1322:
assessed as an indicator of the severity of the injury. A non-contrast CT of the head should be performed immediately in all those who have sustained a moderate or severe head injury. A CT is an imaging technique that allows physicians to see inside the head without surgery in order to determine if there is internal bleeding or swelling in the brain. Computed tomography (CT) has become the diagnostic modality of choice for head trauma due to its accuracy, reliability, safety, and wide availability. The changes in microcirculation, impaired auto-regulation, cerebral edema, and axonal injury start as soon as a head injury occurs and manifest as clinical, biochemical, and radiological changes. An MRI may also be conducted to determine if someone has abnormal growths or tumors in the brain or to determine if the patient has had a stroke.
1351:(PET), single-photon emission tomography (SPECT). CT scans and MRI are the two techniques widely used and are the most effective. CT scans can show brain bleeds, fractures of the skull, fluid build up in the brain that will lead to increased cranial pressure. MRI is able to better detect smaller injuries, detect damage within the brain, diffuse axonal injury, injuries to the brainstem, posterior fossa, and subtemporal and sub frontal regions. However, patients with pacemakers, metallic implants, or other metal within their bodies are unable to have an MRI done. Typically the other imaging techniques are not used in a clinical setting because of the cost, lack of availability.
1378:. If the brain has been severely damaged by trauma, a neurosurgical evaluation may be useful. Treatments may involve controlling elevated intracranial pressure. This can include sedation, paralytics, cerebrospinal fluid diversion. Second-line alternatives include decompressive craniectomy (Jagannathan et al. found a net 65% favorable outcomes rate in pediatric patients), barbiturate coma, hypertonic saline, and hypothermia. Although all of these methods have potential benefits, there has been no randomized study that has shown unequivocal benefit.
1191:, the ability to read is destroyed by a lesion damaging both the left visual field and the connection between the right visual field and the language areas (Broca's area and Wernicke's area). However, this does not mean someone with pure alexia is incapable of comprehending speech—merely that there is no connection between their working visual cortex and language areas—as is demonstrated by the fact that pure alexics can still write, speak, and even transcribe letters without understanding their meaning. Lesions to the
1275:(another, more specific, term for head injuries) are caused by falls, 10% by assaults, 16.5% by being struck by or against something, 17% by motor vehicle accidents, and 21% by other/unknown ways. In addition, the highest rate of injury is among children ages 0–14 and adults age 65 and older. Brain injuries that include brain damage can also be brought on by exposure to toxic chemicals, lack of oxygen, tumors, infections, and stroke. Possible causes of widespread brain damage include birth hypoxia, prolonged
166:
1328:(GCS) is the most widely used scoring system used to assess the level of severity of a brain injury. This method is based on objective observations of specific traits to determine the severity of a brain injury. It is based on three traits eye-opening, verbal response, and motor response, gauged as described below. Based on the Glasgow Coma Scale severity is classified as follows, severe brain injuries score 3–8, moderate brain injuries score 9-12 and mild score 13–15.
1413:. Recovery in children with neurologic deficits will vary. Children with neurologic deficits who improve daily are more likely to recover, while those who are vegetative for months are less likely to improve. Most patients without deficits have full recovery. However, persons who sustain head trauma resulting in unconsciousness for an hour or more have twice the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease later in life.
49:
1477:, consulted on a stroke patient. The patient experienced neither speech nor hearing impairments but had a few brain deficits. These deficits included: lacking the ability to comprehend what was spoken to him and the words written down. After his death, Wernicke examined his autopsy that found a lesion located in the left temporal region. This area became known as
498:
1501:
1515:
1529:
1458:
frontal lobe. Gage observed to be intellectually unaffected but exemplified post-injury behavioral deficits. These deficits include: becoming sporadic, disrespectful, extremely profane, and gave no regard for other workers. Gage started having seizures in
February 1860, dying only four months later on May 21, 1860.
316:
in nature. The person may become sleepy, behave abnormally, lose consciousness, vomit, develop a severe headache, have mismatched pupil sizes, and/or be unable to move certain parts of the body. While these symptoms happen immediately after a head injury occurs, many problems can develop later in life.
1381:
Clinicians will often consult clinical decision support rules such as the
Canadian CT Head Rule or the New Orleans/Charity Head injury/Trauma Rule to decide if the patient needs further imaging studies or observation only. Rules like these are usually studied in depth by multiple research groups with
2844:
Stiell IG, Clement CM, Rowe BH, Schull MJ, Brison R, Cass D, Eisenhauer MA, McKnight RD, Bandiera G, Holroyd B, Lee JS, Dreyer J, Worthington JR, Reardon M, Greenberg G, Lesiuk H, MacPhail I, Wells GA (September 2005). "Comparison of the
Canadian CT Head Rule and the New Orleans Criteria in patients
403:
effect (the impact to the head can cause the brain to move within the skull, causing the brain to impact the interior of the skull opposite the head-impact). While impact on the brain at the same site of injury to the skull is the coup effect. If the impact causes the head to move, the injury may be
1465:
examined two patients exhibiting impaired speech due to frontal lobe injuries. Broca's first patient lacked productive speech. He saw this as an opportunity to address language localization. It wasn't until
Leborgne, formally known as "tan", died when Broca confirmed the frontal lobe lesion from an
1436:
To combat overuse of head CT scans yielding negative intracranial hemorrhage results, which unnecessarily exposes patients to radiation and increase time in the hospital and cost of the visit, multiple clinical decision support rules have been developed to help clinicians weigh the option to scan a
955:
Symptoms of a mild brain injury include headaches, confusion, ringing ears, fatigue, changes in sleep patterns, mood or behavior. Other symptoms include trouble with memory, concentration, attention or thinking. Mental fatigue is a common debilitating experience and may not be linked by the patient
315:
Unlike a broken bone where trauma to the body is obvious, head trauma can sometimes be conspicuous or inconspicuous. In the case of an open head injury, the skull is cracked and broken by an object that makes contact with the brain. This leads to bleeding. Other obvious symptoms can be neurological
299:
The number of new cases is 1.7 million in the United States each year, with about 3% of these incidents leading to death. Adults have head injuries more frequently than any age group resulting from falls, motor vehicle crashes, colliding or being struck by an object, or assaults. Children, however,
964:
Cognitive symptoms include confusion, aggressive, abnormal behavior, slurred speech, and coma or other disorders of consciousness. Physical symptoms include headaches that do not go away or worsen, vomiting or nausea, convulsions or seizures, abnormal dilation of the eyes, inability to awaken from
1321:
There are a few methods used to diagnose a head injury. A healthcare professional will ask the patient questions revolving around the injury as well as questions to help determine in what ways the injury is affecting function. In addition to this hearing, vision, balance, and reflexes may also be
1124:
Because brain injuries can be life-threatening, even people with apparently slight injuries, with no noticeable signs or complaints, require close observation; They have a chance for severe symptoms later on. The caretakers of those patients with mild trauma who are released from the hospital are
1440:
Brain injuries are very hard to predict in the outcome. Many tests and specialists are needed to determine the likelihood of the prognosis. People with minor brain damage can have debilitating side effects; not just severe brain damage has debilitating effects. The side-effects of a brain injury
1457:
and the famous case studies by Paul Broca. The first case study on
Phineas Gage's head injury is one of the most astonishing brain injuries in history. In 1848, Phineas Gage was paving way for a new railroad line when he encountered an accidental explosion of a tamping iron straight through his
1408:
In children with uncomplicated minor head injuries the risk of intracranial bleeding over the next year is rare at 2 cases per 1 million. In some cases transient neurological disturbances may occur, lasting minutes to hours. Malignant post traumatic cerebral swelling can develop unexpectedly in
1136:
is used in young children. The widely used PECARN Pediatric Head Injury/Trauma
Algorithm helps physicians weigh risk-benefit of imaging in a clinical setting given multiple factors about the patient—including mechanism/location of the injury, age of the patient, and GCS score.
