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241:-the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, which remains a world-class establishment into the 21st century. Across the modernizing world, railway construction was a major financial and industrial endeavor, usually led by the British. Investments now poured into building a railway-plus-telegraph system knitting China together, connecting the treaty ports, and other major cities, as well as mining districts and agricultural centers. Chinese entrepreneurs learned their skills in the port cities, and soon applied for and received bank loans for their startups. Chinese merchants headquartered there set up branches across Southeast Asia, including British Singapore and Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, French Indochina, and the American Philippines.
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259:(1879–1952) first set up faculties of theology, Western learning, and Chinese languages, then expanded to cover literature, science, medicine, and intense coverage of Western languages eagerly sought by the ambitious Chinese intellectuals and entrepreneurs who had rejected the old Confucian exam system for the Western model of modernity. Engineering schools were established as well, and by 1914 a network of universities, colleges, teacher training schools, and specialized industrial schools was headquartered in the Port cities, and diffusing their alumni across urban China.
237:
port of entry for all imports and exports - except for opium, which was handled by smugglers in other cities. Foreign entrepreneurs introduce the latest
European manufacturing techniques, providing a model followed sooner or later by all of China. The first establishments focused on shipbuilding, ship repair, railway repair, and factories producing textiles, matches, porcelain, flour, and machinery. Tobacco, cigarettes, textiles, and food products were the specialty in Canton. Financing was handled by branch banks, as well as entirely new operations such as
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Kong, although a
British colony, not a treaty port was similar. Foreigners were welcomed and had stable safe bases, as did Christian missionaries. Outside the ports, the only foreigners were occasional Christian missionaries, and they often encountered serious difficulties. The other 89 cities that became treaty ports between 1842 and 1914 were of minor importance.
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The information industry flourished in the port cities, with printing shops, newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets in
Chinese and European languages. Book publishers often featured Chinese translations of European classics in philosophy, politics, literature, and social issues. According to historian
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was created in 1854, with nine members who were elected by three dozen foreign landowners at first, and by about 2,000 electors in the 1920s. Chinese residents comprised 90% of the total population of
Shanghai but complained about taxation without representation. Eventually, the Council admitted five
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rapidly developed into one of the world's most modern cities, often compared to Paris, Berlin, and London. It set the standard of modernity for China and all of East Asia. In
Shanghai, the British and American settlements combined in 1863 into an international settlement, with the French settlement
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for citizens of the treaty nations. The system of treaty ports ended in Japan in the year 1899 as a consequence of Japan's rapid transition to a modern nation. Japan had sought treaty revision earnestly, and in 1894, signed a new treaty with
Britain which revised or abrogated the previous "unequal"
219:
Although the great majority of
Chinese lived in traditional rural areas, a handful of booming treaty port cities became vibrant centers that had an enormous long-term impact on the Chinese economy and society. Above all Shanghai became the dominant urban center. Tianjin and Shenyang followed; Hong
236:
The
European community promoted technological and economic innovation, as well as knowledge industries, that proved especially attractive to Chinese entrepreneurs as models for their cities across the growing nation. Port cities combined several leadership roles. First of all, they were the major
254:
Christian missionaries saw all of the
Chinese population as their target audience, but they were headquartered in the port cities. The missionaries had very modest success in the conversion of the Chinese population but discovered they became widely popular for setting up medical and educational
249:
This vast network, with
Shanghai as its center, spurred the transformation of the Chinese urban population. In their thoughts, tastes, and daily activities, the educated and affluent groups of the urban population began to abandon traditional ways of living and started to embrace what they saw as
174:
The bund was a self-governing operation with its own shops, restaurants, recreational facilities, parks, churches, courts, police, and local government. The facilities were generally off-limits to the natives. The British, who by far dominated foreign trade with China, normally were the largest
186:
The treaty port system in China lasted approximately one hundred years. It began when the First Opium War ended in 1842. The major powers involved were the British, the French, and the Americans, although by the end of the 19th century all the major powers were involved.
150:
Foreigners all lived in prestigious sections newly built for them on the edges of existing port cities. They enjoyed legal extraterritoriality, as stipulated in the unequal treaties. Some of these port areas were directly leased by foreign powers such as in the
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Western images of the Chinese treaty ports focus on the distinctive geography of the "bund", a long narrow strip of land in a prime location on the waterfront where the businesses, offices, warehouses, and residences of all foreigners were located.
