360:
1178:
98:
38:
76:"Saffron, for example, was once less regarded than it is today because the crocus from which it is extracted was not particularly mysterious. It flourished in European locations extending from Asia Minor, where it originated, to Saffron Walden in England, where it was naturalised. Only subsequently, when its labour-intensive cultivation became largely centred in Kashmir, did it seem sufficiently exotic to qualify as one of the most precious of spices."
201:
30:
372:
was traditionally reserved for the noble classes, implying that saffron played a ritualised and status-keying role. It was originally responsible for the vermilion-, ochre-, and saffron-hued robes and mantles worn by
Buddhist and Hindu monks. In medieval Ireland and Scotland, well-to-do monks wore a long linen undershirt known as a
110:
Saffron features in
European, North African, and Asian cuisines. Its aroma is described by taste experts as resembling that of honey, with woody, hay-like, and earthy notes; according to another such assessment, it tastes of hay, but only with bitter hints. Because it imparts a luminous yellow-orange
71:
is full of applications in food, drink, and traditional herbal medicine: from Africa and Asia to Europe and the
Americas the brilliant red threads have long been prized in baking, curries, and liquor. It coloured textiles and other items and often helped confer the social standing of political elites
371:
colouring agent; the imparted vibrant orange-yellow hue quickly fades to a pale and creamy yellow. Even in minute amounts, the saffron stamens yield a luminous yellow-orange; increasing the applied saffron concentration will give fabric of increasingly rich shades of red. Clothing dyed with saffron
166:
the threads' colour and flavour into the liquid phase; powdered saffron does not require this step. The soaking solution is then added to the hot cooking dish, allowing even colour and flavour distribution, which is critical in preparing baked goods or thick sauces.
80:
Saffron crocus cultivation has long centered on a broad belt of
Eurasia bounded by the Mediterranean Sea in the southwest to India and China in the northeast. The major producers of antiquity—Iran, Spain, India, and Greece—continue to dominate the world trade.
395:
There have been many attempts to replace saffron with a cheaper dye. Saffron's usual substitutes in food—turmeric and safflower, among others—yield a garishly bright yellow that could hardly be confused with that of saffron. Saffron's main colourant is the
321:.) Saffron spices subcontinental beef and chicken entrees and goes into many sweets, particularly in Muslim and Rajasthani fare. Modern technology has added another delicacy to the list: saffron ice cream. Regional milk-based sweets feature it, among them
58:, known popularly as the saffron crocus. The resulting dried stigmas, also known as "threads", are distinguished by their bitter taste, hay-like fragrance, and slight metallic notes. The saffron crocus is unknown in the wild; its most likely precursor,
88:
in
Pennsylvania. In recent decades cultivation has spread to New Zealand, Tasmania, and California. Iran has accounted for around 90–93 percent of recent annual world production and thereby dominates the export market on a by-quantity basis.
111:
hue, it is used worldwide in everything from cheeses, confectioneries, and liquors to baked goods, curries, meat dishes, and soups. In past eras, many dishes called for prohibitively copious amounts—hardly for taste, but to parade their wealth.
240:. In England, the saffron "revel buns" were traditionally baked for anniversary feasts (revels) or for church dedications. In the West of Cornwall, large saffron "tea treat buns" signify Methodist Sunday School outings and activities.
161:
are types of alcoholic beverages that rely on saffron to provide a flourish of colour and flavour. Saffron threads are often crumbled and pre-soaked in water or sherry for several minutes prior to adding them to a dish. This process
431:
was applied as a perfume to hair. Another preparation involved mixing saffron with wine to produce a viscous yellow spray; it was copiously applied in sudoriferously sunny Roman amphitheatres—as an air freshener.
690:
Sigdel, S.; Gemind, J. T.; Tomashefski Jr, J. F. (2011). "The Movat pentachrome stain as a means of identifying microcrystalline cellulose among other particulates found in lung tissue".
256:
herb mixture that flavors many
Moroccan dishes. Due to its high price, it is mostly used while cooking for special occasions as well as in some Moroccan high-end recipes like the
149:) in cuisine. Both mimic saffron's colour well, but have distinctive flavours. Saffron is used in the confectionery and liquor industries; this is its most common use in Italy.