1466:
autopsy. The second patient had similar speech impairments, supporting his findings on language localization. The results of both cases became a vital verification of the relationship between speech and the left cerebral hemisphere. The affected areas are known today as
1145:
Symptoms of brain injuries can also be influenced by the location of the injury and as a result, impairments are specific to the part of the brain affected. Lesion size is correlated with severity, recovery, and comprehension. Brain injuries often create impairment or
1437:
patient with a head injury. Among these are the
Canadian Head CT rule, the PECARN Head Injury/Trauma Algorithm, and the New Orleans/Charity Head Injury/Trauma Rule all help clinicians make these decisions using easily obtained information and noninvasive practices.
1255:
Head injuries can be caused by a large variety of reasons. All of these causes can be put into two categories used to classify head injuries; those that occur from impact (blows) and those that occur from shaking. Common causes of head injury due to impact are
1203:
would eliminate the enhanced activation seen in occipital and fusiform visual areas in response to fear with the area intact. Amygdala lesions change the functional pattern of activation to emotional stimuli in regions that are distant from the amygdala.
938:
Overlying scalp laceration and soft tissue disruption in continuity with a skull fracture constitutes "compound head injury", and has higher rates of infection, unfavorable neurologic outcome, delayed seizures, mortality, and duration of hospital stay.
3276:
3258:
295:
are often used interchangeably in the medical literature. Because head injuries cover such a broad scope of injuries, there are many causes—including accidents, falls, physical assault, or traffic accidents—that can cause head injuries.
1373:
such as acetaminophen. Non-steroidal painkillers such as ibuprofen are avoided since they could make any potential bleeding worse. Due to the high risk of even minor brain injuries, close monitoring for potential complications such as
507:
A concussion is a form of a mild traumatic brain injury (TBI). This injury is a result due to a blow to the head that could make the person's physical, cognitive, and emotional behaviors irregular. Symptoms may include clumsiness,
3380:
2166:, Holmes JF, Dayan PS, Hoyle JD, Atabaki SM, Holubkov R, et al. (October 2009). "Identification of children at very low risk of clinically-important brain injuries after head trauma: a prospective cohort study".
2011:
1416:
Head injury may be associated with a neck injury. Bruises on the back or neck, neck pain, or pain radiating to the arms are signs of cervical spine injury and merit spinal immobilization via application of a
404:
worsened, because the brain may ricochet inside the skull causing additional impacts, or the brain may stay relatively still (due to inertia) but be hit by the moving skull (both are contrecoup injuries).
1008:. Patients with concussion may have a history of seconds to minutes unconsciousness, then normal arousal. Disturbance of vision and equilibrium may also occur. Common symptoms of head injury include
1187:
An impairment following damage to a region of the brain does not necessarily imply that the damaged area is wholly responsible for the cognitive process which is impaired, however. For example, in
3373:
2429:
Diano, Matteo; Tamietto, Marco; Celeghin, Alessia; Weiskrantz, Lawrence; Tatu, Mona-Karina; Bagnis, Arianna; Duca, Sergio; Geminiani, Giuliano; Cauda, Franco; Costa, Tommaso (2017-03-27).
634:
543:(inability to remember events before or after the injury). The amount of time that the amnesia is present correlates with the severity of the injury. In all cases, the patients develop
1989:
3366:
1001:
Symptoms observed in children include changes in eating habits, persistent irritability or sadness, changes in attention, disrupted sleeping habits, or loss of interest in toys.
2022:
3230:
889:
Cerebral contusion is bruising of the brain tissue. The piamater is not breached in contusion in contrary to lacerations. The majority of contusions occur in the
3633:
627:
1004:
Presentation varies according to the injury. Some patients with head trauma stabilize and other patients deteriorate. A patient may present with or without
930:
are stretched and damaged when parts of the brain of differing density slide over one another. Prognoses vary widely depending on the extent of the damage.
3145:
4062:
1688:
Hardman S, Rominiyi O, King D, Snelson E (May 2019). "Is cranial computed tomography unnecessary in children with a head injury and isolated vomiting?".
1268:
1153:
Studies show there is a correlation between brain lesion and language, speech, and category-specific disorders. Wernicke's aphasia is associated with
2931:
Hamilton M, Mrazik M, Johnson DW (July 2010). "Incidence of delayed intracranial hemorrhage in children after uncomplicated minor head injuries".
2564:
Bridge, Holly; Hicks, Stephen L.; Xie, Jingyi; Okell, Thomas W.; Mannan, Sabira; Alexander, Iona; Cowey, Alan; Kennard, Christopher (2010-12-01).
620:
2041:"Validation of a New Clinico-Radiological Grading for Compound Head Injury: Implications on the Prognosis and the Need for Surgical Intervention"
1184:, and problems with comprehension and production. Broca's aphasia is indicative of damage to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain.
3187:
2820:
2268:
1983:
1840:
1815:
870:
and their branch points within that space). The classic presentation of subarachnoid hemorrhage is the sudden onset of a severe headache (a
3963:
2431:"Dynamic Changes in Amygdala Psychophysiological Connectivity Reveal Distinct Neural Networks for Facial Expressions of Basic Emotions"
965:
sleep, weakness in the extremities and loss of coordination. In cases of severe brain injuries, the likelihood of areas with permanent
1618:
1402:
1132:(GCS) is a tool for measuring the degree of unconsciousness and is thus a useful tool for determining the severity of the injury. The
300:
may experience head injuries from accidental falls or intentional causes (such as being struck or shaken) leading to hospitalization.
2209:
1385:
There is a subspecialty certification available for brain injury medicine that signifies expertise in the treatment of brain injury.
323:
Brain damage, which is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells, is a common occurrence in those who experience a head injury.
2779:
2671:
2638:
1790:
1740:
132:
3968:
3524:
1663:
1624:
1561:
1344:
1005:
363:, which may or may not be associated with injury to the brain. Some patients may have linear or depressed skull fractures. If
4055:
4019:
1398:
793:
can result rapidly. However, it is the least common type of meningeal bleeding and is seen in 1% to 3% cases of head injury.
570:
356:
70:
1161:), and problems with comprehension. The symptoms of Wernicke's aphasia are caused by damage to the posterior section of the
1971:
3227:
770:
Extra-axial hemorrhage, bleeding that occurs within the skull but outside of the brain tissue, falls into three subtypes:
113:
1856:
3660:
3628:
1348:
1133:
874:). This can be a very dangerous entity and requires emergent neurosurgical evaluation and sometimes urgent intervention.
85:
66:
3162:
Debas HT, Donkor P, Gawande A, et al. (2015). Debas HT, Donkor P, Gawande A, Jamison DT, Kruk ME, Mock CN (eds.).
1125:
frequently advised to rouse the patient several times during the next 12 to 24 hours to assess for worsening symptoms.
569:
Types of intracranial hemorrhage are roughly grouped into intra-axial and extra-axial. The hemorrhage is considered a
2880:
990:
596:
592:
1393:
Prognosis, or the likely progress of a disorder, depends on the nature, location, and cause of the brain damage (see
4202:
2723:"TBI | Traumatic Brain Injury | Traumatic Brain Injury Resources | Brain Injury Support | Brain Injury Information"
1336:
843:
789:. This is a very dangerous type of injury because the bleed is from a high-pressure system and deadly increases in
533:
92:
1331:
There are several imaging techniques that can aid in diagnosing and assessing the extent of brain damage, such as
4371:
4048:
3983:
3701:
3114:
700:
548:
384:
1481:. Wernicke later hypothesized the relationship between Wernicke's area and Broca's area, which was proven fact.
3597:
3589:
3295:
3223:
Cochrane
Injuries Group: systematic reviews on the prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of traumatic injury
1340:
1272:
544:
2698:
461:, or "punch-drunk syndrome", caused by repetitive head injuries, for example in boxing or other contact sports
3358:
99:
4227:
3828:
3823:
3491:
1162:
982:
831:
786:
714:
695:
564:
376:
364:
352:
259:
212:
59:
4024:
3833:
3670:
3665:
3214:
1636:
1394:
1360:
1086:
1056:
970:
855:
399:
317:
267:
263:
165:
31:
3115:"The disappearing lesion: sigmund freud, sensory-motor physiology, and the beginnings of psychoanalysis*"
1264:, and sports related accidents. Head injuries from shaking are most common amongst infants and children.