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operated separately nearby. The foreigners took out long-term leases on the land and set up factories, offices, warehouses, sanitation, police, gardens, restaurants, hotels, banks, and private clubs. The
2470:
The Treaty Ports of China and Japan. A Complete Guide to the Open Ports of Those Countries, Together with Peking, Yedo, Hongkong and Macao. Forming a Guide Book & Vade Mecum... With 29 Maps and Plans
194:
in 1917, and the Germans were expelled in 1914. The three main treaty powers, the British, the Americans, and the French, continued to hold their concessions and extraterritorial jurisdictions until the
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Chinese sovereignty was only nominal. Officially, the foreign powers were not allowed to station military units in the bund, but in practice, there often was a warship or two in the harbor.
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Students poured into the port cities. Many adopted ideas and used the facilities newly opened to them to network with each other, set up organizations and publications, and
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171:), was the first in China, opening in 1844, 20 years before the Shanghai bund. A typical bund contained British, German, French, American, Japanese, and other nationals.
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followed shortly thereafter. These cities became important centers of mercantile activity for traders from China and Japan until Korea's colonization by Japan in 1910.
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in 1943. The international communities that were residues of the treaty port era ended in the late 1940s when the communists took over and nearly all foreigners left.
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presence. Businessmen and officials typically brought their own families with them and stayed for years but sent their older children back to England for education.
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are located in former treaty ports and therefore have symbolic significance in demonstrating a "reversal of fortunes" in China's dealings with foreigners since the
199:. This ended when the Japanese stormed into their concessions in late 1941. They formally relinquished their treaty rights in a new "equal treaties" agreement with
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The system effectively ended when Japan took control of most of the ports in the late 1930s, the Russians relinquished their treaty rights in the wake of the
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2040:
Natascha Vittinghoff, "Readers, publishers and officials in the contest for a public voice and the rise of a modern press in late Qing China (1860-1880)."
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Twentieth century impressions of Hongkong, Shanghai, and other treaty ports of China: their history, people, commerce, industries, and resources
1928:
Twentieth century impressions of Hongkong, Shanghai, and other treaty ports of China: their history, people, commerce, industries, and resources
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1726:. The treaty with the United States was followed by similar ones with Britain, the Netherlands, Russia, and France. The ports permitted legal
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281:. Researcher Zongyuan Zoe Liu writes that "he success of these cities as 'red' treaty ports represented another step in China's overall
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1868:
William C. Johnstone, "International Relations: The Status of Foreign Concessions and Settlements in the Treaty Ports of China"
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274:
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142:(Arrow War) in 1860 and eventually, more than 80 treaty ports were established in China alone, involving many foreign powers.
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2224:
453:
30:
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Nakabayashi, Masaki. "Imposed Efficiency of Treaty Ports: Japanese Industrialization and Western Imperialist Institutions."
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1955:
Robert Bickers, "Shanghailanders: The formation and identity of the British settler community in Shanghai 1843–1937."
3890:
3336:
2285:
Hamashita, Takeshi. "Tribute and treaties: East Asian treaty ports networks in the era of negotiation, 1834–1894."
2201:
Hoisoo Min, "The Establishment of the Superintendent Office (Gamriseo) at the Treaty Ports in Korea, 1883~ 1886."
368:
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treaty, not only the right to trade and exemptions for their subjects but a truly colonial control over each
3417:
2883:
2868:
2702:
2600:
266:. Aggressive Japanese moves to dominate China in World War I caused a strong backlash of nationalism in the
127:
and the most favored nation status for the latter country. Subsequent negotiations with the Americans (1844
58:
2029:
The Asian Mediterranean: port cities and trading networks in China, Japan and South Asia, 13th-21st century
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Johnstone, William C. "The status of foreign concessions and settlements in the Treaty Ports of China."
2229:
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1974:
The Commercial Revolution of Nineteenth-Century China: The Rise of Sino-Western Mercantile Competition
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Sigel, Louis T. "Foreign Policy Interests and Activities of the Treaty-Port Chinese Community." in
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267:
263:
124:
120:
2447:
Zinda, Yvonne Schulz "Representation and Nostalgic Re-invention of Shanghai in Chinese film." in
1731:
treaty. Other countries signed similar treaties. The new treaties came into force in July 1899.
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1755:. Chinese merchants also entered Korea in earnest after the Qing army was sent to suppress the
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William Nelson Lovatt in Late Qing China: War, Maritime Customs, and Treaty Ports, 1860–1904
2129:
2072:
Christian encounters with Chinese culture: essays on Anglican and Episcopal history in China
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196:
139:
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Taylor, Jeremy E. "The bund: littoral space of empire in the treaty ports of East Asia."