969:
Rubio-Moraga, A.; Castillo-LĂłpez, R.; GĂłmez-GĂłmez, L.; Ahrazem, O. (2009), "Saffron Is a
Monomorphic Species as Revealed by RAPD, ISSR, and Microsatellite Analyses",
778:
48:
is a key seasoning, fragrance, dye, and medicine in use for over three millennia. One of the world's most expensive spices by weight, saffron consists of
1386:
72:
and religious adepts. Ancient and medieval peoples believed saffron could be used to treat a wide range of ailments, from stomach upsets to the plague.
602:
1016:
960:
938:
914:
882:
858:
840:
768:
122:, an aromatic beverage made from saffron, almonds, walnuts, cardamom etc. It is also used in Kashmiri marriage and occasional cuisine namely
33:
Prior to use in cuisine, saffron threads are soaked in water that is hot, but not boiling. This helps release the beneficial components.
64:, originated in Crete or Central Asia; The saffron crocus is native to Southwest Asia and was first cultivated in what is now Greece.
1047:
392:
stain are used as a tissue stain to make biological structures more visible under a microscope. Saffron stains collagen yellow.
170:
Threads are a popular condiment for rice in Spain and Iran, India and
Pakistan, and other countries. Two examples of such
789:
367:
Despite its high cost, saffron has been used as a fabric dye, particularly in China and India. It is in the long run an
808:
632:
301:, the Iranian national dish. The use of saffron in south Indian cuisine is perhaps best characterised by the eponymous
1469:
598:
1330:
359:
1433:
1381:
590:
389:
60:
1120:
1177:
1040:
150:
85:
420:
237:
1260:
1239:
441:
317:
163:
68:
97:
1310:
1300:
1012:
994:
956:
934:
910:
878:
854:
836:
764:
707:
424:
1459:
1365:
1340:
984:
974:
699:
335:
158:
154:
1464:
1219:
1033:
354:
200:
37:
17:
250:
Moroccans use saffron in many salty or sweet-and salty dishes. It is a key recipe in the
1407:
1360:
1137:
989:
54:
1453:
1355:
1265:
1125:
186:
851:
The
Contemporary Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices: Seasonings for the Global Kitchen
305:- a semolina based dessert from Karnataka. South Asian cuisines also use saffron in
126:, where chicken is cooked in its heated aromatic solution, and the dish is known as
1438:
1325:
1234:
1209:
900:
754:
302:
297:
171:
1006:
924:
904:
868:
758:
224:. The latter is a rich yeast dough bun that is enhanced with saffron, along with
1270:
1214:
1199:
1130:
377:
345:"; the last is a sweet yogurt-based Jodhpuri drink that is culturally symbolic.
323:
209:
788:, no. 20, New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research, archived from
403:; it has been discovered in the less tediously harvested—and hence less costly—
1320:
1224:
1156:
891:
Major, J. (1892), "A History of
Greater Britain as well England as Scotland",
397:
217:
1417:
1280:
1096:
979:
952:
816:
624:
489:
385:
252:
244:
134:
998:
711:
415:
In Europe saffron threads were a key component of an aromatic oil known as
29:
1350:
1295:
1275:
1204:
1165:
1103:
1008:
Secrets of Saffron: The Vagabond Life of the World's Most Seductive Spice
404:
381:
257:
225:
142:
184:, a piquant rice-meat preparation. It is essential in making the French
1412:
1345:
1305:
1290:
1244:
1229:
1149:
1144:
1115:
1110:
307:
192:
133:
Because of its high cost saffron was often replaced by or diluted with
84:
The cultivation of saffron in the Americas was begun by members of the
45:
703:
1285:
1087:
1075:
1056:
400:
275:
262:
229:
180:
103:
49:
204:
A Swedish-style saffron bun, traditionally consumed before Christmas
1402:
1335:
1315:
1070:
358:
341:
329:
292:
260:. Other Moroccan dishes cooked with saffron include some types of
233:
199:
96:
36:
28:
867:
Kafi, M.; Koocheki, A.; Rashed, M. H.; Nassiri, M., eds. (2006),
285:
Uzbeks use it in a special rice-based offering known as "wedding
1080:
625:"Essential Moroccan Spices for Moroccan Cooking - Moroccan Zest"
287:
1029:
1194:
376:, which was traditionally dyed with saffron. In histology the
190:, which is a spicy fish stew from Marseilles, and the Italian
1176:
311:, which are spicy rice-vegetable dishes. (An example is the
236:. They are typically eaten during Advent, and especially on
212:
has Swedish and Cornish variants and in Swedish is known as
1025:
906:
On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen
1163:
1154:
1135:
1101:
1085:
524:
522:
548:
546:
52:
plucked from the vegetatively propagated and sterile
1426:
1395:
1374:
1253:
1187:
1063:
779:"Growing Saffron—The World's Most Expensive Spice"
282:(succulent lamb dressed with plums and almonds).