859:
4012:
3798:
3758:
3602:
3572:
2124:"Update on the Management of Patent Foramen Ovale in 2017: Indication for Closure and Literature Review"
1648:
1375:
1364:
1316:
1073:
an eye that cannot move or is deviated to one side can indicate that a broken facial bone is pinching a
978:
919:
914:
902:
847:
790:
301:
81:
4197:
2405:
838:
meningeal layers, like intraparenchymal hemorrhage, can result either from trauma or from ruptures of
4366:
3973:
3612:
3517:
3407:
2442:
1300:
871:
785:) and the skull, is caused by trauma. It may result from laceration of an artery, most commonly the
492:
474:
458:
37:
4309:
3808:
3778:
3280:
1567:
1332:
1110:
1098:
1040:
947:
Three categories used for classifying the severity of brain injuries are mild, moderate or severe.
808:
774:
588:
582:
380:
372:
359:, occurring over a wide area, or focal, located in a small, specific area. A head injury may cause
339:
Head injuries include both injuries to the brain and those to other parts of the head, such as the
309:
225:
1931:"Mild traumatic brain injury: a neuropsychiatric approach to diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment"
1453:
The foundation for understanding human behavior and brain injury can be attributed to the case of
4277:
4187:
4090:
3943:
3922:
3881:
3748:
3471:
3137:
2956:
2826:
2677:
2546:
2336:
2301:
2191:
1713:
1325:
1257:
1219:
in different areas of the brain depending on the size of the lesion and location relative to the
1129:
884:
600:
446:
255:
202:
174:
1478:
1199:, the inability to distinguish faces and other complex objects from each other. Lesions in the
573:; that is, it occurs in a localized spot rather than causing diffuse damage over a wider area.
304:(ABI) is a term used to differentiate brain injuries occurring after birth from injury, from a
3793:
3788:
3743:
3306:
3193:
3183:
3095:
3074:"Paul Broca's historic cases: high resolution MR imaging of the brains of Leborgne and Lelong"
3054:
3005:
2948:
2862:
2816:
2785:
2775:
2667:
2634:
2603:
2585:
2538:
2476:
2458:
2387:
2264:
2183:
2163:
2145:
2104:
2060:
1979:
1952:
1911:
1836:
1811:
1786:
1761:
1736:
1705:
1654:
1534:
1520:
1422:
1276:
1220:
851:
509:
437:
426:
182:
1627: – Therapy to regain or improve neurocognitive function that has been lost or diminished
1066:
visible deformity or depression in the head or face; for example a sunken eye can indicate a
320:, for example, is much more likely to develop in a person who has experienced a head injury.
4345:
4253:
4192:
4172:
4140:
4135:
3938:
3902:
3450:
3175:
3167:
3129:
3085:
3044:
3036:
2995:
2987:
2940:
2854:
2808:
2659:
2626:
2593:
2577:
2530:
2503:
2466:
2450:
2377:
2367:
2328:
2293:
2256:
2175:
2135:
2094:
2052:
1942:
1901:
1893:
1697:
1244:
1094:
867:
705:
397:
can occur at the site of impact, but can also be at the opposite side of the skull due to a
305:
2581:
607:). Intra-axial hemorrhages are more dangerous and harder to treat than extra-axial bleeds.
355:
occurs when an object pierces the skull and breaches the dura mater. Brain injuries may be
4145:
4125:
4095:
3510:
3234:
1506:
1418:
1228:
956:
to the original (minor) incident. Narcolepsy and sleep disorders are common misdiagnoses.
820:
733:
684:
604:
1467:
1169:
371:
within the skull can put pressure on the brain. Types of intracranial hemorrhage include
106:
2446:
2284:
Kean ML (October 2003). "Syntactic deficits in aphasia: Was
Wernicke right after all?".
1564: – Group of conditions resulting from maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy
1382:
large patient cohorts to ensure accuracy given the risk of adverse events in this area.
327:
is another cause of brain damage that typically refers to selective, chemically induced
3995:
3990:
3813:
3680:
3049:
3024:
3000:
2975:
2598:
2565:
2471:
2430:
2382:
2355:
1947:
1930:
1906:
1881:
1630:
1606:
1549:
1543:
1292:
1236:
1192:
1154:
1029:
812:
797:
729:
719:
521:
360:
347:. Head injuries can be closed or open. A closed (non-missile) head injury is where the
221:
187:
17:
2297:
2179:
901:
and transtentorial herniation. The goal of treatment should be to treat the increased
4360:
4299:
4130:
4115:
4029:
3912:
3876:
3871:
3733:
3675:
3567:
3420:
2550:
2340:
1717:
1582:
1474:
1232:
1224:
1212:
1208:
1196:
894:
756:
709:
324:
217:
3335:
3289:
3285:
3141:
2960:
2830:
2812:
2681:
2305:
2195:
1059:
and the tearing of sheaths surrounding the brain, which can lead to secondary brain
391:
surgeries are used in these cases to lessen the pressure by draining off the blood.
4340:
4286:
4268:
4177:
4120:
4007:
3907:
3866:
3856:
3851:
3773:
3557:
3552:
1642:
1600:
1454:
1304:
1106:
923:
890:
863:
394:
2621:
Alberts J, Cherian N (2014). "Headaches, Traumatic Brain Injury, and
Concussion".
2260:
3300:
2630:
2099:
2082:
1780:
4330:
4232:
4222:
3978:
3763:
3685:
2663:
2507:
1188:
1173:
1090:
1048:
661:
501:
344:
48:
2140:
2123:
2056:
1597: – Formation of muscular tissue, particularly during embryonic development
4314:
4258:
4167:
4040:
3886:
3768:
3607:
3547:
3445:
3341:
3311:
3267:
3171:
3133:
2991:
2332:
1594:
1573:
1496:
1462:
1442:
1370:
1216:
1181:
1158:
1147:
1113:
1044:
966:
816:
778:
669:
552:
488:
452:
430:
419:
415:
388:
348:
251:
191:
2858:
2789:
2589:
2462:
2149:
2040:
1425:
is normal this is reassuring. Reassessment is needed if there is a worsening
539:
A slightly greater injury is associated with both anterograde and retrograde
4304:
4295:
4237:
4182:
3738:
3440:
3430:
3330:
3270:
1733:
Counseling Individuals Post Acquired Brain Injury; In: Acquired Brain Injury
1612:
1296:
1288:
1060:
835:
743:
673:
665:
513:
237:
195:
3197:
3099:
3090:
3073:
3058:
3009:
2952:
2944:
2906:
2866:
2607:
2566:"Visual activation of extra-striate cortex in the absence of V1 activation"
2534:
2480:
2391:
2187:
2108:
2064:
1956:
1915:
1709:
1211:
have different effects depending on the location of the damage. Lesions to
3346:
3040:
2542:
1897:
1369:
Most head injuries are of a benign nature and require no treatment beyond
4263:
4163:
4002:
1588:
1555:
1426:
1200:
1177:
1117:
1025:
1021:
985:. There may also be personality changes. The most severe cases result in
974:
839:
761:
739:
525:
368:
3250:
497:
4107:
3179:
2722:
1765:
1430:
1410:
1261:
1240:
1102:
1067:
1013:
750:
540:
529:
2454:
2372:
1929:
Arciniegas DB, Anderson CA, Topkoff J, McAllister TW (December 2005).
1701:
1615: – Medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system
1032:, during which a patient appears conscious only to deteriorate later.
4214:
4155:
4076:
3722:
3562:
3533:
3262:
1284:
1280:
1235:
can cause the loss of the ability to perceive motion. Lesions to the
1017:
782:
547:, which includes memory problems, dizziness, tiredness, sickness and
517:
328:
229:
3222:
1882:"Neuropsychiatric aspects of concussion: acute and chronic sequelae"
1585: – Therapeutic method for progressively developing coordination
1243:, an inability to recognize complex objects, smells, or shapes, or
351:
remains intact. The skull can be fractured, but not necessarily. A
4281:
4272:
4072:
1546: – Group of movement disorders that appear in early childhood
1441:
depend on location and the body's response to injury. Even a mild
1080:
1074:
898:
496:
469:
340:
284:
280:
241:
2012:"What's the Difference Between a Subdural and Epidural Hematoma?"
4291:
3861:
1978:. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. p. 53.