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45:) were the port cities in China and Japan that were opened to foreign trade mainly by the
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China's Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Port Era, 1840-1943
46:
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Bracken, Gregory. "Treaty Ports in China: Their Genesis, Development, and Influence."
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plan while legitimizing the leadership of the CPC over the Chinese state and people."
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Omniatlas: Map of treaty port system in China in 1907 (earlier dates also available)
79:
19:
This article is about the ports in East Asia. For the Anglo-Irish Treaty ports, see
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3081:
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2346:
International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Subjection: 1894-1911
2336:
International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Submission: 1861–1893
1802:
1788:
1756:
1715:
1389:
1353:
1317:
1242:
54:
2381:
2326:
International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Conflict: 1834-1860
1902:
135:) led to further concessions for these nations on the same terms as the British.
99:
to Great Britain in perpetuity, the treaty also established five treaty ports at
3851:
3572:
3293:
3288:
1752:
993:
2510:
2122:
Sovereign Funds: How the Communist Party of China Finances its Global Ambitions
3519:
3363:
3313:
3283:
3126:
1778:
2413:"Urbanization, Modernization, and Identity in Asia: A Historical Perspective"
2301:
Japan's Treaty Ports and Foreign Settlements: The Uninvited Guests, 1858–1899
3308:
3298:
2515:
2175:
Japan's treaty ports and foreign settlements: the uninvited guests 1858–1899
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1220:
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208:
96:
2151:
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agreed to the opening of three strategic ports and the extension of legal
3793:
3538:
3485:
3427:
3303:
3278:
2378:
China’s Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Ports
2270:
Confucian Gentlemen and Barbarian Envoys: The Opening of Korea, 1875-1885
1899:
China’s Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Ports
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2016:
1960:
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1247:
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535:
164:
138:
The second group of treaty ports was set up following the end of the
116:
112:
108:
83:
Map showing Chinese treaty ports in the 19th and early 20th centuries
2011:
David McLean, "Chinese Railways and the Townley Agreement of 1903."
87:
The British established their first treaty ports in China after the
2217: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
155:, effectively removing them from the control of local governments.
3502:
3061:
1760:
1450:
1324:
1215:
1042:
582:
470:
460:
78:
2442:
No Dogs and Not Many Chinese: Treaty Port Life in China 1843-1943
293:
For encyclopedic details on each treaty port, see Robert Nield's
3161:
2085:
The May fourth movement: Intellectual revolution in modern China
238:
2524:
2393:
Sewell, Bill. "East Asian Treaty Ports as Zones of Encounter."
119:(Amoy). The following year the Chinese and British signed the
2000:
The History of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation
3672:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
1639:
These are the territories adjoining the original perpetual
1449:
In these territories the foreign powers obtained, under a
2099:
John C. DeKorne, "Sun Yat-Sen and the Secret Societies."
16:
Ports in East Asia opened to trade with Western countries
163:
was the largest and most famous. The North Riverbank in
53:, as well as cities in Korea opened up similarly by the
2496:
Treaty ports and extraterritoriality in China, 1921–22
1915:
Making China Modern: From the Great Qing to Xi Jinping
2465:(A&C Black, 2013), Anthology of primary sources.
3844:
3812:
3769:
3762:
3677:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
3631:
3476:
3408:
3329:
3234:
3030:
2921:
2731:
2638:
2568:
2559:
2463:
Victorians in Japan: In and around the Treaty ports
2358:The Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire
2261:Brunero, Donna, and Stephanie Villalta Puig, eds.
1759:in 1882. The first port opened in this manner was
2246:Treaty Ports in Modern China: Law, Land and Power
3077:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
3497:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
3468:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
2536:
264:plot a revolution against the Qing government
8:
2244:Bickers, Robert, and Isabella Jackson, eds.
2424:Treaty ports in China: A study in diplomacy
3766:
2565:
2543:
2529:
2521:
2277:British Economic Interests in the Far East
3967:History of the foreign relations of China
3962:History of the foreign relations of Japan
3157:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
1694:Japan opened two ports to foreign trade,
95:in 1842. As well as ceding the island of
3006:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
1459:
299:
3613:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
2272:(University of Washington Press, 1977).
