Treatment and management of addiction

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signaling at many different levels, which may underlie its ability to modify vulnerability during drug use initiation. Exercise also produces neuroadaptations that may influence an individual's vulnerability to initiate drug use. Consistent with this idea, chronic moderate levels of forced treadmill running blocks not only subsequent methamphetamine-induced conditioned place preference, but also stimulant-induced increases in dopamine release in the NAc (Chen et al., 2008) and striatum (Marques et al., 2008). ... findings indicate the efficacy of exercise at reducing drug intake in drug-dependent individuals ... wheel running methamphetamine self-administration under extended access conditions (Engelmann et al., 2013) ... These findings suggest that exercise may "magnitude"-dependently prevent the development of an addicted phenotype possibly by blocking/reversing behavioral and neuro-adaptive changes that develop during and following extended access to the drug. ... Exercise has been proposed as a treatment for drug addiction that may reduce drug craving and risk of relapse. Although few clinical studies have investigated the efficacy of exercise for preventing relapse, the few studies that have been conducted generally report a reduction in drug craving and better treatment outcomes (see Table 4). ... Taken together, these data suggest that the potential benefits of exercise during relapse, particularly for relapse to psychostimulants, may be mediated via chromatin remodeling and possibly lead to greater treatment outcomes.

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timecourse of HDAC inhibition. Studies employing co-administration procedures in which inhibitors are given acutely, just prior to psychostimulant administration, report heightened behavioral responses to the drug. In contrast, experimental paradigms like the one employed here, in which HDAC inhibitors are administered more chronically, for several days prior to psychostimulant exposure, show inhibited expression or decreased acquisition of behavioral adaptations to drug. The clustering of seemingly discrepant results based on experimental methodologies is interesting in light of our present findings. Both HDAC inhibitors and psychostimulants increase global levels of histone acetylation in NAc. Thus, when co-administered acutely, these drugs may have synergistic effects, leading to heightened transcriptional activation of psychostimulant-regulated target genes. In contrast, when a psychostimulant is given in the context of prolonged, HDAC inhibitor-induced hyperacetylation, homeostatic processes may direct AcH3 binding to the promoters of genes (e.g., G9a) responsible for inducing chromatin condensation and gene repression (e.g., via H3K9me2) to dampen already heightened transcriptional activation. Our present findings thus demonstrate clear cross talk among histone PTMs and suggest that decreased behavioral sensitivity to psychostimulants following prolonged HDAC inhibition might be mediated through decreased activity of HDAC1 at H3K9 KMT promoters and subsequent increases in H3K9me2 and gene repression.

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bidirectional, as a history of amphetamine administration facilitates sexual behavior and enhances the associated increase in NAc DA ... As described for food reward, sexual experience can also lead to activation of plasticity-related signaling cascades. The transcription factor delta FosB is increased in the NAc, PFC, dorsal striatum, and VTA following repeated sexual behavior (Wallace et al., 2008; Pitchers et al., 2010b). This natural increase in delta FosB or viral overexpression of delta FosB within the NAc modulates sexual performance, and NAc blockade of delta FosB attenuates this behavior (Hedges et al, 2009; Pitchers et al., 2010b). Further, viral overexpression of delta FosB enhances the conditioned place preference for an environment paired with sexual experience (Hedges et al., 2009). ... In some people, there is a transition from "normal" to compulsive engagement in natural rewards (such as food or sex), a condition that some have termed behavioral or non-drug addictions (Holden, 2001; Grant et al., 2006a). ... In humans, the role of dopamine signaling in incentive-sensitization processes has recently been highlighted by the observation of a dopamine dysregulation syndrome in some people taking dopaminergic drugs. This syndrome is characterized by a medication-induced increase in (or compulsive) engagement in non-drug rewards such as gambling, shopping, or sex (Evans et al, 2006; Aiken, 2007; Lader, 2008)."

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thus implicating this enzyme as a potential treatment target (Fig. 3). HDAC2 is also crucial for the induction and maintenance of structural synaptic plasticity in other neurological domains such as memory formation . Taken together, these findings underscore the potential usefulness of HDAC inhibition in treating alcohol use disorders ... Given the ability of HDAC inhibitors to potently modulate the synaptic plasticity of learning and memory , these drugs hold potential as treatment for substance abuse-related disorders. ... Our lab and others have published extensively on the ability of HDAC inhibitors to reverse the gene expression deficits caused by multiple models of alcoholism and alcohol abuse, the results of which were discussed above . This data supports further examination of histone modifying agents as potential therapeutic drugs in the treatment of alcohol addiction ... Future studies should continue to elucidate the specific epigenetic mechanisms underlying compulsive alcohol use and alcoholism, as this is likely to provide new molecular targets for clinical intervention.

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rewarding or reinforcing effect of drugs of abuse. ... At present, no pharmacological therapy has been approved by the FDA to treat psychostimulant addiction. Many drugs have been tested, but none have shown conclusive efficacy with tolerable side effects in humans. ... A new emphasis on larger-scale biomarker, genetic, and epigenetic research focused on the molecular targets of mental disorders has been recently advocated. In addition, the integration of cognitive and behavioral modification of circuit-wide neuroplasticity (i.e., computer-based training to enhance executive function) may prove to be an effective adjunct-treatment approach for addiction, particularly when combined with cognitive enhancers. Furthermore, in order to be effective, all pharmacological or biologically based treatments for addiction need to be integrated into other established forms of addiction rehabilitation, such as CBT, individual and group psychotherapy, behavior-modification strategies, twelve-step programs, and residential treatment facilities.

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of compulsive buying (80), compulsive sexual behavior (81), internet addiction (82), and pathologic skin picking (83). ... Topiramate, an anti-convulsant which blocks the AMPA subtype of glutamate receptor (among other actions), has shown promise in open-label studies of pathological gambling, compulsive buying, and compulsive skin picking (85), as well as efficacy in reducing alcohol (86), cigarette (87), and cocaine (88) use. N-acetyl cysteine, an amino acid that restores extracellular glutamate concentration in the nucleus accumbens, reduced gambling urges and behavior in one study of pathological gamblers (89), and reduces cocaine craving (90) and cocaine use (91) in cocaine addicts. These studies suggest that glutamatergic modulation of dopaminergic tone in the nucleus accumbens may be a mechanism common to behavioral addiction and substance use disorders (92).

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expression (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a). ... Also, G9a is induced in NAc upon prolonged HDAC inhibition, which explains the paradoxical attenuation of cocaine's behavioral effects seen under these conditions, as noted above (Kennedy et al., 2013). GABAA receptor subunit genes are among those that are controlled by this feedback loop. Thus, chronic cocaine, or prolonged HDAC inhibition, induces several GABAA receptor subunits in NAc, which is associated with increased frequency of inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs). In striking contrast, combined exposure to cocaine and HDAC inhibition, which triggers the induction of G9a and increased global levels of H3K9me2, leads to blockade of GABAA receptor and IPSC regulation.

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histone/DNA interaction and to recruit transcription factors which ultimately cause repression of some genes and activation of other genes. Importantly, some studies have also correlated the epigenetic regulation induced by AMPH with the behavioral outcomes caused by this drug, suggesting therefore that epigenetics remodeling underlies the behavioral changes induced by AMPH. If this proves to be true, the use of specific drugs that inhibit histone acetylation, methylation or DNA methylation might be an important therapeutic alternative to prevent and/or reverse AMPH addiction and mitigate the side effects generate by AMPH when used to treat ADHD.

23:, most commonly in the form of substance use disorders and behavioral addictions. Effective treatment often includes a combination of medical, psychological, and social interventions tailored to the specific needs of the individual. Common practices to this end include detoxification, counseling, behavioral therapy, medication-assisted treatment, and support groups. The goal of addiction treatment is to reduce dependence, improve quality of life, and ultimately support long-term recovery. Comprehensive management addresses both the physical and psychological aspects of addiction, recognizing it as a chronic but treatable condition. 171:. Rather than substituting for alcohol, these drugs are intended to affect the desire to drink, either by directly reducing cravings as with acamprosate and topiramate, or by producing unpleasant effects when alcohol is consumed, as with disulfiram. These drugs can be effective if treatment is maintained, but compliance can be an issue as patients with disordered alcohol use may forget to take their medication, or discontinue use because of excessive side effects. The opioid antagonist naltrexone has been shown to be an effective treatment for alcoholism, with the effects lasting three to twelve months after the end of treatment. 2989:

potentiates behavioral responses to cocaine and opiates, whereas increasing G9a function exerts the opposite effect (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a). Such drug-induced downregulation of G9a and H3K9me2 also sensitizes animals to the deleterious effects of subsequent chronic stress (Covington et al., 2011). Downregulation of G9a increases the dendritic arborization of NAc neurons, and is associated with increased expression of numerous proteins implicated in synaptic function, which directly connects altered G9a/H3K9me2 in the synaptic plasticity associated with addiction (Maze et al., 2010).