1009:
986:
927:
465:
233:
4044:
3506:
3362:
1808:
Outcome after Head, Neck and Spinal Trauma: a medicolegal guide
587:
Intra-axial hemorrhage is bleeding within the brain itself, or
3461:
3072:
Dronkers NF, Plaisant O, Iba-Zizen MT, Cabanis EA (May 2007).
2494:
Celesia GG (January 2010). "Visual Perception and Awareness".
2122:
Atianzar K, Casterella P, Zhang M, Sharma R, Gafoor S (2017).
1052:
42:
2654:Ă…strand R, Romner B (2012). "Classification of Head Injury".
1633: – Formation of neuronal junctions in the nervous system
1489:
Head injury is the leading cause of death in many countries.
1880:
Rao V, Syeda A, Roy D, Peters ME, Vaishnavi S (March 2017).
1835:(2nd ed.). United Kingdom: Speech mark publishing Ltd.
1810:. Oxford: Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd.
1172:
typically produces symptoms like omitting functional words (
2803:
Backhaus, Samantha (2017). "Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)".
2699:"Traumatic Brain Injury | Signs, Symptoms, & Diagnosis"
3166:. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: World Bank.
2746:
2251:
Hux, Karen (2011). "Wernicke–Lichtheim Model of Aphasia".
2233:
1307:
can increase intracranial pressure, causing brain damage.
3502:
1247:, a loss of perception on the opposite side of the body.
800:, then sudden deterioration (vomiting, restlessness, LOC)
2354:
Corrow SL, Dalrymple KA, Barton JJ (26 September 2016).
1558: – Group of neurological disorders causing seizures
2625:. Springer International Publishing. pp. 341–352.
2410:
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
1666: – Neurodegenerative disease caused by head injury
1659:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1409:
stable patients after an injury, as can post-traumatic
2911:
American Board of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
2881:"Subspeciality Certification in Brain Injury Medicine"
1756:
Proskuriakova NA, Kasendeeva MK (September 1975). "".
36:"Head trauma" redirects here. Not to be confused with
1609: – Cognitive functions related to a brain region
3240:
3025:"Phineas Gage and the science of brain localisation"
2976:"What we need to know about age-related memory loss"
1578:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
796:
Patients have a loss of consciousness (LOC), then a
4323:
4246:
4213:
4154:
4106:
4083:
3956:
3931:
3895:
3844:
3721:
3714:
3694:
3653:
3646:
3621:
3588:
3581:
3540:
3484:
3459:
3428:
3417:
3398:
3321:
3244:
1639: – Injury of the brain from an external source
926:or deceleration motion, not necessarily an impact.
528:, and others. Mild concussions are associated with
247:
211:
201:
181:
155:
150:
73:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3029:Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry
2521:Jaeger W, Krastel H, Braun S (December 1988). "".
1645: – Destruction or degeneration of brain cells
1433:, one-sided weakness, or has persistent vomiting.
811:results from tearing of the bridging veins in the
3164:Essential Surgery; In: Disease Control Priorities
1651: – Brain damage caused by events after birth
1445:can have long term effects that may not resolve.
777:(extradural hemorrhage) which occur between the
555:is the most common head injury seen in children.
2319:Wilkes KV (October 1980). "More Brain Lesions".
407:Specific problems after head injury can include
2623:The Cleveland Clinic Manual of Headache Therapy
846:. Blood is seen layering into the brain along
440:, bleeding between the dura mater and the skull
2658:. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 11–16.
2210:"Traumatic brain injury - Symptoms and causes"
616:Comparison of epidural and subdural hematomas
4056:
3634:Focused assessment with sonography for trauma
3518:
3374:
1012:, confusion, drowsiness, personality change,
922:, or DAI, usually occurs as the result of an
628:
8:
1473:A few years later, a German neuroscientist,
803:Head CT shows lenticular (convex) deformity.
279:is any injury that results in trauma to the
2656:Management of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury
595:, or bleeding within the brain tissue, and
4063:
4049:
4041:
3718:
3650:
3585:
3525:
3511:
3503:
3425:
3381:
3367:
3359:
3241:
2774:. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Pub.
2693:
2691:
2523:Klinische Monatsblätter für Augenheilkunde
1260:, home and occupational accidents, falls,
1141:Location of brain damage predicts symptoms
635:
621:
164:
147:
3089:
3048:
2999:
2887:. WETA Public Television. 5 December 2011
2597:
2470:
2381:
2371:
2139:
2098:
1946:
1905:
1683:
1681:
133:Learn how and when to remove this message
2805:Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology
2253:Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology
1552: – Disorder or disease of the brain
1035:Symptoms of skull fracture can include:
834:, which occur between the arachnoid and
614:
1735:. Springer New York. pp. 259–274.
1677:
1361:Traumatic brain injury § Treatment
826:Head CT shows crescent-shaped deformity
676:and inner meningeal layer of dura mater
2582:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.10.022
1935:Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment
1657: – Central nervous system disease
1576: – type of traumatic brain injury
1365:Acquired brain injury § Treatment
1089:, those that occur at the base of the
694:Temperoparietal locus (most likely) –
3389:Nonmusculoskeletal injuries of head (
2356:"Prosopagnosia: current perspectives"
2076:
2074:
1779:Daisley A, Kischka U, Tams R (2008).
897:. Complications may include cerebral
726:Symptoms (depending on the severity)
532:. Severity is measured using various
7:
1976:Fundamentals of Diagnostic Radiology
981:), speech or movement problems, and
71:adding citations to reliable sources
3964:Acute respiratory distress syndrome
2083:"Traumatic brain injury and stroke"
2039:Dhandapani, S; et, al. (Nov 2015).
1150:that can vary greatly in severity.
3228:First aid advice for head injuries
1857:"Concussion - Symptoms and causes"
1619:Primary and secondary brain injury
1403:Primary and secondary brain injury
455:, a loss of function due to trauma
25:
2772:Cross-sectional imaging made easy
1421:and possibly a longboard. If the
443:Traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage
3969:Chronic traumatic encephalopathy
3151:from the original on 2022-10-09.
1974:. In Brant WE, Helms CA (eds.).
1664:Chronic traumatic encephalopathy
1625:Rehabilitation (neuropsychology)
1603: – Damage to nervous tissue
1527:
1513:
1499:
1258:motor vehicle traffic collisions
1083:or bruises on the scalp or face.
679:Between the meningeal layers of
47:
2813:10.1007/978-3-319-56782-2_286-2
1992:from the original on 2017-11-06
1972:"Introduction to brain imaging"
1806:Macfarlane R, Hardy DG (1997).
1591: – Neurosurgical operation
1562:Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
1345:magnetic resonance spectroscopy
1267:According to the United States
1157:, unknowingly making up words (
862:because of the presence of the
58:needs additional citations for
4020:Post-traumatic stress disorder
1833:Head Injury: A Practical Guide
1399:Focal and diffuse brain injury
960:Moderate/severe brain injuries
599:, bleeding within the brain's
464:A severe injury may lead to a
1:
2298:10.1016/s0093-934x(03)00180-9
2261:10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_935
2180:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61558-0
1176:), sound production changes,
1043:(a clear fluid drainage from
27:Serious trauma to the cranium
3661:Advanced trauma life support
3629:Diagnostic peritoneal lavage
3113:Guenther K (November 2013).
2727:www.traumaticbraininjury.com
2631:10.1007/978-3-319-04072-1_24
2100:10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.12.006
2081:Meschia JF (February 2014).
1570: – Type of brain injury
1349:positron emission tomography
1134:Pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale
1055:) is strongly indicative of
905:. The prognosis is guarded.
207:Injury to the brain or skull
3122:Modern Intellectual History
2664:10.1007/978-3-642-28126-6_2
2496:Journal of Psychophysiology
1231:, and bilateral lesions to
1077:that innervates eye muscles
991:persistent vegetative state
844:arteriovenous malformations
597:intraventricular hemorrhage
593:intraparenchymal hemorrhage
418:to the scalp and resulting
4388:
4203:Retroperitoneal hemorrhage
3237:from the British Red Cross
2234:"CSHL DNA Learning Center"
2057:10.1016/j.wneu.2015.05.058
1358:
1337:magnetic resonance imaging
1314:
912:
882:
580:
562:
534:concussion grading systems
486:
35:
29:
3702:Resuscitative thoracotomy
3590:Clinical prediction rules
3172:10.1596/978-1-4648-0346-8
3134:10.1017/S147924431300022X
3023:Haas LF (December 2001).