1846:
1706:), to the United States. In 1858, the
2287:European journal of East Asian studies
2115:
2113:
3911:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
3152:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
1811:Economic history of China before 1912
1479:
332:Greater Shanghai had three sections:
7:
3132:Ministry of Posts and Communications
2233:. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
275:the country's special economic zones
3880:History of Qing (People's Republic)
2294:The Bund Shanghai: China Faces West
2263:Life in Treaty Port China and Japan
2074:(Hong Kong University Press, 2015).
1886:The Bund Shanghai: China Faces West
3597:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
2966:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
2959:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
2839:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
2663:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
2406:Reform in Nineteenth-Century China
2296:(Odyssey Illustrated Guides, 2007)
2279:(1943); focus on the treaty ports
2265:(Palgrave, 2018), scholarly essays
2223:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
2203:Journal of Northeast Asian History
2177:(Folkestone: Japan Library, 1994).
1888:(Odyssey Illustrated Guides, 2007)
14:
3886:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
3727:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
3602:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
2754:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
2316:American Political Science Review
2189:A New Modern History of East Asia
1870:American Political Science Review
1856:A New Modern History of East Asia
1816:Shanghai International Settlement
337:Shanghai International Settlement
225:Shanghai International Settlement
3697:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
3013:Articles of Favourable Treatment
2769:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
2516:Treaty ports in China, 1557-1999
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1110:
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342:
257:St John's University in Shanghai
3942:History of European colonialism
2744:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
2630:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
2408:(Brill, 1976) pp. 272–281.
2368:Review of Development Economics
2087:(Harvard UP. 1960) pp 228-238.
1743:of 1876, the Korean kingdom of
205:nationalist government-in-exile
3398:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
2688:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
2449:Port Cities in Asia and Europe
1976:(U of California Press, 1984).
454:British Concession in Jiujiang
34:
1:
3832:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
3607:Islam during the Qing dynasty
3463:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
3147:Provincial military commander
3137:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
3122:Imperial Household Department
2949:Preparative Constitutionalism
2653:Sino-Russian border conflicts
2502: (archived 12 April 2016)
1944:Shanghai: key to modern China
1826:Chinese concession of Incheon
182:Chinese capitulation treaties
123:, which added provisions for
3591:Researches on Manchu Origins
2996:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
2606:Transition from Ming to Qing
2596:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
1836:List of Chinese treaty ports
1831:Foreign concessions in China
1710:designated four more ports,
1708:Treaty of Amity and Commerce
153:foreign concessions in China
75:List of Chinese treaty ports
3491:Changzhou School of Thought
3001:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
2976:Railway Protection Movement
2954:1909 Parliamentary election
2939:British expedition to Tibet
2849:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
2809:Self-Strengthening Movement
2784:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
2468:Dennys, Nicholas Belfield.
314:Foreign concession holders
3983:
3891:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
2779:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
2718:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
2708:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
2678:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
2120:Liu, Zongyuan Zoe (2023).
1998:Frank H.H. King, et al.,
230:Shanghai Municipal Council
72:
18:
3901:Names of the Qing dynasty
3549:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
2879:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
2874:Gongche Shangshu movement
2819:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
2668:Chinese Rites controversy
2027:François Gipouloux, ed.
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430:
414:
402:
397:
323:
273:In modern China, most of
255:facilities. For example,
233:Chinese representatives.
42:
3822:Great Qing Treasure Note
3642:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
3352:Administrative divisions
3169:Administrative divisions
3097:Flag of the Qing dynasty
2397:45#6 (2019): 1315-1325
2395:Journal of Urban History
2390:(Lexington Books, 2019).
2303:(RoutledgeCurzon, 1995)
2253:Journal of Urban History
2187:Fuchs, Eckhardt (2017).
2126:Harvard University Press
1872:(1937) 31#5 pp. 942-948
1854:Fuchs, Eckhardt (2017).
3418:Chengde Mountain Resort
3219:Three Eastern Provinces
2869:First Sino-Japanese War
2844:Northern Chinese Famine
2703:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
2601:Qing invasion of Joseon
2419:4#4 (1978) pp 461–490.
2255:45#1 (2019): 168–176.
2124:. The Belknap Press of
2070:Philip L. Wickeri, ed.
1457:, de facto annexation:
167:(nowadays known as the
131:) and the French (1844
59:First Sino-Japanese War
3952:Free trade imperialism
3799:Great Qing Copper Coin
3687:Convention of Tientsin
3620:Annotated Bibliography
3568:Qing official headwear
2611:Battle of Shanhai Pass
2370:18.2 (2014): 254–271.