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person-centered research shows how the experiences of these women "emerge from stable systems of inequality based in intersectional gender, race, and class marginalization entangled with processes of intra-action." Viewing addiction treatment through this lens highlights the importance of framing clients' own bodies as "social flesh". As Schlosser (2018) points out, "client bodies" as well as the "embodied experiences of self and social belonging emerge in and through the structures, temporalities, and expectations of the treatment centre."

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clearly show that there are sex differences in drug addiction and exercise. The sex differences are also found in the effectiveness of exercise on drug addiction prevention and treatment, as well as underlying neurobiological mechanisms. The postulate that exercise serves as an ideal intervention for drug addiction has been widely recognized and used in human and animal rehabilitation. ... In particular, more studies on the neurobiological mechanism of exercise and its roles in preventing and treating drug addiction are needed.

418:. Current vaccine-based therapies are only effective in a relatively small subset of individuals. As of November 2015, vaccine-based therapies are being tested in human clinical trials as a treatment for addiction and preventive measure against drug overdoses involving nicotine, cocaine, and methamphetamine. The study shows that the vaccine may save lives during a drug overdose. In this instance, the idea is that the body will respond to the vaccine by quickly producing antibodies to prevent the opioids from accessing the brain. 345:. Although these drugs perpetuate physical dependence, the goal of opiate maintenance is to provide a measure of control over both pain and cravings. Use of replacement drugs increases the addicted individual's ability to function normally and eliminates the negative consequences of obtaining controlled substances illicitly. Once a prescribed dosage is stabilized, treatment enters maintenance or tapering phases. In the United States, opiate replacement therapy is tightly regulated in 218:

issue, becoming aware of one's thoughts surrounding the issue, identifying any negative or false thinking, and reshaping said negative and false thinking. While CBT does not cure behavioral addiction, it does help with coping with the condition in a healthy way. Currently, there are no medications approved for treatment of behavioral addictions in general, but some medications used for treatment of drug addiction may also be beneficial with specific behavioral addictions.

97:), prevents the development of certain drug addictions and is an effective adjunct treatment for drug addiction, and for psychostimulant addiction in particular. Consistent aerobic exercise magnitude-dependently (i.e., by duration and intensity) reduces drug addiction risk, which appears to occur through the reversal of drug induced addiction-related neuroplasticity. Exercise may prevent the development of drug addiction by altering ΔFosB or 4165: 1222:

substitute for the rewarding effects of drug abuse. ... The value of this form of treatment for drug addiction in laboratory animals and humans is that exercise, if it can substitute for the rewarding effects of drugs, could be self-maintained over an extended period of time. Work to date in regarding exercise as a treatment for drug addiction supports this hypothesis. ... However, a

6716: 2931:ΔFosB is considered a primary and causative transcription factor in creating new neural connections in the reward centre, prefrontal cortex, and other regions of the limbic system. This is reflected in the increased, stable and long-lasting level of sensitivity to cocaine and other drugs, and tendency to relapse even after long periods of abstinence. 6704: 54:

of addiction and relapses. Hapten conjugate vaccines are designed to block opioid receptors in one area, while allowing other receptors to behave normally. Essentially, once a high can no longer be achieved in relation to a traumatic event, the relation of drugs to a traumatic memory can be disconnected and therapy can play a role in treatment.

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which medication compliance, therapy session attendance, and negative drug screenings reinforced with vouchers to local business (e.g., movie theater, restaurants, etc.) directly reinforces drug abstinence, provides competing reinforcers, enriches the environment, and it is a robust treatment across a broad range of abused drugs (189). ...

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In humans, non-drug rewards delivered in a contingency management (CM) format successfully reduced drug dependence ... In general, CM programs promote drug abstinence through a combination of positive reinforcement for drug-free urine samples. For instance, voucher-based reinforcement therapy in

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et al, 2004), playing video games (Koepp et al, 1998; Hoeft et al, 2008) and the sight of appetizing food (Wang et al, 2004a) activate many of the same brain regions (i.e., the mesocorticolimbic system and extended amygdala) as drugs of abuse (Volkow et al, 2004). ... Cross-sensitization is also

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Collectively, these findings demonstrate that exercise may serve as a substitute or competition for drug abuse by changing ΔFosB or cFos immunoreactivity in the reward system to protect against later or previous drug use. ... As briefly reviewed above, a large number of human and rodent studies

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CBT proposes four assumptions essential to the approach to treatment: addiction is a learned behavior, it emerges in an environmental context, it is developed and maintained by particular thought patterns and processes, and CBT can be integrated well with other treatment and management approaches as

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Increased HDAC2 expression decreases the expression of genes important for the maintenance of dendritic spine density such as BDNF, Arc, and NPY, leading to increased anxiety and alcohol-seeking behavior. Decreasing HDAC2 reverses both the molecular and behavioral consequences of alcohol addiction,

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Naltrexone, a mu-opioid receptor antagonist approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of alcoholism and opioid dependence, has shown efficacy in controlled clinical trials for the treatment of pathological gambling and kleptomania (76–79), and promise in uncontrolled studies

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or other class I HDAC inhibitors for an extended period indicate that these drugs have efficacy in reducing addictive behavior in lab animals that have developed addictions to ethanol, psychostimulants (i.e., amphetamine and cocaine), nicotine, and opiates. Few clinical trials involving humans with

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Biotechnologies make up a large portion of the future treatments for addiction including deep-brain stimulation, agonist and antagonist implants and hapten conjugate vaccines. Vaccinations against addiction specifically overlaps with the belief that memory plays a large role in the damaging effects

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efficacy may be related to its ability to normalize glutamatergic and dopaminergic signaling and reverse drug-induced changes in chromatin via epigenetic interactions with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the reward pathway. ... these data show that exercise can affect dopaminergic

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treatment with NaB significantly attenuated nicotine and nicotine + cue reinstatement when administered immediately ... These results provide the first demonstration that HDAC inhibition facilitates the extinction of responding for an intravenously self-administered drug of abuse and further

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G9a appears to be a critical control point for epigenetic regulation in NAc, as we know it functions in two negative feedback loops. It opposes the induction of ΔFosB, a long-lasting transcription factor important for drug addiction (Robison and Nestler, 2011), while ΔFosB in turn suppresses G9a

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A pioneering study revealing both positive and negative modulatory effects of beta-arrestin2 on THC tolerance. By demonstrating that tolerance to antinociception is reduced whereas tolerance to catalepsy is enhanced in beta-arrestin2 knockout mice, authors suggest that development of cannabinoid

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and making lifestyle changes to promote healthier behaviors. Because cognitive behavioral therapy is considered a short-term therapy, the number of sessions for treatment normally ranges from five to twenty. During the session, therapists will lead patients through the topics of identifying the

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While acute HDAC inhibition enhances the behavioral effects of cocaine or amphetamine, studies suggest that more chronic regimens block psychostimulant-induced plasticity. ... The effects of pharmacological inhibition of HDACs on psychostimulant-induced plasticity appear to depend on the

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Short-term increases in histone acetylation generally promote behavioral responses to the drugs, while sustained increases oppose cocaine's effects, based on the actions of systemic or intra-NAc administration of HDAC inhibitors. ... Genetic or pharmacological blockade of G9a in the NAc

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Initial drug use can be attributed to the ability of the drug to act as a reward (ie, a pleasurable emotional state or positive reinforcer), which can lead to repeated drug use and dependence. A great deal of research has focused on the molecular and neuroanatomical mechanisms of the initial

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Epigenetic modifications caused by addictive drugs play an important role in neuronal plasticity and in drug-induced behavioral responses. Although few studies have investigated the effects of AMPH on gene regulation (Table 1), current data suggest that AMPH acts at multiple levels to alter

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There is accelerating evidence that physical exercise is a useful treatment for preventing and reducing drug addiction ... In some individuals, exercise has its own rewarding effects, and a behavioral economic interaction may occur, such that physical and social rewards of exercise can

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Anti-drug vaccines (active immunizations) for treatment of cocaine and nicotine addictions were successful in animal studies. Vaccines tested on humans have been shown as safe with mild to moderate side effects, though did not have firm results confirming efficacy despite producing expected

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The work of A.V. Schlosser (2018) aims to pronounce the individual lived experiences of women receiving medication-assisted treatment (e.g., methadone, naltrexone, burprenorphine) in a long-term rehabilitation setting, through a twenty month long ethnographic fieldwork investigation. This

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The limited research conducted suggests that exercise may be an effective adjunctive treatment for SUDs. In contrast to the scarce intervention trials to date, a relative abundance of literature on the theoretical and practical reasons supporting the investigation of this topic has been

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study was recently reported by Rawson et al. (226), whereby they used 8 weeks of exercise as a post-residential treatment for METH addiction, showed a significant reduction in use (confirmed by urine screens) in participants who had been using meth 18 days or less a month. ...