2992:10.1136/bmj.324.7352.1502
2845:with minor head injury".
2508:10.1027/0269-8803/a000014
2333:10.1017/s0031819100049482
2021:. WETA-TV. Archived from
1758:Zdravookhranenie Kirgizii
1621: – Medical condition
1215:, for example, can cause
701:anterior ethmoidal artery
591:. This category includes
436:Traumatic extradural, or
385:intraparenchymal hematoma
236:, nervous system damage,
172:
163:
3598:Abbreviated Injury Scale
2859:10.1001/jama.294.12.1511
1341:diffusion tensor imaging
1273:traumatic brain injuries
977:(often, to be specific,
545:post concussion syndrome
433:which may develop slowly
3829:Penetrating head injury
3824:Intracranial hemorrhage
3492:Penetrating head injury
2907:"Brain Injury Medicine"
2087:Mayo Clinic Proceedings
1731:Elbaum J (2007-04-13).
1163:superior temporal gyrus
1087:Basilar skull fractures
983:intellectual disability
971:neurocognitive deficits
832:Subarachnoid hemorrhage
787:middle meningeal artery
715:superior sagittal sinus
696:Middle meningeal artery
565:Intracranial hemorrhage
477:– a form of child abuse
449:, a bruise of the brain
429:, a bleeding below the
365:intracranial hemorrhage
353:penetrating head injury
260:penetrating head injury
173:Soldier wounded at the
18:Traumatic head injuries
4025:Subcutaneous emphysema
3984:Volkmann's contracture
3834:Traumatic brain injury
3671:Early appropriate care
3666:Damage control surgery
2974:Small GW (June 2002).
2945:10.1542/peds.2009-0692
2535:10.1055/s-2008-1050309
2366:. Eye Brain: 165–175.
2255:. pp. 2702–2703.
2141:10.15420/usc.2017:18:1
2010:McDonough VT, King B.
1970:Seidenwurm DI (2007).
1785:. Oxford: OUP Oxford.
1637:Traumatic brain injury
1395:Traumatic brain injury
1093:, are associated with
1057:basilar skull fracture
979:monothematic delusions
504:
289:traumatic brain injury
268:traumatic brain injury
264:basilar skull fracture
177:on September 17, 1862.
32:Traumatic brain injury
4310:Occupational injuries
3799:Thoracic aorta injury
3759:Diaphragmatic rupture
3603:Injury Severity Score
3573:Trauma triad of death
3041:10.1136/jnnp.71.6.761
1898:10.2217/cnc-2016-0018
1649:Acquired brain injury
1470:and Broca's Aphasia.
1376:intracranial bleeding
1317:Head injury criterion
1207:Other lesions to the
920:Diffuse axonal injury
915:Diffuse axonal injury
909:Diffuse axonal injury
903:intracranial pressure
791:intracranial pressure
738:Gradually increasing
559:Intracranial bleeding
500:
302:Acquired brain injury
4315:Traumatic amputation
3974:Compartment syndrome
3613:Revised Trauma Score
3091:10.1093/brain/awm042
2128:US Cardiology Review
1301:neurological illness
1006:neurological deficit
997:Symptoms in children
969:is great, including
934:Compound head injury
872:thunderclap headache
611:Extra-axial bleeding
577:Intra-axial bleeding
493:Pediatric concussion
475:Shaken baby syndrome
459:Dementia pugilistica
67:improve this article
38:Psychological trauma
3809:Blunt kidney trauma
3779:Pulmonary contusion
2770:Hariqbal S (2011).
2447:2017NatSR...745260D
1568:Frontal lobe injury
1333:computed tomography
1111:cerebrospinal fluid
1041:cerebrospinal fluid
951:Mild brain injuries
860:suprasellar cistern
809:Subdural hemorrhage
775:Epidural hemorrhage
642:
589:cerebral hemorrhage
583:cerebral hemorrhage
318:Alzheimer's disease
310:congenital disorder
226:cerebral hemorrhage
4278:Penetrating trauma
4198:Grey Turner's sign
4188:Subungual hematoma
3923:Spinal cord injury
3882:Penetrating trauma
3749:Soft tissue injury
3472:Perforated eardrum
3322:External resources
3233:2011-05-19 at the
2435:Scientific Reports
2286:Brain and Language
2028:on 21 August 2010.
1326:Glasgow Coma Scale
1130:Glasgow Coma Scale
943:Signs and symptoms
885:Cerebral contusion
879:Cerebral contusion
704:Occipital locus –
615:
571:focal brain injury
505:
447:Cerebral contusion
256:cerebral contusion
175:Battle of Antietam
4354:
4353:
4038:
4037:
3952:
3951:
3794:Internal bleeding
3789:Cardiac tamponade
3744:Joint dislocation
3710:
3709:
3642:
3641:
3500:
3499:
3480:
3479:
3356:
3355:
3189:978-1-4648-0346-8
3084:(Pt 5): 1432–41.
2822:978-3-319-56782-2
2576:(14): 4148–4154.
2455:10.1038/srep45260
2373:10.2147/EB.S92838
2270:978-0-387-79947-6
2174:(9696): 1160–70.
1985:978-0-7817-6135-2
1842:978-0-86388-451-1
1831:Powell T (2004).
1817:978-0-7506-2178-6
1702:10.1136/bmj.l1875
1655:Neurodegeneration
1535:Psychology portal
1521:Philosophy portal
1461:Ten years later,
1423:neurological exam
1221:calcarine fissure
768:
767:
672:or between outer
605:premature infants
603:(particularly of
438:epidural hematoma
427:subdural hematoma
273:
272:
145:Medical condition
143:
142:
135:
117:
16:(Redirected from
4379:
4372:Injuries of head
4346:Abdominal trauma
4254:Ballistic trauma
4141:Friction blister
4136:Fracture blister
4065:
4058:
4051:
4042:
3944:Pediatric trauma
3939:Geriatric trauma
3903:Abdominal trauma
3719:
3651:
3586:
3527:
3520:
3513:
3504:
3451:Corneal abrasion
3426:
3383:
3376:
3369:
3360:
3242:
3202:
3201:
3159:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3119:
3110:
3104:
3103:
3093:
3069:
3063:
3062:
3052:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3003:
2986:(7352): 1502–5.
2971:
2965:
2964:
2928:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2917:
2903:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2807:. pp. 1–8.
2800:
2794:
2793:
2767:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2757:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2733:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2710:
2709:
2695:
2686:
2685:
2651:
2645:
2644:
2618:
2612:
2611:
2601:
2570:Neuropsychologia
2561:
2555:
2554:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2491:
2485:
2484:
2474:
2426:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2402:
2396:
2395:
2385:
2375:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2327:(214): 455–470.