763:(1st ed.), University of California Press,
692:Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine
949:Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings
1041:
419:, which comprised such motley ingredients as
8:
893:Publications of the Scottish History Society
835:(1st ed.), Cambridge University Press,
724:
427:(for colour), and wine (again for colour).
101:Saffron is one of three key ingredients in
1387:Traditional dyes of the Scottish Highlands
1048:
1034:
1026:
988:
978:
685:
683:
247:, Spain, the spice is almost ubiquitous.
477:
41:Sale of saffron and other spices in Iran
662:
576:
458:
653:Kesari is the Kannada word for Saffron
833:The Agricultural Systems of the World
760:Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices
736:
674:
635:from the original on 16 November 2018
564:
528:
501:
407:fruit. Research in China is ongoing.
7:
877:(1st ed.), Science Publishers,
605:from the original on 19 January 2023
552:
513:
465:
813:Institute for Traditional Medicine
809:"Saffron: An Anti-Depressant Herb"
25:
363:Buddhist monks in Hangzhou, China
67:From ancient to modern times the
947:Raghavan, S. (2006), "Saffron",
895:, vol. 10, University Press
589:J. S. Marcus (27 October 2011).
295:). Saffron is also essential in
114:In Kashmir, saffron is used in
1:
591:"Wall Street Journal article"
216:(literally "Lucy cat", after
973:, vol. 2, p. 189,
599:Dow Jones & Company, Inc
1164:
1155:
1136:
1102:
1086:
874:) Production and Processing
1486:
352:
18:Trade and usage of saffron
1174:
270:(meatballs with tomato),
243:In traditional dishes of
1434:Glossary of dyeing terms
1254:Traditional textile dyes
807:Dharmananda, S. (2005),
490:Rubio-Moraga et al. 2009
980:10.1186/1756-0500-2-189
923:Negbi, M., ed. (1999),
853:(1st ed.), Wiley,
595:The Wall Street Journal
540:Keay (2005), pp. 19–20.
1181:
786:Crop and Food Research
364:
205:
178:fish-seafood stew and
107:
78:
61:Crocus cartwrightianus
42:
34:
1180:
1121:Reactive dye printing
831:Grigg, D. B. (1974),
362:
203:
100:
74:
40:
32:
1005:Willard, P. (2002),
819:on 26 September 2006
631:. 11 November 2018.
278:-chicken dish), and
139:Carthamus tinctorius
86:Schwenkfelder Church
795:on 27 December 2005
390:Movat's pentachrome
130:in local language.