148:. Because of this, treatment for alcohol addiction usually involves a combined approach dealing with dependence and addiction simultaneously. Benzodiazepines have the largest and the best evidence base in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal and are considered the gold standard of 5653: 309:, a partial agonist, is an effective, and affordable cessation treatment for smokers. When access to varenicline and nicotine replacement therapy is limited (due to availability or cost), cytisine is considered the first line of treatment for smoking cessation. 89:

Substance addiction in children is complex and requires multifacted behavioral therapy. Family therapy and school-based interventions have had minor but lasting results. Innovative treatments are still needed for areas where relevant therapies are unavailable.

110:(DRD2) signaling (increased DRD2 density) to those induced by addictions to several drug classes (decreased DRD2 density). Consequently, consistent aerobic exercise may lead to better treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment for drug addiction. 2896:

Studies investigating general HDAC inhibition on behavioral outcomes have produced varying results but it seems that the effects are specific to the timing of exposure (either before, during or after exposure to drugs of abuse) as well as the length of

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Filip M, Frankowska M, Sadakierska-Chudy A, Suder A, Szumiec L, Mierzejewski P, Bienkowski P, Przegaliński E, Cryan JF (January 2015). "GABAB receptors as a therapeutic strategy in substance use disorders: focus on positive allosteric modulators".

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Interventions focusing on impulsivity and sensation seeking are successful in decreasing substance use. Cue exposure uses ideas from classical conditioning theory to change the learned behavioral response of someone addicted to a cue or trigger.

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Specifically, prolonged administration of a class I HDAC inhibitor appears to reduce an animal's motivation to acquire and use an addictive drug without affecting an animals motivation to attain other rewards (i.e., it does not appear to cause

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Robertson JR, Raab GM, Bruce M, McKenzie JS, Storkey HR, Salter A (December 2006). "Addressing the efficacy of dihydrocodeine versus methadone as an alternative maintenance treatment for opiate dependence: A randomized controlled trial".

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draw on different methods and models and rely on the success of vicarious learning, where people imitate behavior they observe as rewarding among their own social group or status as well as those perceived as being of a higher status.

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A biosocial approach to the treatment of addiction brings to the fore the social determinants of illness and wellbeing and considers the dynamic and reciprocal relationships that exist for, and influence, the individual's experience.

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published. ... numerous theoretical and practical reasons support exercise-based treatments for SUDs, including psychological, behavioral, neurobiological, nearly universal safety profile, and overall positive health effects.

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Walter M, Dürsteler KM, Petitjean SA, Wiesbeck GA, Euler S, Sollberger D, Lang UE, Vogel M (April 2015). "" [Psychosocial Treatment of Addictive Disorders – An Overview of Psychotherapeutic Options and their Efficacy].

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14. Nguyen PT, Schmid CL, Raehal KM, Selley DE, Bohn LM, Sim-Selley LJ: b-Arrestin2 regulates cannabinoid CB1 receptor signaling and adaptation in a central nervous system region dependent manner. Biol Psychiatry 2012,

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Tutka P, Vinnikov D, Courtney RJ, Benowitz NL (November 2019). "Cytisine for nicotine addiction treatment: a review of pharmacology, therapeutics and an update of clinical trial evidence for smoking cessation".

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in the striatum or other parts of the reward system. Aerobic exercise decreases drug self-administration, reduces the likelihood of relapse, and induces opposite effects on striatal dopamine receptor D

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Simon-O'Brien E, Alaux-Cantin S, Warnault V, Buttolo R, Naassila M, Vilpoux C (July 2015). "The histone deacetylase inhibitor sodium butyrate decreases excessive ethanol intake in dependent animals".

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Metrebian N, Mott J, Carnwath Z, Carnwath T, Stimson GV, Sell L (2007). "Pathways into receiving a prescription for diamorphine (heroin) for the treatment of opiate dependence in the United kingdom".

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Metrebian N, Shanahan W, Wells B, Stimson GV (June 1998). "Feasibility of prescribing injectable heroin and methadone to opiate-dependent drug users: associated health gains and harm reductions".

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Translation of therapeutic vaccines for addiction, cancer, or other chronic noncommunicable diseases has been slow because only a small subset of immunized subjects achieved effective Ab levels.

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Chan B, Freeman M, Kondo K, Ayers C, Montgomery J, Paynter R, Kansagara D (December 2019). "Pharmacotherapy for methamphetamine/amphetamine use disorder-a systematic review and meta-analysis".

369:. Many patients have stated they "became indifferent to alcohol" or "indifferent to cocaine" overnight after starting baclofen therapy. Some studies show the interconnection between opioid 42:

can be used to determine when treatment can begin and which method will be most effective. If treatment begins too early, it can cause a person to become defensive and resistant to change.

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signaling might be therapeutically useful. As of 2019, there has been some evidence of effective pharmacological interventions for cannabinoid addiction, but none have been approved.

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agonists that minimize interactions between CB1Rs and beta-arrestin2 might produce improved cannabinoid analgesics with reduced motor suppression, and be therapeutically beneficial.

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Bouza C, Angeles M, Magro A, Muñoz A, Amate JM (July 2004). "Efficacy and safety of naltrexone and acamprosate in the treatment of alcohol dependence: a systematic review".

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and even heroin are used as substitute drugs for illegal street opiates, with different prescriptions being given depending on the needs of the individual patient.

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Opioids cause physical dependence and treatment typically addresses both dependence and addiction. Physical dependence is treated using replacement drugs such as

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Kennedy PJ, Feng J, Robison AJ, Maze I, Badimon A, Mouzon E, Chaudhury D, Damez-Werno DM, Haggarty SJ, Han MH, Bassel-Duby R, Olson EN, Nestler EJ (April 2013).

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Animal and human research on physical exercise as a treatment for stimulant addiction indicates that this is one of the most promising treatments on the horizon.

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Rösner S, Hackl-Herrwerth A, Leucht S, Vecchi S, Srisurapanont M, Soyka M (December 2010). Srisurapanont M (ed.). "Opioid antagonists for alcohol dependence".

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With a combination of tools such as behavioral therapy, a balanced lifestyle, and individualized relapse plans, relapse is can be more successfully avoided.

3366:"Using Adeno-Associated Virus (AAV) Mediated Sustained Expression of an Anti-methamphetamine Antibody Fragment to Alter Methamphetamine Disposition in Mice" 2547:"The frequency of naive and early-activated hapten-specific B cell subsets dictates the efficacy of a therapeutic vaccine against prescription opioid abuse" 6354: 3294: 5949: 6661: 5840: 3365: 6419: 5959: 5638: 6649: 6319: 5850: 491:

for addiction is an active area of research. One line of gene therapy research involves the use of viral vectors to increase the expression of

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addictions and any HDAC class I inhibitors have been conducted to test for treatment efficacy in humans or identify an optimal dosing regimen.

2458:"Vaccines as a preventive tool for substance use disorder: A systematic review including a meta-analysis on nicotine vaccines' immunogenicity" 6329: 5648: 5191: 2619:

Cao DN, Shi JJ, Hao W, Wu N, Li J (March 2016). "Advances and challenges in pharmacotherapeutics for amphetamine-type stimulants addiction".

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Connock M, Juarez-Garcia A, Jowett S, Frew E, Liu Z, Taylor RJ, Fry-Smith A, Day E, Lintzeris N, Roberts T, Burls A, Taylor RS (March 2007).