2316:
2310:
2309:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2220:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2143:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2102:
2078:
2069:
2068:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2016:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1997:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1950:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1909:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1685:
1660:
1579:
1537:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1523:
1518:
1517:
1516:
1509:
1504:
1503:
1502:
1245:amorphosynthesis
1195:often result in
868:circle of Willis
858:(most often the
699:Frontal locus –
691:Involved vessel
646:Compared quality
643:
637:
630:
623:
306:genetic disorder
168:
148:
138:
131:
127:
124:
118:
116:
75:
51:
43:
21:
4387:
4386:
4382:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4377:
4376:
4357:
4356:
4355:
4350:
4319:
4242:
4209:
4150:
4146:Sucking blister
4126:Delayed blister
4102:
4079:
4069:
4039:
4034:
3948:
3927:
3891:
3840:
3715:Pathophysiology
3706:
3690:
3638:
3617:
3577:
3536:
3531:
3501:
3496:
3476:
3455:
3419:
3413:
3394:
3387:
3357:
3352:
3351:
3317:
3316:
3253:
3235:Wayback Machine
3211:
3206:
3205:
3190:
3161:
3160:
3156:
3148:
3117:
3112:
3111:
3107:
3071:
3070:
3066:
3022:
3021:
3017:
2973:
2972:
2968:
2930:
2929:
2925:
2915:
2913:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2890:
2888:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2843:
2842:
2838:
2823:
2802:
2801:
2797:
2782:
2769:
2768:
2764:
2755:
2753:
2745:
2744:
2740:
2731:
2729:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2707:
2705:
2697:
2696:
2689:
2674:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2641:
2620:
2619:
2615:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2520:
2519:
2515:
2493:
2492:
2488:
2428:
2427:
2423:
2414:
2412:
2406:"Prosopagnosia"
2404:
2403:
2399:
2353:
2352:
2348:
2318:
2317:
2313:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2218:
2216:
2208:
2207:
2203:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2080:
2079:
2072:
2045:World Neurosurg
2038:
2037:
2033:
2025:
2014:
2009:
2008:
2004:
1995:
1993:
1986:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1928:
1927:
1923:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1865:
1863:
1855:
1854:
1850:
1843:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1805:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1755:
1754:
1750:
1743:
1730:
1729:
1725:
1687:
1686:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1658:
1577:
1533:
1528:
1526:
1519:
1514:
1512:
1507:Medicine portal
1505:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1487:
1479:Wernicke's area
1451:
1419:cervical collar
1391:
1367:
1357:
1319:
1313:
1253:
1229:color-blindness
1143:
1101:bleed over the
999:
962:
953:
945:
936:
917:
911:
887:
881:
821:arachnoid mater
781:(the outermost
734:unconsciousness
713:Vertex locus –
712:
710:sigmoid sinuses
703:
698:
685:Arachnoid mater
641:
613:
585:
579:
567:
561:
495:
487:Main articles:
485:
480:
337:
146:
139:
128:
122:
119:
76:
74:
64:
52:
41:
34:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4385:
4383:
4375:
4374:
4369:
4359:
4358:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4327:
4325:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4289:
4284:
4275:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4250:
4248:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4219:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4207:
4206:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4160:
4158:
4152:
4151:
4149:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4112:
4110:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4100:
4099:
4098:
4087:
4085:
4081:
4080:
4070:
4068:
4067:
4060:
4053:
4045:
4036:
4035:
4033:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4016:
4015:
4010:
4000:
3999:
3998:
3996:Rhabdomyolysis
3991:Crush syndrome
3988:
3987:
3986:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3960:
3958:
3954:
3953:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3946:
3941:
3935:
3933:
3929:
3928:
3926:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3899:
3897:
3893:
3892:
3890:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3848:
3846:
3842:
3841:
3839:
3838:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3818:
3817:
3816:
3814:Splenic injury
3811:
3803:
3802:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3753:
3752:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3727:
3725:
3716:
3712:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3705:
3704:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3691:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3681:Trauma surgery
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3657:
3655:
3648:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3636:
3631:
3625:
3623:
3622:Investigations
3619:
3618:
3616:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3594:
3592:
3583:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3544:
3542:
3538:
3537:
3532:
3530:
3529:
3522:
3515:
3507:
3498:
3497:
3495:
3494:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3474:
3468:
3466:
3457:
3456:
3454:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3437:
3435:
3423:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3411:
3402:
3400:
3396:
3395:
3388:
3386:
3385:
3378:
3371:
3363:
3354:
3353:
3350:
3349:
3338:
3326:
3325:
3323:
3319:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3303:
3292:
3273:
3254:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3245:Classification
3239:
3238:
3225:
3220:
3210:
3209:External links
3207:
3204:
3203:
3188:
3154:
3128:(3): 569–601.
3105:
3064:
3015:
2966:
2923:
2898:
2872:
2853:(12): 1511–8.
2836:
2821:
2795:
2780:
2762:
2738:
2714:
2687:
2672:
2646:
2639:
2613:
2556:
2513:
2486:
2421:
2397:
2346:
2311:
2276:
2269:
2243:
2238:dnalc.cshl.edu
2225:
2201:
2155:
2114:
2070:
2051:(5): 1244–50.
2031:
2002:
1984:
1962:
1921:
1872:
1848:
1841:
1823:
1816:
1798:
1791:
1771:
1748:
1741:
1723:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1667:
1661:
1652:
1646:
1640:
1634:
1631:Synaptogenesis
1628:
1622:
1616:
1610:
1607:Neurocognition
1604:
1598:
1592:
1586:
1580:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1550:Encephalopathy
1547:
1544:Cerebral palsy
1540:
1539:
1538:
1524:
1510:
1494:
1491:
1486:
1483:
1450:
1447:
1390:
1387:
1356:
1353:
1312:
1309:
1252:
1249:
1239:may result in
1237:parietal lobes
1193:fusiform gyrus
1168:Damage to the
1142:
1139:
1122:
1121:
1084:
1078:
1071:
1064:
1030:lucid interval
998:
995:
961:
958:
952:
949:
944:
941:
935:
932:
913:Main article:
910:
907:
895:temporal lobes
883:Main article:
880:
877:
876:
875:
829:
828:
827:
813:subdural space
806:
805:
804:
801:
798:lucid interval
766:
765:
759:
754:
747:
746:
736:
730:Lucid interval
727:
723:
722:
720:Bridging veins
717:
692:
688:
687:
677:
664:and the inner
658:
654:
653:
650:
647:
640:
639:
632:
625:
617:
612:
609:
581:Main article:
578:
575:
563:Main article:
560:
557:
484:
481:
479:
478:
472:
462:
456:
450:
444:
441:
434:
423:
413:
412:Skull fracture
409:
361:skull fracture
336:
335:Classification
333:
331:/brain damage.
271:
270:
249:
245:
244:
222:cerebral edema
215:
209:
208:
205:
199:
198:
188:Neuropathology
185:
179:
178:
170:
169:
161:
160:
157:
153:
152:
144:
141:
140:
55:
53:
46:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4384:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4328:
4326:
4322:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4300:Chemical burn
4297:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:/superficial/
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4251:
4249:
4245:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4220:
4218:
4216:
4212:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4193:Cullen's sign
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4173:Battle's sign
4171:
4170:
4169:
4165:
4162:
4161:
4159:
4157:
4153:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4131:Edema blister
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4116:Blood blister
4114:
4113:
4111:
4109:
4105:
4097:
4094:
4093:
4092:
4089:
4088:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4066:
4061:
4059:
4054:
4052:
4047:
4046:
4043:
4031:
4030:Wound healing
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4005:
4004:
4001:
3997:
3994:
3993:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3957:Complications
3955:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3930:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3913:Facial trauma
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3894:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3877:Gunshot wound
3875:
3873:
3872:Electrocution
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3843:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3806:
3804:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3754:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3734:Bone fracture
3732:
3731:
3729:
3728:
3726:
3724:
3720:
3717:
3713:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3697:
3693:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3676:Trauma center
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3649:
3645:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3624:
3620:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3591:
3587:
3584:
3580:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3568:Resuscitation
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3528:
3523:
3521:
3516:
3514:
3509:
3508:
3505:
3493:
3490:
3489:
3487:
3483:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3458:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3438:
3436:
3434:
3432:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3421:facial trauma
3418:Extracranial/
3416:
3410:
3409:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3392:
3384:
3379:
3377:
3372:
3370:
3365:
3364:
3361:
3348:
3344:
3343:
3339:
3337:
3333:
3332:
3328:
3327:
3324:
3320:
3313:
3309:
3308:
3304:
3302:
3298:
3297:
3293:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3255:
3252:
3247:
3243:
3236:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3213:
3212:
3208:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3158:
3155:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3116:
3109:
3106:
3101:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3068:
3065:
3060:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3019:
3016:
3011:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2970:
2967:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2927:
2924:
2912:
2908:
2902:
2899:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2873:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2840:
2837:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2799:
2796:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2781:9789350251959
2777:
2773:
2766:
2763:
2752:
2748:
2742:
2739:
2728:
2724:
2718:
2715:
2704:
2700:
2694:
2692:
2688:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2673:9783642281259
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2650:
2647:
2642:
2640:9783319040714
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2617:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2560:
2557:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2529:(6): 627–34.
2528:
2525:(in German).
