289:
285:
281:
264:
260:
244:
240:
225:
209:
201:
193:black carbon
178:
166:West Oakland
159:
145:
138:
134:
121:
114:
101:
90:
89:
74:
65:
41:
2077:Fact Sheets
683:, Fukushima
450:underground
448:(i.e., not
446:atmospheric
413:to conduct
393:across the
330:groundwater
2200:Categories
2090:2011-12-02
2054:2016-05-02
1124:2019-02-16
727:References
632:Kazakh SSR
630:(then the
628:Kazakhstan
578:Carl Sagan
516:Nye County
360:carcinogen
328:, had its
2144:, p. 134.
1784:154353713
1762:CiteSeerX
1682:. SF Gate
1635:154353713
1613:CiteSeerX
1550:154019009
882:0027-8424
676:Superfund
598:plutonium
551:Las Vegas
524:Las Vegas
102:The 1984
56:talk page
2168:Archived
2028:Archived
1977:29 April
1951:24 April
1929:24 April
1907:24 April
1875:24 April
1846:24 April
1708:30 April
1686:30 April
1663:30 April
1640:30 April
1578:30 April
1496:19890164
1445:30 April
1423:30 April
1395:30 April
1373:30 April
1297:30 April
1256:30 April
1230:23 April
1206:21551381
1170:(2011).
1070:20 April
1021:19890171
983:Mohai, P
969:21555471
900:30858319
808:30 April
787:24 April
766:26 April
665:See also
459:megatons
227:Richmond
50:You may
2128:6690781
1487:2774181
1197:3222507
1012:2774179
891:6442600
860:Bibcode
563:cancers
301:benzene
271:flaring
107:today.
2178:&
2126:
2011:
1805:
1782:
1764:
1633:
1615:
1548:
1494:
1484:
1279:(619).
1204:
1194:
1046:
1019:
1009:
967:
926:(231).
898:
888:
880:
658:1991.
624:steppe
588:, and
572:, 536
520:Nevada
174:asthma
2084:(PDF)
2073:(PDF)
1898:(PDF)
1866:(PDF)
1780:S2CID
1750:(PDF)
1728:(PDF)
1631:S2CID
1601:(PDF)
1555:7 May
1546:S2CID
1418:(PDF)
1367:(PDF)
1348:6 May
1344:. USA
1326:7 May
1320:(PDF)
1224:(PDF)
1146:(PDF)
945:(PDF)
745:4 May
486:Japan
58:, or
2124:PMID
2009:ISBN
1979:2014
1953:2014
1931:2014
1909:2014
1877:2014
1848:2014
1803:ISBN
1710:2014
1688:2014
1665:2014
1642:2014
1580:2014
1557:2014
1492:PMID
1447:2014
1425:2014
1397:2014
1375:2014
1350:2014
1328:2014
1299:2014
1258:2014
1232:2014
1202:PMID
1072:2014
1044:ISBN
1017:PMID
965:PMID
896:PMID
878:ISSN
810:2014
789:2014
768:2014
747:2014
720:SL-1
708:and
694:and
646:and
444:105
385:The
299:and
2116:doi
2112:251
1772:doi
1623:doi
1538:doi
1482:PMC
1474:doi
1192:PMC
1184:doi
1180:101
1007:PMC
999:doi
957:doi
886:PMC
868:doi
856:116
618:'s
143:”.
2202::
2186:,
2182:,
2174:,
2122:.
2110:.
2075:.
1970:.
1900:.
1885:^
1868:.
1778:.
1770:.
1758:22
1756:.
1752:.
1730:.
1629:.
1621:.
1609:22
1607:.
1603:.
1588:^
1544:.
1534:20
1532:.
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