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To be effective, treatment for addiction that is pharmacological or biologically based need to be accompanied by other interventions such as

5928: 4843: 6274: 5643: 4116: 3588: 3445: 2659:"Neuroimaging markers of glutamatergic and GABAergic systems in drug addiction: Relationships to resting-state functional connectivity" 213:(CBT) is the most common form of psychotherapy used in treating behavioral addictions; it focuses on identifying patterns that trigger 6369: 5743: 5024: 4201: 3978: 2164: 6389: 6374: 6344: 6199: 6109: 5795: 5760: 5112: 4863: 4300: 1663: 1150:

Functional neuroimaging studies in humans have shown that gambling (Breiter et al, 2001), shopping (Knutson et al, 2007), orgasm (

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uses ideas from operant conditioning to use meaningful positive reinforcements to influence addiction behaviors towards sobriety.

6359: 6264: 6179: 6124: 5933: 5765: 5753: 4041: 3908: 3107:"Inhibition of histone deacetylases facilitates extinction and attenuates reinstatement of nicotine self-administration in rats" 297:. Examples of drugs that act on nicotinic receptors and have been used for treating nicotine addiction include antagonists like 6598: 6522: 6424: 6119: 6083: 5918: 5825: 5186: 4121: 4111: 2545:

Laudenbach M, Baruffaldi F, Vervacke JS, Distefano MD, Titcombe PJ, Mueller DL, Tubo NJ, Griffith TS, Pravetoni M (June 2015).

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and NMDA receptors, has shown some benefit involving addictions to cocaine, heroin, and cannabinoids. It may be useful as an

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Schlosser AV (September 2018). "'They Medicated Me Out': Social Flesh and Embodied Citizenship in Addiction Treatment".

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expression in the nucleus accumbens after prolonged use. These reviews and subsequent preliminary evidence which used

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Kenna GA, Nielsen DM, Mello P, Schiesl A, Swift RM (2007). "Pharmacotherapy of dual substance abuse and dependence".

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Zalewska-Kaszubska J (November 2015). "Is immunotherapy an opportunity for effective treatment of drug addiction?".

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Alcohol, like opioids, can induce a severe state of physical dependence and produce withdrawal symptoms such as

5231: 3754: 3273:"Gene Therapy For Addiction: Flooding Brain With 'Pleasure Chemical' Receptors Works On Cocaine, As On Alcohol" 538: 82: 468:– that indirectly inhibits the function and further increases in the expression of accumbal ΔFosB by inducing 415: 1506:

Pettinati HM, Rabinowitz AR (October 2006). "Choosing the right medication for the treatment of alcoholism".

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Crooks PA, Bardo MT, Dwoskin LP (2014). "Nicotinic Receptor Antagonists as Treatments for Nicotine Abuse".

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Soyka M, Roesner S (December 2006). "New pharmacological approaches for the treatment of alcoholism".

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Wolfe D, Saucier R (February 2021). "Biotechnologies and the future of opioid addiction treatments".

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Current medical reviews of research involving lab animals have identified a drug class – class I

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has led to successful reductions of cravings for stimulants, alcohol, and opioids and alleviates

291: 279: 263: 227: 206: 133: 64: 3223:"Effect of add-on valproate on craving in methamphetamine depended patients: A randomized trial" 6696: 6588: 6568: 6159: 5964: 5696: 5493: 5435: 4947: 4680: 4353: 4187: 4126: 3968: 3495: 3347: 3254: 3199: 3146: 3074: 3041: 2979: 2922: 2887: 2827: 2775: 2739: 2688: 2636: 2576: 2527: 2487: 2438: 2381: 2346: 2289: 2246: 2203: 2133: 2097: 2056: 2007: 1968: 1948: 1914: 1876: 1812: 1762: 1705: 1659: 1624: 1593: 1566: 1523: 1480: 1445: 1392: 1336: 1280: 1205: 1141: 1070: 1062: 1023: 979: 936: 928: 828: 820: 771: 731: 675: 644:"The neurocircuitry of illicit psychostimulant addiction: acute and chronic effects in humans" 398: 269: 180: 2597: 800: 758:

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Table 1: Summary of plasticity observed following exposure to drug or natural reinforcers

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401:

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6730: 6563: 6537: 6532: 6446: 6009: 5969: 5589: 5569: 5478: 5405: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5312: 5108: 4908: 4891: 4859: 4638: 4579: 4444: 4376: 4358: 4329: 4296: 4278: 4029: 3454: 2965: 2787: 2771: 2393: 2285: 2172: 2129: 2019: 1562: 1431: 1127: 1082: 991: 948: 893: 785: 570: 434: 430: 330: 202: 3086: 2674: 2301: 2215: 1824: 1795:

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Another area in which drug treatment has been widely used is in the treatment of

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Among the few clinical trials that employed a class I HDAC inhibitor, one used

5974: 5711: 5445: 5337: 4810: 4655: 4603: 4233: 4101: 3941: 3778: 3156:

highlight the potential of HDAC inhibitors in the treatment of drug addiction.

2424: 1701: 1519: 767: 717: 574: 168: 160: 156: 127: 3239: 2562: 2332: 1937:

Emerging Targets & Therapeutics in the Treatment of Psychostimulant Abuse

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neurotransmission, receptors associated with these neurotransmitters (e.g.,

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Behavioral addiction is a treatable condition. Treatment options include

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10.1002/(SICI)1098-2299(199610)39:2<131::AID-DDR3>3.0.CO;2-Q

19:

encompass the range of approaches aimed at helping individuals overcome

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in humans, while the latter two compounds are FDA-approved drugs with

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Pharmacological treatments for alcohol addiction include drugs like

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Consistent aerobic exercise, especially endurance exercise (e.g.,

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legislation. In some countries, other opioid derivatives such as

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Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs

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may have a potential use in alcohol addiction treatment.

2614: 2612: 2610: 2608: 393:

for any form of psychostimulant addiction. Experimental

71:

are effective interventions with moderate effect sizes.

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Community reinforcement approach and family training