2524:
2517:
2514:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2490:
2487:
2482:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2425:
2422:
2411:
2407:
2401:
2398:
2393:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2360:Eye and Brain
2357:
2350:
2347:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2315:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2277:
2272:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2247:
2244:
2239:
2235:
2229:
2226:
2215:
2211:
2205:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2159:
2156:
2151:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2118:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2035:
2032:
2024:
2020:
2013:
2006:
2003:
1991:
1987:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1941:(4): 311–27.
1940:
1936:
1932:
1925:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1873:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1849:
1844:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1824:
1819:
1813:
1809:
1802:
1799:
1794:
1792:9780191578717
1788:
1784:
1783:
1775:
1772:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1752:
1749:
1744:
1742:9780387375748
1738:
1734:
1727:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1671:
1665:
1662:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1583:Infinity Walk
1581:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1536:
1525:
1522:
1511:
1508:
1497:
1492:
1490:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1476:
1475:Carl Wernicke
1471:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1456:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1438:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1414:
1412:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1379:
1377:
1372:
1366:
1362:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1279:(shortage of
1278:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1223:. Lesions to
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1209:visual cortex
1205:
1202:
1198:
1197:prosopagnosia
1194:
1190:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1149:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1119:
1115:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1095:Battle's sign
1092:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1002:
996:
994:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
959:
957:
950:
948:
942:
940:
933:
931:
929:
925:
921:
916:
908:
906:
904:
900:
896:
892:
886:
878:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
854:, or filling
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
830:
825:
824:
822:
818:
814:
810:
807:
802:
799:
795:
794:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
773:
772:
771:
763:
760:
758:
757:Biconvex lens
755:
752:
749:
748:
745:
741:
737:
735:
731:
728:
725:
724:
721:
718:
716:
711:
707:
702:
697:
693:
690:
689:
686:
682:
678:
675:
671:
668:layer of the
667:
663:
659:
656:
655:
651:
648:
645:
644:
638:
633:
631:
626:
624:
619:
618:
610:
608:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
584:
576:
574:
572:
566:
558:
556:
554:
550:
546:
542:
537:
535:
531:
527:
523:
522:blurry vision
519:
515:
511:
503:
499:
494:
490:
482:
476:
473:
471:
467:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
448:
445:
442:
439:
435:
432:
428:
424:
421:
417:
414:
411:
410:
408:
405:
402:
401:
396:
392:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
334:
332:
330:
326:
325:Neurotoxicity
321:
319:
313:
311:
307:
303:
297:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
250:
246:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
218:Hydrocephalus
216:
214:
213:Complications
210:
206:
204:
200:
197:
193:
189:
186:
184:
180:
176:
171:
167:
162:
158:
154:
149:
137:
134:
126:
115:
112:
108:
105:
101:
98:
94:
91:
87:
84: –
83:
82:"Head injury"
79:
78:Find sources:
72:
68:
62:
61:
56:This article
54:
50:
45:
44:
39:
33:
19:
4341:Chest trauma
4335:
4287:Aerosol burn
4269:Blunt trauma
4178:Raccoon eyes
4121:Coma blister
3917:
3908:Chest injury
3867:Crush injury
3857:Blunt trauma
3852:Blast injury
3774:Pneumothorax
3558:Traumatology
3553:Major trauma
3460:
3429:
3405:
3399:Intracranial
3390:
3340:
3329:
3305:
3294:
3275:
3257:
3216:Brain Injury
3215:
3163:
3157:
3125:
3121:
3108:
3081:
3077:
3067:
3032:
3028:
3018:
2983:
2979:
2969:
2939:(1): e33–9.
2936:
2932:
2926:
2914:. Retrieved
2910:
2901:
2889:. Retrieved
2884:
2875:
2850:
2846:
2839:
2804:
2798:
2771:
2765:
2754:. Retrieved
2750:
2741:
2730:. Retrieved
2726:
2717:
2706:. Retrieved
2702:
2655:
2649:
2622:
2616:
2573:
2569:
2559:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2502:(2): 62–67.
2499:
2495:
2489:
2441:(1): 45260.
2438:
2434:
2424:
2413:. Retrieved
2409:
2400:
2363:
2359:
2349:
2324:
2320:
2314:
2292:(1): 27–28.
2289:
2285:
2279:
2252:
2246:
2237:
2228:
2217:. Retrieved
2213:
2204:
2171:
2167:
2164:Kuppermann N
2158:
2131:
2127:
2117:
2093:(2): 142–3.
2090:
2086:
2048:
2044:
2034:
2023:the original
2018:
2005:
1994:. Retrieved
1975:
1965:
1938:
1934:
1924:
1892:(1): CNC29.
1889:
1885:
1875:
1864:. Retrieved
1860:
1851:
1832:
1826:
1807:
1801:
1781:
1774:
1757:
1751:
1732:
1726:
1693:
1689:
1643:Brain injury
1601:Nerve injury
1488:
1485:Epidemiology
1472:
1468:Broca's area
1460:
1455:Phineas Gage
1452:
1439:
1435:
1415:
1407:
1392:
1384:
1380:
1368:
1330:
1324:
1320:
1305:Brain tumors
1266:
1254:
1206:
1186:
1170:Broca's area
1167:
1152:
1144:
1127:
1123:
1107:hemotympanum
1099:subcutaneous
1034:
1003:
1000:
963:
954:
946:
937:
924:acceleration
918:
888:
815:between the
769:
732:followed by
680:
660:Between the
586:
568:
538:
506:
406:
398:
395:Brain injury
393:
377:subarachnoid
338:
322:
314:
308:, or from a
298:
292:
288:
287:. The terms
276:
274:
129:
120:
110:
103:
96:
89:
77:
65:Please help
60:verification
57:
4367:Neurotrauma
4336:Head injury
4331:Hand injury
3979:Contracture
3932:Demographic
3918:Head injury
3764:Flail chest
3686:Trauma team
3485:Either/both
3408:neurotrauma
3391:head injury
3347:Head injury
3180:10986/21568
2703:www.alz.org
2214:Mayo Clinic
1861:Mayo Clinic
1782:Head Injury
1760:(5): 44–8.
1335:(CT) scan,
1291:(including
1189:pure alexia
1174:agrammatism
753:appearance
551:. Cerebral
502:Coup injury
422:of the skin
416:Lacerations
293:head injury
277:head injury
159:Head trauma
156:Other names
151:Head injury
4361:Categories
4259:Stab wound
4168:Ecchymosis
3887:Stab wound
3769:Hemothorax
3695:Procedures
3654:Principles
3647:Management
3608:NACA score
3582:Assessment
3548:Polytrauma
3541:Principles
3446:Eye injury
3393:) and neck
3342:Patient UK
3307:DiseasesDB
3035:(6): 761.
2933:Pediatrics
2916:5 November
2891:5 November
2756:2018-06-22
2732:2018-06-22
2708:2018-06-22
2415:2023-06-08
2321:Philosophy
2219:2023-06-08
1996:2008-11-17
1886:Concussion
1866:2020-10-16
1672:References
1595:Myogenesis
1574:Concussion
1463:Paul Broca
1443:concussion
1371:analgesics
1359:See also:
1355:Management
1343:(DTI) and
1315:See also:
1289:teratogens
1227:can cause
1217:blindsight
1182:dysgraphia
1159:neologisms
1148:disability
1114:rhinorrhea
967:disability
779:dura mater
706:transverse
681:dura mater
670:dura mater
601:ventricles
553:concussion
549:depression
489:Concussion
483:Concussion
453:Concussion
431:dura mater
425:Traumatic
420:hemorrhage
400:contrecoup
389:Craniotomy
381:extradural
367:occurs, a
349:dura mater
252:Concussion
192:Psychiatry
93:newspapers
30:See also:
4324:By region
4305:Frostbite
4296:Corrosion
4183:Black eye
4084:Abrasions
3845:Mechanism
3739:Degloving
3441:Black eye
3336:neuro/153
3331:eMedicine
3218:(journal)
2885:Brainline
2790:913381359
2590:0028-3932
2551:260195187
2463:2045-2322
2341:170723313
2150:1758-3896
2134:(2): 75.
2019:BrainLine
1718:163165272
1696:: l1875.