1470:Trade by commodity
1261:Armenian cochineal
1182:
971:BMC Research Notes
442:History of saffron
365:
318:Hyderabadi biryani
206:
108:
69:history of saffron
43:
35:
1447:
1446:
1018:978-0-8070-5009-5
962:978-0-8493-2842-8
940:978-90-5702-394-1
916:978-0-684-80001-1
884:978-1-57808-427-2
860:978-0-471-21423-6
849:Hill, T. (2004),
842:978-0-521-09843-4
770:978-0-520-23674-5
704:10.5858/135.2.249
181:paella valenciana
104:paella valenciana
16:(Redirected from
1477:
1341:Polish cochineal
1169:
1160:
1141:
1107:
1091:
1050:
1043:
1036:
1027:
1021:
1011:, Beacon Press,
1001:
992:
982:
965:
943:
919:
896:
887:
863:
845:
827:
826:
824:
815:, archived from
803:
802:
800:
794:
783:
777:Deo, B. (2003),
773:
740:
734:
728:
725:Dharmananda 2005
722:
716:
715:
687:
678:
672:
666:
660:
654:
651:
645:
644:
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621:
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562:
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550:
541:
538:
532:
526:
517:
511:
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499:
493:
487:
481:
475:
469:
463:
336:double ka meetha
238:Saint Lucy's Day
21:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1450:
1449:
1448:
1443:
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1370:
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1024:
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1004:
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749:
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743:
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731:
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673:
669:
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652:
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623:
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618:
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597:. published by
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508:
500:
496:
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484:
476:
472:
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460:
455:
450:
438:
413:
357:
355:Saffron (color)
351:
339:, and "saffron
95:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1483:
1481:
1473:
1472:
1467:
1462:
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1436:
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1424:
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1421:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1389:
1384:
1382:Use of saffron
1378:
1376:
1372:
1371:
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1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
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1152:
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1142:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1099:
1094:
1093:
1092:
1078:
1073:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1060:
1055:
1053:
1052:
1045:
1038:
1030:
1023:
1022:
1017:
1002:
966:
961:
951:(2 ed.),
944:
939:
928:Crocus sativus
920:
915:
897:
888:
883:
872:Crocus sativus
864:
859:
846:
841:
828:
804:
774:
769:
750:
748:
745:
742:
741:
739:, p. 138.
729:
717:
698:(2): 249–254.
679:
667:
665:, p. 205.
655:
646:
616:
581:
579:, p. 203.
569:
557:
555:, p. 275.
542:
533:
531:, p. 422.
518:
516:, p. 272.
506:
504:, p. 287.
494:
482:
480:, p. 161.
470:
457:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
445:
444:
437:
434:
425:dragon's blood
412:
409:
350:
347:
94:
91:
55:Crocus sativus
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1482:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1455:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1425:
1419:
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1414:
1411:
1409:
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1401:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1377:
1373:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1356:Tyrian purple
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
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1302:
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1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1190:
1188:Types of dyes
1186:
1179:
1168:
1167:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1140:
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1129:
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1119:
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1109:
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1079:
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1028:
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1009:
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991:
986:
981:
976:
972:
967:
964:
958:
954:
950:
945:
942:
936:
933:, CRC Press,
932:
931:
927:
921:
918:
912:
908:
907:
902:
898:
894:
889:
886:
880:
876:
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871:
865:
862:
856:
852:
847:
844:
838:
834:
829:
818:
814:
810:
805:
791:
787:
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772:
766:
762:
761:
756:
752:
751:
746:
738:
733:
730:
726:
721:
718:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
686:
684:
680:
677:, p. 49.
676:
671:
668:
664:
659:
656:
650:
647:
634:
630:
629:Moroccan Zest
626:
620:
617:
604:
600:
596:
592:
585:
582:
578:
573:
570:
567:, p. 59.
566:
561:
558:
554:
549:
547:
543:
537:
534:
530:
525:
523:
519:
515:
510:
507:
503:
498:
495:
491:
486:
483:
479:
478:Raghavan 2006
474:
471:
467:
462:
459:
452:
447:
443:
440:
439:
435:
433:
430:
426:
422:
418:
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406:
402:
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393:
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387:
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370:
361:
356:
348:
346:
344:
343:
338:
337:
332:
331:
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319:
314:
310:
309:
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300:
299:
294:
290:
289:
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281:
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269:
265:
264:
259:
255:
254:
248:
246:
241:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
202:
198:
196:
195:alla milanese
194:
189:
188:
187:bouillabaisse
183:
182:
177:
173:
168:
165:
160:
156:
152:
148:
147:Curcuma longa
144:
140:
136:
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
112:
106:
105:
99:
92:
90:
87:
82:
77:
73:
70:
65:
63:
62:
57:
56:
51:
47:
39:
31:
27:
19:
1439:List of dyes
1311:Dyer's broom
1266:Black walnut
1007:
970:
948:
929:
925:
909:, Scribner,
905:
892:
873:
869:
850:
832:
821:, retrieved
817:the original
812:
797:, retrieved
790:the original
785:
759:
732:
720:
695:
691:
670:
663:Willard 2002
658:
649:
637:. Retrieved
628:
619:
607:. Retrieved
594:
584:
577:Willard 2002
572:
560:
536:
509:
497:
485:
473:
468:, p. 1.