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J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 1702:10.1007/s10879-013-9239-7 1586:American Family Physician 1520:10.1007/s11920-006-0040-0 768:10.1017/9781911623199.009 718:10.1136/bmjpo-2021-001242 539:histone-modifying enzymes 505:Addiction recovery groups 377:Psychostimulant addiction 83:Addiction recovery groups 6410:Turks and Caicos Islands 5919:Methamphetamine legality 5232:Marijuana Policy Project 4223:Major recreational drugs 3755:Psychological dependence 3589:Digital media addictions 3240:10.4103/2277-9175.187404 2915:Ann. Agric. Environ. Med 2563:10.4049/jimmunol.1500385 2333:10.1136/bmj.326.7396.959 1863:10.1176/appi.focus.17202 1191:10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00175 886:10.1177/0091450918781590 373:and overdose mortality. 301:and the partial agonist 5187:Cannabis rights leaders 4057:Needle exchange program 4047:Managed alcohol program 4025:Category:Harm reduction 1311:Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 585:unrelated to addiction. 495:proteins in the brain. 5995:Politics of drug abuse 4963:Mandragora officinarum 4077:Tobacco harm reduction 3897:Contingency management 3864:Alcohol detoxification 3577:Internet sex addiction 1367:Front. Neuroendocrinol 1020:10.1055/s-0034-1399338 597:motivational anhedonia 579:short-chain fatty acid 533:Inhibitors of class I 480:of the sodium salt of 274:Tobacco harm reduction 259: 150:alcohol detoxification 77:Contingency management 6355:Saint Kitts and Nevis 5654:1988 Drug Trafficking 5247:Cannabis and religion 4211:Recreational drug use 4139:Motivational salience 4067:Stimulant maintenance 4052:Moderation Management 3964:Methadone maintenance 2862:Curr. Opin. Neurobiol 2663:Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1797:Curr. Opin. Neurobiol 1648:Behavioral Addictions 1255:Neurosci Biobehav Rev 412:monoclonal antibodies 323:Further information: 268:Further information: 251: 222:Cannabinoid addiction 207:psychopharmacotherapy 175:Behavioral addictions 159:(opioid antagonist), 132:Further information: 32:behavior modification 6604:Responsible drug use 6415:United Arab Emirates 5734:Drug Policy Alliance 5622:Legality of drug use 5227:Legality of cannabis 5202:Cannabis Social Club 5172:Cannabis cultivation 5167:Cannabis consumption 4998:Cannabis (Marijuana) 4820:Psilocybin mushrooms 4062:Responsible drug use 3919:Motivational therapy 3584:Video game addiction 3408:on 27 September 2018 2086:(9): 1–171, iii–iv. 1784:Better Life Recovery 854:Magnusson D (1998). 706:BMJ Paediatrics Open 648:Subst. Abuse Rehabil 493:dopamine D2 receptor 185:Behavioral addiction 36:twelve-step programs 6662:Tobacco consumption 6632:Alcohol consumption 6574:Drug rehabilitation 6511:Effects of cannabis 6235:Indian Ocean region 6015:Philippine drug war 5644:1961 Narcotic Drugs 4325:nail polish remover 3986:Twelve-step program 3869:Drug detoxification 3750:Physical dependence 3402:www.attcnetwork.org 3297:on 27 November 2020 3123:2015PLoSO..1024796C 583:medical indications 535:histone deacetylase 515:Drug rehabilitation 474:oral administration 416:blood–brain barrier 371:drug detoxification 319:Opioid use disorder 232:The development of 215:compulsive behavior 6742:Medical treatments 6518:Drug-related crime 6195:Dominican Republic 6105:Illegal drug trade 5580:Religion and drugs 5535:Drug paraphernalia 5515:Chasing the dragon 5474:Fashion cigarettes 5055:Calea zacatechichi 4750:Psychoactive toads 4460:Mitragyna speciosa 4412:Dextropropoxyphene 4354:Nonbenzodiazepines 4262:Alcoholic beverage 4144:Incentive salience 4132:Inhibitory control 4107:Category:Addiction 4097:Addiction medicine 3892:Relapse prevention 3829:Tanning dependence 3103: • 3055: • 3008: • 2596:Painter A. (2019) 1911:10.2146/ajhp060427 661:10.2147/SAR.S39684 457:for addictions to 399:selective agonists 292:nicotinic receptor 280:nicotine addiction 264:Nicotine addiction 260: 244:Nicotine addiction 228:Cannabis addiction 134:Alcohol and health 65:relapse prevention 58:Behavioral therapy 6678: 6677: 6674: 6673: 6670: 6669: 6589:Pharmacovigilance 6569:Drug legalization 6467: 6466: 6034: 6033: 6030: 6029: 5965:Cognitive liberty 5909:Cannabis legality 5697:Decriminalization 5612: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5494:Smoking fetishism 5131: 5130: 5127: 5126: 5068: 5067: 4948:Atropa belladonna 4315:contact adhesives 4257:Ethanol (alcohol) 4177: 4176: 4127:Cognitive control 4085: 4084: 3969:Smoking cessation 3924:Physical exercise 3839: 3838: 3825:Non-drug stimuli 3724: 3723: 3568:Internet-related 3071:10.1111/adb.12161 2954:Neuropharmacology 2760:Neuropharmacology 2725:10.12740/PP/33911 2621:Eur. J. Pharmacol 2419:(12): 1823–1829. 2378:10.1111/add.14755 2372:(12): 2122–2136. 2243:10.1159/000101550 2004:10.1111/add.14721 1998:(11): 1951–1969. 1954:978-0-12-420118-7 1905:(16): 1693–1698. 1219:Physical Exercise 1178:Front. Psychiatry 1116:Neuropharmacology 777:978-1-911623-19-9 601:self-administered 347:methadone clinics 270:Smoking cessation 122:Alcohol addiction 6749: 6719: 6718: 6707: 6706: 6705: 6695: 6694: 6693: 6686: 6506:Drug harmfulness 6501:Driving impaired 6320:Papua New Guinea 6089:Rolling meth lab 6062: 6051: 6040: 6005:Mexican drug war 5914:Cocaine legality 5899:Alcohol legality 5729:Demand reduction 5717:Supply reduction 5629: 5618: 5295:Drinking culture 5237:Medical cannabis 5197:Cannabis smoking 5154:Cannabis culture 5150: 5137: 5113:recreational use 4958:Hyoscyamus niger 4919:Salvia divinorum 4902:Amanita muscaria 4864:recreational use 4844:recreational use 4733: 4301:recreational use 4230: 4219: 4204: 4197: 4190: 4181: 4167: 4166: 3854: 3735: 3660:G9a-like protein 3476: 3448: 3441: 3434: 3425: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3404:. Archived from 3394: 3388: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3377: 3371:. Archived from 3370: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3345: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3287: 3281: 3280: 3269: 3263: 3262: 3252: 3242: 3218: 3212: 3211: 3197: 3165: 3159: 3158: 3144: 3134: 3101: 3098: 3094: 3053: 3039: 3004: 2995: 2994: 2977: 2960:(Pt B): 259–68. 2945: 2934: 2933: 2906: 2900: 2899: 2885: 2853: 2840: 2839: 2825: 2801: 2792: 2791: 2754: 2748: 2747: 2737: 2727: 2703: 2697: 2696: 2686: 2654: 2645: 2644: 2616: 2603: 2594: 2588: 2587: 2574: 2542: 2536: 2535: 2507: 2496: 2495: 2485: 2453: 2447: 2446: 2436: 2404: 2398: 2397: 2361: 2355: 2354: 2344: 2327:(7396): 959–60. 2312: 2306: 2305: 2269: 2263: 2262: 2226: 2220: 2219: 2183: 2177: 2176: 2148: 2142: 2141: 2112: 2106: 2105: 2095: 2093:10.3310/hta11090 2071: 2065: 2064: 2054: 2030: 2024: 2023: 1986: 1977: 1976: 1966: 1932: 1923: 1922: 1894: 1885: 1884: 1874: 1842: 1836: 1835: 1792: 1786: 1781: 1775: 1774: 1760: 1728: 1722: 1721: 1681: 1675: 1674: 1673: 1672: 1639: 1633: 1632: 1615:(12): CD001867. 1608: 1602: 1601: 1581: 1575: 1574: 1546: 1540: 1539: 1503: 1497: 1496: 1460: 1454: 1453: 1443: 1426:(9): VE01–VE07. 1411: 1405: 1404: 1390: 1358: 1349: 1348: 1334: 1302: 1293: 1292: 1278: 1246: 1233: 1232: 1225: 1203: 1193: 1169: 1163: 1157: 1139: 1107: 1094: 1093: 1091: 1089: 1059:10.1002/erv.2732 1038: 1032: 1031: 1002: 996: 995: 959: 953: 952: 904: 898: 897: 869: 860: 859: 851: 845: 844: 796: 790: 789: 755: 740: 739: 729: 697: 688: 687: 673: 663: 639: 617: 610: 604: 592: 586: 531: 449:, which affects 447:N-acetylcysteine 359:dihydroetorphine 313:Opioid addiction 295:partial agonists 198: 179:This section is 145:delirium tremens 104:immunoreactivity 102: 95:marathon running 41: 6757: 6756: 6752: 6751: 6750: 6748: 6747: 6746: 6727: 6726: 6725: 6713: 6703: 6701: 6691: 6689: 6681: 6679: 6666: 6624: 6618: 6594:Reagent testing 6552: 6543:Passive smoking 6473: 6463: 6093: 6079:Drug precursors 6066: 6057: 6055: 6045: 6026: 5980:Drug possession 5955:Cannabis rights 5938: 5934:Salvia legality 5887: 5778: 5772: 5680: 5623: 5604: 5585:Self-medication 5503: 5499:Tobacco smoking 5461:Smoking culture 5455: 5392: 5289: 5256: 5212:Cannabis vaping 5182:Cannabis rights 5177:Cannabis edible 5144: 5123: 5064: 5060:Silene capensis 5041: 4979: 4975:Diphenhydramine 4925: 4826: 4722: 4667: 4619:Methylphenidate 4609:Methamphetamine 4500: 4363: 4247:Benzodiazepines 4224: 4213: 4208: 4178: 4173: 4155: 4151:Sober companion 4081: 4035:Reagent testing 4011: 3990: 3934: 3928: 3879: 3873: 3848: 3846: 3835: 3764: 3720: 3607:Transcriptional 3599: 3593: 3520: 3506:Methylphenidate 3501:Methamphetamine 3465: 3452: 3422: 3421: 3411: 3409: 3396: 3395: 3391: 3381: 3379: 3378:on 3 March 2018 3375: 3368: 3364: 3363: 3359: 3328:(33): 4155–62. 3315: 3314: 3310: 3300: 3298: 3289: 3288: 3284: 3271: 3270: 3266: 3220: 3219: 3215: 3167: 3166: 3162: 3117:(4): e0124796. 3104: 3102: 3056: 3054: 3028:10.1038/nn.3354 3009: 3007: 3005: 2998: 2990: 2947: 2946: 2937: 2908: 2907: 2903: 2855: 2854: 2843: 2810:J. Addict. Prev 2803: 2802: 2795: 2756: 2755: 2751: 2712:Psychiatr. Pol. 2705: 2704: 2700: 2656: 2655: 2648: 2618: 2617: 2606: 2595: 2591: 2557:(12): 5926–36. 