1613:Neurology
1389:Prognosis
1311:Diagnosis
1297:infection
1285:poisoning
1271:, 32% of
1061:infection
975:delusions
840:aneurysms
744:confusion
674:endosteal
666:meningeal
657:Location
652:Subdural
526:headaches
514:confusion
238:paralysis
196:Neurology
183:Specialty
4264:Splinter
4164:Hematoma
4108:Blisters
4096:Avulsion
4091:Abrasion
4077:injuries
4071:General
4003:Embolism
3231:Archived
3198:26740991
3146:Archived
3142:16372696
3100:17405763
3059:11723197
3010:12077041
2961:27724892
2953:20566618
2867:16189364
2831:79447011
2682:67939538
2608:20974160
2481:28345642
2392:28539812
2306:54407724
2196:43075627
2188:19758692
2109:24485126
2065:26054870
1990:Archived
1957:18568112
1916:30202570
1710:31123100
1589:Lobotomy
1556:Epilepsy
1493:See also
1427:headache
1411:seizures
1201:amygdala
1178:dyslexia
1118:otorrhea
1070:fracture
1068:maxillar
1039:leaking
1026:headache
1022:vomiting
1014:seizures
989:or even
856:cisterns
852:fissures
764:-shaped
762:Crescent
740:headache
683:and the
649:Epidural
530:sequelae
373:subdural
369:hematoma
203:Symptoms
123:May 2017
4156:Bruises
3785:Cardio
3301:D006259
3050:1737620
3001:1123445
2599:2998000
2543:3265459
2472:5366904
2443:Bibcode
2383:5398751
1948:2424119
1907:6094361
1449:History
1431:seizure
1347:(MRS),
1339:(MRI),
1293:alcohol
1277:hypoxia
1262:assault
1241:agnosia
1103:mastoid
891:frontal
866:of the
864:vessels
751:CT scan
541:amnesia
510:fatigue
357:diffuse
107:scholar
4273:closed
4247:Other:
4233:Spider
4228:Insect
4223:Animal
4215:Biting
4073:wounds
3896:Region
3820:Neuro
3723:Injury
3563:Triage
3534:Trauma
3196:
3186:
3140:
3098:
3057:
3047:
3008:
2998:
2959:
2951:
2865:
2829:
2819:
2788:
2778:
2747:"NICE"
2680:
2670:
2637:
2606:
2596:
2588:
2549:
2541:
2479:
2469:
2461:
2390:
2380:
2339:
2304:
2267:
2194:
2186:
2168:Lancet
2148:
2107:
2063:
1982:
1955:
1945:
1914:
1904:
1839:
1814:
1789:
1764:
1739:
1716:
1708:
1363:, and
1299:, and
1281:oxygen
1251:Causes
1155:anomia
1109:, and
1081:wounds
1028:and a
1018:nausea
783:meninx
518:nausea
383:, and
329:neuron
230:stroke
109:
102:
95:
88:
80:
4238:Snake
3755:Resp
3268:S00.0
3149:(PDF)
3138:S2CID
3118:(PDF)
3078:Brain
2957:S2CID
2827:S2CID
2678:S2CID
2547:S2CID
2337:S2CID
2302:S2CID
2192:S2CID
2026:(PDF)
2015:(PDF)
1714:S2CID
1233:MT/V5
1091:skull
1075:nerve
1049:mouth
928:Axons
899:edema
848:sulci
662:skull
470:death
345:skull
341:scalp
285:brain
281:skull
248:Types
242:death
114:JSTOR
100:books
4292:Burn
4282:open
4075:and
3862:Burn
3730:MSK
3406:see
3312:5671
3296:MeSH
3281:9-CM
3194:PMID
3184:ISBN
3096:PMID
3055:PMID
3006:PMID
2949:PMID
2918:2019
2893:2019
2863:PMID
2847:JAMA
2817:ISBN
2786:OCLC
2776:ISBN
2751:NICE
2668:ISBN
2635:ISBN
2604:PMID
2586:ISSN
2539:PMID
2477:PMID
2459:ISSN
2388:PMID
2265:ISBN
2184:PMID
2146:ISSN
2105:PMID
2061:PMID
1980:ISBN
1953:PMID
1912:PMID
1837:ISBN
1812:ISBN
1787:ISBN
1766:1942
1762:PMID
1737:ISBN
1706:PMID
1128:The
1116:and
1097:, a
1045:nose
1020:and
1010:coma
987:coma
893:and
850:and
819:and
817:dura
742:and
491:and
466:coma
343:and
291:and
234:coma
86:news
4013:fat
4008:air
3805:GI
3462:ear
3431:eye
3290:879
3286:800
3277:ICD
3271:S09
3259:ICD
3176:hdl
3168:doi
3130:doi
3086:doi
3082:130
3045:PMC
3037:doi
2996:PMC
2988:doi
2984:324
2980:BMJ
2941:doi
2937:126
2855:doi
2851:294
2809:doi
2660:doi
2627:doi
2594:PMC
2578:doi
2531:doi
2527:193
2504:doi
2467:PMC
2451:doi
2378:PMC
2368:doi
2329:doi
2294:doi
2257:doi
2176:doi
2172:374
2136:doi
2095:doi
2053:doi
1943:PMC
1902:PMC
1894:doi
1698:doi
1694:365
1690:BMJ
1405:).
1295:),
1287:by
1283:),
1269:CDC
1053:ear
1051:or
842:or
836:pia
708:or
468:or
283:or
69:by
4363::
3345::
3334::
3310::
3299::
3284::
3266::
3263:10
3192:.
3182:.
3174:.
3144:.
3136:.
3126:10
3124:.
3120:.
3094:.
3080:.
3076:.
3053:.
3043:.
3033:71
3031:.
3027:.
3004:.
2994:.
2982:.
2978:.
2955:.
2947:.
2935:.
2909:.
2883:.
2861:.
2849:.
2825:.
2815:.
2784:.
2749:.
2725:.
2701:.
2690:^
2676:.
2666:.
2633:.
2602:.
2592:.
2584:.
2574:48
2572:.
2568:.
2545:.
2537:.
2500:24
2498:.
2475:.
2465:.
2457:.
2449:.
2437:.
2433:.
2408:.
2386:.
2376:.
2362:.
2358:.
2335:.
2325:55
2323:.
2300:.
2290:87
2288:.
2263:.
2236:.
2212:.
2190:.
2182:.
2170:.
2144:.
2132:11
2130:.
2126:.
2103:.
2091:89
2089:.
2085:.
2073:^
2059:.
2049:84
2047:.
2043:.
2017:.
1988:.
1951:.
1937:.
1933:.
1910:.
1900:.
1888:.
1884:.
1859:.
1712:.
1704:.
1692:.
1680:^
1429:,
1401:,
1397:,
1303:.
1225:V4
1213:V1
1180:,
1165:.
1105:,
1047:,
1024:,
1016:,
993:.
973:,
823:.
536:.
524:,
520:,
516:,
512:,
387:.
379:,
375:,
312:.
275:A
266:,
262:,
258:,
254:,
240:,
232:,
228:,
224:,
220:,
194:,
190:,
4298:/
4294:/
4280:/
4166:/
4064:e
4057:t
4050:v
3526:e
3519:t
3512:v
3464::
3433::
3382:e
3375:t
3368:v
3288:-
3279:-
3261:-
3251:D
3200:.
3178::
3170::
3132::
3102:.
3088::
3061:.
3039::
3012:.
2990::
2963:.
2943::
2920:.
2895:.
2869:.
2857::
2833:.
2811::
2792:.
2759:.
2735:.
2711:.
2684:.
2662::
2643:.
2629::
2610:.
2580::
2553:.
2533::
2510:.
2506::
2483:.
2453::
2445::
2439:7
2418:.
2394:.
2370::
2364:8
2343:.
2331::
2308:.
2296::
2273:.
2259::
2240:.
2222:.
2198:.
2178::
2152:.
2138::
2111:.
2097::
2067:.
2055::
1999:.
1959:.
1939:1
1918:.
1896::
1890:2
1869:.
1845:.
1820:.
1795:.
1768:.
1745:.
1720:.
1700::
1120:.
1063:.
636:e
629:t
622:v
136:)
130:(
125:)
121:(
111:·
104:·
97:·
90:·
63:.
40:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