461:
428:
416:
414:
394:
373:
368:
366:
340:
334:
328:
322:
316:
312:
306:
303:Kesari bhath
298:chelow kabab
296:
286:
284:
279:
271:
267:
261:
251:
249:
242:
221:
213:
207:
191:
185:
179:
175:
172:saffron rice
169:
146:
138:
132:
127:
123:
119:
115:
113:
109:
102:
93:Culinary use
83:
79:
75:
66:
59:
53:
44:
26:
1220:Substantive
1138:RĹŤketsuzome
1131:Ring dyeing
639:16 November
386:(HPS) stain
378:hematoxylin
324:gulab jamun
315:variety of
210:saffron bun
128:konge kokur
1454:Categories
1396:Craft dyes
1157:Tsutsugaki
1064:Techniques
823:10 January
799:10 January
737:Dalby 2002
675:Major 1892
609:7 December
565:Negbi 1999
529:McGee 2004
502:Grigg 1974
398:carotenoid
353:See also:
222:lussebulle
218:Saint Lucy
151:Chartreuse
1427:Reference
1281:Cochineal
1271:Bloodroot
1240:Discharge
1097:Kalamkari
953:CRC Press
926:Saffron:
901:McGee, H.
870:Saffron (
755:Dalby, A.
553:Hill 2004
514:Hill 2004
453:Citations
411:Perfumery
384:-saffron
349:Colouring
253:chermoula
245:La Mancha
214:lussekatt
135:safflower
1351:Turmeric
1296:Dyewoods
1276:Brazilin
1235:Disperse
1210:Reactive
1104:Katazome
999:19772674
903:(2004),
757:(2002),
712:21284446
633:Archived
603:Archived
466:Deo 2003
436:See also
429:Crocinum
417:crocinum
405:gardenia
382:phloxine
369:unstable
308:biryanis
258:pastilla
234:currants
226:cinnamon
176:zarzuela
164:extracts
143:turmeric
1460:Saffron
1413:Procion
1408:Inkodye
1375:History
1346:Saffron
1331:Logwood
1306:Gamboge
1286:Cudbear
1245:Pigment
1215:Solvent
1200:Natural
1150:Tie-dye
1145:Shibori
1116:Mordant
1111:Leheria
990:2758891
747:Sources
421:alkanet
291:" (cf.
280:mrouzia
272:mqualli
263:tajines
193:risotto
174:is the
50:stigmas
46:Saffron
1465:Spices
1336:Madder
1326:Kermes
1321:Indigo
1301:Fustic
1225:Sulfur
1126:Resist
1088:Kasuri
1076:Dyeing
1057:Dyeing
1015:
997:
987:
959:
937:
913:
881:
857:
839:
767:
710:
401:crocin
276:citron
230:nutmeg
159:strega
157:, and
155:izarra
124:Wazwan
1403:Dylon
1316:Henna
1291:Cutch
1166:YĹ«zen
1071:Batik
793:(PDF)
782:(PDF)
448:Notes
374:léine
342:lassi
330:kulfi
313:Pakki
293:pilaf
268:kefta
220:) or
141:) or
120:kahwa
116:kehva
1366:Woad
1361:Weld
1205:Acid
1195:Dyes
1081:Ikat
1013:ISBN
995:PMID
957:ISBN
935:ISBN
911:ISBN
879:ISBN
855:ISBN
837:ISBN
825:2006
801:2006
765:ISBN
708:PMID
641:2018
611:2015
388:and
288:plov
232:and
208:The
1418:Rit
1230:Vat
985:PMC
975:doi
700:doi
696:135
274:(a
228:or
118:or
1456::
993:,
983:,
955:,
930:L.
811:,
784:,
706:.
694:.
682:^
627:.
601:.
593:.
545:^
521:^
423:,
333:,
327:,
266:,
197:.
153:,
1049:e
1042:t
1035:v
977::
727:.
714:.
702::
643:.
613:.
492:.
380:-
145:(
137:(
20:)
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