2544: 2543: 2539: 2518:(48): 6545–51. 2509: 2508: 2499: 2455: 2454: 2450: 2406: 2405: 2401: 2363: 2362: 2358: 2314: 2313: 2309: 2271: 2270: 2266: 2228: 2227: 2223: 2194:(12): 596–600. 2185: 2184: 2180: 2150: 2149: 2145: 2114: 2113: 2109: 2073: 2072: 2068: 2032: 2031: 2027: 1988: 1987: 1980: 1955: 1934: 1933: 1926: 1896: 1895: 1888: 1844: 1843: 1839: 1831: 1794: 1793: 1789: 1782: 1778: 1730: 1729: 1725: 1683: 1682: 1678: 1670: 1668: 1666: 1641: 1640: 1636: 1610: 1609: 1605: 1583: 1582: 1578: 1548: 1547: 1543: 1505: 1504: 1500: 1471:(17): 2341–53. 1462: 1461: 1457: 1413: 1412: 1408: 1360: 1359: 1352: 1304: 1303: 1296: 1248: 1247: 1236: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1171: 1170: 1166: 1158: 1109: 1108: 1097: 1087: 1085: 1040: 1039: 1035: 1004: 1003: 999: 961: 960: 956: 906: 905: 901: 871: 870: 863: 853: 852: 848: 798: 797: 793: 778: 757: 756: 743: 699: 698: 691: 641: 640: 636: 631: 621: 620: 611: 607: 593: 589: 563:sodium butyrate 532: 528: 523: 501: 455:adjunct therapy 442: 407: 391:pharmacotherapy 379: 327: 325:Opioid epidemic 321: 315: 276: 266: 246: 230: 224: 199: 188: 177: 140: 130: 124: 119: 109: 98: 60: 12: 11: 5: 6755: 6753: 6745: 6744: 6739: 6729: 6728: 6724: 6723: 6711: 6699: 6676: 6675: 6672: 6671: 6668: 6667: 6665: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6653: 6652: 6647: 6639: 6634: 6628: 6626: 6620: 6619: 6617: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6560: 6558: 6557:Harm reduction 6554: 6553: 6551: 6550: 6549: 6548: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6514: 6513: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6491:Date rape drug 6488: 6483: 6477: 6475: 6469: 6468: 6465: 6464: 6462: 6461: 6460: 6459: 6457:Liquor license 6454: 6449: 6444: 6434: 6432:Darknet market 6429: 6428: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6101: 6099: 6095: 6094: 6092: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6070: 6068: 6059: 6047: 6046: 6043: 6036: 6035: 6032: 6031: 6028: 6027: 6025: 6024: 6022:Zero tolerance 6019: 6018: 6017: 6012: 6007: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5946: 5944: 5940: 5939: 5937: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5895: 5893: 5889: 5888: 5886: 5885: 5884: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5796:Czech Republic 5793: 5788: 5782: 5780: 5774: 5773: 5771: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5757: 5756: 5749:Liberalization 5746: 5741: 5739:Harm reduction 5736: 5731: 5721: 5720: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5688: 5686: 5682: 5681: 5679: 5678: 5677: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5658: 5657: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5635: 5633: 5625: 5624: 5621: 5614: 5613: 5610: 5609: 5606: 5605: 5603: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5565:Party and play 5562: 5557: 5555:Needle sharing 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5511: 5509: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5469:Cigarette card 5465: 5463: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5402: 5400: 5394: 5393: 5391: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5378:Tailgate party 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5328:Drinking games 5325: 5320: 5318:Binge drinking 5315: 5310: 5305: 5299: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5266: 5264: 5262:Coffee culture 5258: 5257: 5255: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5158: 5156: 5146: 5145: 5140: 5133: 5132: 5129: 5128: 5125: 5124: 5122: 5121: 5116: 5106: 5105: 5104: 5099: 5089: 5084: 5078: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5066: 5065: 5063: 5062: 5057: 5051: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5040: 5039: 5038: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5012: 5011: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4989: 4987: 4981: 4980: 4978: 4977: 4972: 4970:Dimenhydrinate 4967: 4966: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4935: 4933: 4927: 4926: 4924: 4923: 4922: 4921: 4911: 4906: 4905: 4904: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4883: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4870:alkyl nitrites 4867: 4852: 4847: 4836: 4834: 4828: 4827: 4825: 4824: 4823: 4822: 4808: 4807: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4794:Peruvian torch 4786: 4781: 4776: 4775: 4774: 4764: 4763: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4741: 4739: 4730: 4724: 4723: 4721: 4720: 4719: 4718: 4713: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4683: 4677: 4675: 4669: 4668: 4666: 4665: 4664: 4663: 4658: 4648: 4647: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4595: 4594: 4584: 4583: 4582: 4577: 4567: 4566: 4565: 4555: 4554: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4533: 4528: 4527: 4526: 4516: 4510: 4508: 4502: 4501: 4499: 4498: 4493: 4492: 4491: 4481: 4480: 4479: 4469: 4468: 4467: 4457: 4452: 4451: 4450: 4442: 4437: 4436: 4435: 4427: 4422: 4421: 4420: 4417: 4409: 4408: 4407: 4399: 4398: 4397: 4387: 4386: 4385: 4382: 4373: 4371: 4365: 4364: 4362: 4361: 4359:Quinazolinones 4356: 4351: 4346: 4345: 4344: 4343: 4342: 4334: 4333: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4306: 4305: 4304: 4286: 4281: 4279:Gabapentinoids 4276: 4275: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4238: 4236: 4226: 4225: 4222: 4215: 4214: 4209: 4207: 4206: 4199: 4192: 4184: 4175: 4174: 4172: 4171: 4160: 4157: 4156: 4154: 4153: 4148: 4147: 4146: 4136: 4135: 4134: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4093: 4091: 4087: 4086: 4083: 4082: 4080: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4038: 4037: 4027: 4021: 4019: 4017:Harm reduction 4013: 4012: 4010: 4009: 4004: 3998: 3996: 3995:Support groups 3992: 3991: 3989: 3988: 3983: 3982: 3981: 3976: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3951: 3950: 3949: 3938: 3936: 3930: 3929: 3927: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3911: 3906: 3901: 3900: 3899: 3894: 3883: 3881: 3875: 3874: 3872: 3871: 3866: 3860: 3858: 3857:Detoxification 3851: 3841: 3840: 3837: 3836: 3834: 3833: 3832: 3831: 3823: 3822: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3794:Benzodiazepine 3791: 3786: 3781: 3772: 3770: 3766: 3765: 3763: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3741: 3739: 3732: 3726: 3725: 3722: 3721: 3719: 3718: 3717: 3716: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3676: 3669: 3662: 3657: 3644: 3643: 3642: 3641: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3603: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3592: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3580: 3579: 3574: 3566: 3565: 3564: 3559: 3551: 3549:Palatable food 3546: 3545: 3544: 3539: 3530: 3528: 3522: 3521: 3519: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3493: 3488: 3482: 3480: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3453: 3451: 3450: 3443: 3436: 3428: 3420: 3419: 3389: 3357: 3308: 3282: 3264: 3213: 3174:Neurosci. Lett 3160: 2996: 2935: 2901: 2841: 2793: 2749: 2698: 2646: 2604: 2589: 2537: 2497: 2448: 2399: 2356: 2307: 2264: 2221: 2178: 2143: 2124:(12): 1752–9. 2107: 2066: 2045:(18): 1290–7. 2025: 1978: 1953: 1924: 1886: 1857:(2): 163–168. 1837: 1787: 1776: 1743:(5): 233–241. 1723: 1676: 1664: 1634: 1603: 1592:(9): 1775–80. 1576: 1541: 1498: 1455: 1406: 1350: 1294: 1261:(8): 1622–44. 1234: 1164: 1122:(7): 1109–22. 1095: 1053:(4): 368–384. 1033: 1014:(4): 201–210. 997: 954: 899: 880:(3): 188–207. 861: 846: 811:(4): 209–214. 791: 776: 741: 712:(1): e001242. 689: 633: 632: 630: 627: 626: 625: 619: 618: 605: 587: 567:trichostatin A 559:butyrate salts 525: 524: 522: 519: 518: 517: 512: 507: 500: 497: 440: 435:NMDA receptors 431:AMPA receptors 406: 403: 378: 375: 355:dihydrocodeine 349:and under the 317:Main article: 314: 311: 262:Main article: 255:patch used in 245: 242: 226:Main article: 223: 220: 176: 173: 126:Main article: 123: 120: 118: 115: 107: 59: 56: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6754: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6734: 6732: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6710: 6700: 6698: 6688: 6684: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6642: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6629: 6627: 6623:Countries by 6621: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6564:Drug checking 6562: 6561: 6559: 6555: 6546: 6545: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6533:Neurotoxicity 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6512: 6509: 6508: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6478: 6476: 6470: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6447:Cannabis shop 6445: 6443: 6440: 6439: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6420:United States 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6275:Latin America 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6107: 6106: 6103: 6102: 6100: 6096: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6071: 6069: 6063: 6060: 6052: 6048: 6041: 6037: 6023: 6020: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6010:Plan Colombia 6008: 6006: 6003: 6002: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5970:Designer drug 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5947: 5945: 5941: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5896: 5894: 5892:Drug legality 5890: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5843: 5842: 5841:United States 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5783: 5781: 5775: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5755: 5754:Latin America 5752: 5751: 5750: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5726: 5725: 5724:Policy reform 5722: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5694: 5693: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5683: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5661: 5659: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5632:International 5630: 5626: 5619: 5615: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5590:Sex and drugs 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5570:Poly drug use 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5512: 5510: 5506: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5479:Cloud-chasing 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5466: 5464: 5462: 5458: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5406:Psychonautics 5404: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5395: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5333:Drinking song 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5323:Diethyl ether 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5313:Beer festival 5311: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5296: 5292: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5267: 5265: 5263: 5259: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5159: 5157: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5138: 5134: 5120: 5117: 5114: 5110: 5109:Nitrous oxide 5107: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5071: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5052: 5050: 5048: 5044: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5017: 5016: 5013: 5009: 5006: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4991: 4990: 4988: 4986: 4982: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4945: 4944: 4940: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4932: 4928: 4920: 4917: 4916: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4903: 4900: 4899: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4865: 4861: 4860:Nitrous oxide 4858: 4857: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4845: 4841: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4833: 4832:Dissociatives 4829: 4821: 4818: 4817: 4816: 4812: 4809: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4791: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4773: 4770: 4769: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4740: 4738: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4728:Hallucinogens 4725: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4708: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4689: 4688: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4678: 4676: 4674: 4670: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4653: 4652: 4649: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4631: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4593: 4590: 4589: 4588: 4585: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4572: 4571: 4568: 4564: 4561: 4560: 4559: 4556: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4546:Energy drinks 4544: 4542: 4539: 4538: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4525: 4522: 4521: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4511: 4509: 4507: 4503: 4497: 4494: 4490: 4487: 4486: 4485: 4482: 4478: 4475: 4474: 4473: 4470: 4466: 4463: 4462: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4448: 4447: 4446: 4445:Hydromorphone 4443: 4441: 4438: 4433: 4432: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4418: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4410: 4405: 4404: 4403: 4400: 4396: 4393: 4392: 4391: 4388: 4383: 4380: 4379: 4378: 4377:Buprenorphine 4375: 4374: 4372: 4370: 4366: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4341: 4338: 4337: 4335: 4331: 4330:Paint thinner 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4298: 4297:Nitrous oxide 4295: 4294: 4292: 4291: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4259: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4205: 4200: 4198: 4193: 4191: 4186: 4185: 4182: 4170: 4162: 4161: 4158: 4152: 4149: 4145: 4142: 4141: 4140: 4137: 4133: 4130: 4129: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4094: 4092: 4088: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4036: 4033: 4032: 4031: 4030:Drug checking 4028: 4026: 4023: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4014: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3993: 3987: 3984: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3971: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3948: 3945: 3944: 3943: 3940: 3939: 3937: 3931: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3889: 3888: 3885: 3884: 3882: 3876: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3861: 3859: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3842: 3830: 3827: 3826: 3824: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3795: 3792: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3776: 3774: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3742: 3740: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3727: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3682: 3681: 3677: 3675: 3674: 3670: 3668: 3667: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3655: 3651: 3650: 3649: 3646: 3645: 3640: 3637: 3635: 3632: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3622: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3614: 3610: 3609: 3608: 3605: 3604: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3587: 3585: 3582: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3569: 3567: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3547: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3534: 3532: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3523: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3487: 3484: 3483: 3481: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3455:Reinforcement 3449: 3444: 3442: 3437: 3435: 3430: 3429: 3426: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3393: 3390: 3374: 3367: 3361: 3358: 3353: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3312: 3309: 3296: 3292: 3286: 3283: 3278: 3274: 3268: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3214: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3164: 3161: 3157: 3152: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3100: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3065:(4): 676–89. 3064: 3060: 3052: 3047: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3022:(4): 434–40. 3021: 3017: 3016:Nat. Neurosci 3013: 3003: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2985: 2981: 2976: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2921:(3): 491–96. 2920: 2916: 2912: 2905: 2902: 2898: 2893: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2800: 2798: 2794: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2753: 2750: 2745: 2741: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2721: 2718:(2): 215–23. 2717: 2714:(in Polish). 2713: 2709: 2702: 2699: 2694: 2690: 2685: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2653: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2609: 2605: 2602: 2601:Vtnews.vt.edu 2599: 2593: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2541: 2538: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2498: 2493: 2489: 2484: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2452: 2449: 2444: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2403: 2400: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2360: 2357: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2311: 2308: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2280:(3): 213–37. 2279: 2275: 2268: 2265: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2225: 2222: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2182: 2179: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2159:(2): 131–34. 2158: 2154: 2147: 2144: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2111: 2108: 2103: 2099: 2094: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2070: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2053: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2029: 2026: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1965: 1960: 1956: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1931: 1929: 1925: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1841: 1838: 1834: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1803:(4): 487–92. 1802: 1798: 1791: 1788: 1785: 1780: 1777: 1773: 1768: 1764: 1759: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1727: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1680: 1677: 1667: 1665:9780124077249 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1638: 1635: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1607: 1604: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1580: 1577: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1557:(7): 811–28. 1556: 1552: 1545: 1542: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1514:(5): 383–88. 1513: 1509: 1502: 1499: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1459: 1456: 1451: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1410: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1342: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1277: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1245: 1243: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1230: 1211: 1207: 1202: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1168: 1165: 1161: 1156: 1153: 1147: 1143: 1138: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1106: 1104: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1037: 1034: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1010:(in German). 1009: 1001: 998: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 958: 955: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 903: 900: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 868: 866: 862: 857: 850: 847: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 795: 792: 787: 783: 779: 773: 769: 765: 761: 754: 752: 750: 748: 746: 742: 737: 733: 728: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 696: 694: 690: 686: 681: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 653: 649: 645: 638: 635: 628: 623: 622: 615: 609: 606: 602: 598: 591: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 571:valproic acid 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 530: 527: 520: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 502: 498: 496: 494: 490: 486: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 462: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 436: 432: 428: 424: 419: 417: 413: 404: 402: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 376: 374: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 331:buprenorphine 326: 320: 312: 310: 308: 304: 300: 296: 293: 289: 285: 281: 275: 271: 265: 258: 254: 250: 243: 241: 239: 235: 229: 221: 219: 216: 212: 208: 204: 203:psychotherapy 196: 192: 186: 182: 174: 172: 170: 166: 162: 158: 153: 151: 147: 146: 139: 135: 129: 121: 116: 114: 111: 105: 101: 96: 91: 87: 84: 80: 78: 72: 70: 66: 57: 55: 51: 47: 43: 37: 33: 29: 24: 22: 18: 6650:Lifetime use 6452:Liquor store 6370:South Africa 6000:War on drugs 5826:Soviet Union 5702:Legalization 5540:Drug tourism 5388:Wine tasting 5308:Beer culture 5270:Coffee break 5207:Cannabis tea 5142:Drug culture 4985:Cannabinoids 4914:Salvinorin A 4880:amyl nitrite 4737:Psychedelics 4489:/paracetamol 4402:Desomorphine 4242:Barbiturates 3844: 3678: 3671: 3664: 3652: 3611: 3553:Sex-related 3410:. Retrieved 3406:the original 3401: 3392: 3380:. Retrieved 3373:the original 3360: 3325: 3321: 3311: 3299:. Retrieved 3295:the original 3285: 3277:Sciencedaily 3276: 3267: 3230: 3226: 3216: 3207: 3177: 3173: 3163: 3154: 3114: 3110: 3090: 3062: 3058: 3049: 3019: 3015: 2987: 2957: 2953: 2930: 2918: 2914: 2904: 2895: 2865: 2861: 2835: 2813: 2809: 2763: 2759: 2752: 2735:11584/102912 2715: 2711: 2701: 2666: 2662: 2624: 2620: 2600: 2592: 2584: 2554: 2550: 2540: 2515: 2511: 2465: 2461: 2451: 2416: 2412: 2402: 2369: 2365: 2359: 2324: 2320: 2310: 2277: 2273: 2267: 2237:(3): 144–7. 2234: 2230: 2224: 2191: 2187: 2181: 2156: 2152: 2146: 2121: 2117: 2110: 2083: 2079: 2069: 2042: 2038: 2028: 1995: 1991: 1936: 1902: 1898: 1854: 1850: 1840: 1828: 1800: 1796: 1790: 1779: 1770: 1740: 1736: 1726: 1693: 1689: 1679: 1669:, retrieved 1647: 1637: 1612: 1606: 1589: 1585: 1579: 1554: 1550: 1544: 1511: 1507: 1501: 1468: 1464: 1458: 1423: 1419: 1409: 1400: 1370: 1366: 1344: 1314: 1310: 1288: 1258: 1254: 1228: 1213: 1181: 1177: 1167: 1149: 1119: 1115: 1086:. Retrieved 1050: 1046: 1036: 1011: 1007: 1000: 967: 963: 957: 916: 912: 902: 877: 873: 855: 849: 808: 804: 794: 759: 709: 705: 683: 651: 647: 637: 624:Image legend 608: 590: 529: 489:Gene therapy 487: 482:butyric acid 463: 420: 408: 380: 328: 277: 238:β-arrestin 2 234:CB1 receptor 231: 200: 154: 143: 141: 112: 92: 88: 81: 73: 61: 52: 48: 44: 34:strategies, 25: 16: 15: 6657:Opiates use 6637:Cocaine use 6472:Issues with 6390:Switzerland 6375:South Korea 6345:Puerto Rico 6330:Philippines 6200:El Salvador 6110:Afghanistan 5846:Just Say No 5836:Switzerland 5811:Netherlands 5777:Drug policy 5707:Prohibition 5692:Drug policy 5685:State level 5530:Dance party 5441:Microdosing 5398:Psychedelia 5353:Oktoberfest 5275:Coffeehouse 5252:Stoner film 4943:Scopolamine 4673:Entactogens 4651:Theobromine 4514:Amphetamine 4440:Hydrocodone 4430:Diamorphine 4234:Depressants 3878:Behavioral 3789:Barbiturate 3784:Amphetamine 3562:Pornography 3557:Intercourse 3491:Amphetamine 3457:disorders: 3059:Addict Biol 2816:(Suppl 1). 1317:(1): 7–15. 303:varenicline 253:Transdermal 181:transcluded 165:acamprosate 6731:Categories 6697:Psychology 6645:Annual use 6496:Dependence 6360:Seychelles 6265:Kyrgyzstan 6180:Costa Rica 6125:Bangladesh 6098:Drug trade 6067:production 6056:production 5975:Drug court 5861:California 5779:by country 5712:Regulation 5446:Smart shop 5431:Literature 5426:Experience 5373:Sports bar 5338:Happy hour 5303:Bartending 5074:Club drugs 5047:Oneirogens 4931:Deliriants 4811:Psilocybin 4634:Polacrilex 4604:Mephedrone 4506:Stimulants 4308:Hazardous 4252:Carbamates 4102:Allen Carr 3942:Drug rehab 3933:Treatment 3849:management 3845:Treatment 3779:Alcoholism 3760:Withdrawal 3730:Dependence 3648:Epigenetic 3600:mechanisms 3533:Financial 3526:Behavioral 3463:dependence 2868:: 112–21. 2627:: 129–35. 2551:J. Immunol 1830:71:714–24. 1696:(1): 1–8. 1671:2023-11-03 970:: 103041. 919:: 103273. 629:References 389:-approved 169:topiramate 161:disulfiram 157:naltrexone 128:Alcoholism 117:Medication 6737:Addiction 6641:Cannabis 6486:Addiction 6442:Beer shop 6425:Venezuela 6290:Mauritius 6120:Australia 6058:and trade 5985:Drug test 5786:Australia 5560:Nootropic 5545:Entheogen 5520:Club drug 5368:Sommelier 5363:Pub crawl 5348:Nightclub 5343:Hip flask 5280:Latte art 5217:Head shop 5087:Quaaludes 4855:Inhalants 4804:San Pedro 4789:Mescaline 4772:Ayahuasca 4745:Bufotenin 4690:Benzofury 4681:2C series 4661:Chocolate 4624:Modafinil 4614:Methylone 4587:Ephedrine 4558:Cathinone 4519:Arecoline 4484:Oxycodone 4455:Methadone 4289:Inhalants 3880:therapies 3769:Disorders 3471:Addiction 3459:addiction 3180:: 11–19. 2788:207229988 2766:: 36–47. 2669:: 35–52. 2394:198136436 2366:Addiction 2274:CNS Drugs 2173:201878290 2118:Addiction 2020:195660208 1992:Addiction 1710:0022-0116 1551:Addiction 1373:: 24–41. 1152:Komisaruk 1083:212565361 1067:1099-0968 992:227191111 949:237093884 933:0955-3959 894:149842084 825:0034-3552 786:242036830 654:: 29–43. 614:valproate 443:receptors 427:GABAergic 423:glutamate 351:DATA 2000 343:methadone 299:bupropion 290:, and/or 21:addiction 6709:Medicine 6625:drug use 6538:Overdose 6474:drug use 6400:Thailand 6385:Suriname 6365:Slovakia 6340:Portugal 6325:Paraguay 6285:Malaysia 6225:Honduras 6175:Colombia 6160:Cambodia 5881:Virginia 5871:Maryland 5866:Colorado 5821:Slovakia 5816:Portugal 5489:Smokeasy 5383:Wine bar 5285:Teahouse 5008:Hash oil 4939:Atropine 4897:Muscimol 4887:Ketamine 4850:Glaucine 4815:Psilocin 4629:Nicotine 4536:Caffeine 4496:Tramadol 4472:Morphine 4449:Dilaudid 4425:Fentanyl 4416:Darvocet 4406:Krokodil 4381:Suboxone 4320:Gasoline 4310:solvents 4293:Medical 4169:Category 4090:See also 3935:programs 3814:Nicotine 3804:Cannabis 3799:Caffeine 3738:Concepts 3598:Cellular 3542:Shopping 3537:Gambling 3511:Nicotine 3352:24892251 3259:27656618 3204:25623036 3151:25880762 3111:PLOS ONE 3087:28667144 3079:25041570 3046:23475113 2984:23643695 2927:23020045 2897:exposure 2892:25486626 2832:27453897 2780:24971600 2744:26093587 2693:26657968 2641:27018393 2581:25972483 2532:26432911 2492:36351881 2443:30382181 2386:31328345 2351:12727768 2302:25979050 2294:17338593 2251:17570910 2216:43302721 2138:17156174 2102:17313907 2061:11058673 2012:31240783 1973:24484986 1919:17687057 1881:32021586 1825:40849553 1817:23490548 1767:20560821 1718:24029889 1629:21154349 1598:16300039 1571:15200577 1536:39826013 1528:16968619 1485:17109610 1450:26500991 1397:26182835 1341:25397661 1285:23806439 1210:26903885 1146:21459101 1075:32142199 1028:25893493 984:33246267 941:34391533 841:28556555 833:15714702 736:36053657 680:24648786 561:(mainly 499:See also 405:Research 363:Baclofen 335:Suboxone 307:Cytisine 6721:Biology 6683:Portals 6300:Nigeria 6295:Moldova 6215:Germany 6210:Finland 6205:Estonia 6145:Bolivia 5801:Germany 5600:Whoonga 5451:Therapy 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