2318:31.5 (1937): 942–948.
1959:159.1 (1998): 161–211
1704:Convention of Kanagawa
1621:1842; 1860; 1898–1997
279:century of humiliation
84:
21:Treaty Ports (Ireland)
3957:19th century in Japan
3873:Draft History of Qing
3732:Treaty of Shimonoseki
3513:performance criticism
3117:Imperial Commissioner
3107:Great Qing Legal Code
2906:Eight-Nation Alliance
2889:Third plague pandemic
2799:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
2723:White Lotus Rebellion
2506:WorldStatesmen: China
2437:27.2 (2002): 125-142.
2356:Morse, Hosea Ballou.
2344:Morse, Hosea Ballou.
2334:Morse, Hosea Ballou.
2324:Morse, Hosea Ballou.
2230:Catholic Encyclopedia
2044:87.4 (2001): 393-455
2002:(Cambridge UP, 1991).
1690:Japanese treaty ports
283:reform and opening-up
82:
57:of China (before the
3947:Concessions in China
3804:Great Qing Gold Coin
3737:Treaty of Tarbagatai
3682:Convention of Peking
3562:Pentaglot Dictionary
3544:Literary inquisition
3254:Ever Victorious Army
3087:Deliberative Council
2991:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
2944:1905 Batang uprising
2884:Hundred Days' Reform
2774:Small Swords Society
2461:Cortazzi, Hugh, ed.
2426:(Columbia UP, 1918)
2103:7.4 (1934): 425-433
2015:7.2 (1973): 145-164
2013:Modern Asian Studies
1641:Hong Kong concession
1455:concession territory
390:Old City of Shanghai
69:Chinese treaty ports
49:forced upon them by
3857:Anti-Qing sentiment
3707:Treaty of the Bogue
3647:Treaty of Nerchinsk
3579:Complete Tang Poems
3259:Green Standard Army
3142:Provincial governor
3112:Imperial Clan Court
3092:Diplomatic missions
3067:Consultative Bureau
2814:Tongzhi Restoration
2693:Afaqi Khoja revolts
2673:Ten Great Campaigns
2581:Jurchen unification
2205:36 (2012): 139-186.
2059:Making China Modern
1987:Making China Modern
1946:(Harvard UP, 2013).
1749:extraterritoriality
1735:Korean treaty ports
1728:extraterritoriality
369:Shanghai Concession
268:May Fourth Movement
125:extraterritoriality
121:Treaty of the Bogue
3742:Treaty of Tientsin
3453:Western Qing tombs
3448:Eastern Qing tombs
3274:Peking Field Force
3018:Manchu Restoration
2911:Declaration of war
2864:Jindandao incident
2683:Lhasa riot of 1750
2386:Patterson, Wayne.
2289:1.1 (2002): 59–87.
2268:Deuchler, Martina.
2248:(Routledge, 2016).
2134:10.2307/jj.2915805
1957:Past & Present
1917:(2020) pp 107-119.
1751:to merchants from
1445:Leased territories
289:Major treaty ports
250:modern lifestyles.
192:Russian Revolution
85:
3929:
3928:
3840:
3839:
3752:Treaty of Whampoa
3747:Treaty of Wanghia
3722:Treaty of Nanking
3692:Li–Lobanov Treaty
3667:Chefoo Convention
3662:Burlingame Treaty
3533:Kangxi Dictionary
3438:Old Summer Palace
3269:Firearm Battalion
3072:Cup of Solid Gold
3026:
3025:
2971:Manchurian plague
2934:Late Qing reforms
2925:(1901–1912)
2859:Sikkim expedition
2789:Panthay Rebellion
2759:Taiping Rebellion
2735:(1801–1900)
2713:Sino-Nepalese War
2658:Dzungar–Qing Wars
2644:(1683–1799)
2572:(1616–1683)
2309:978-1-873410-26-4
2164:Nakabayashi, 2014
1687:
1686:
1513:(1898–1905); now
1442:
1441:
161:The Shanghai Bund
133:Treaty of Whampoa
129:Treaty of Wanghia
93:Treaty of Nanking
3974:
3906:New Qing History
3789:Qianlong Tongbao
3767:
3712:Treaty of Canton
3652:Unequal treaties
3458:Fuling Mausoleum
3057:Advisory Council
2986:Wuchang Uprising
2926:
2829:Tianjin Massacre
2794:Second Opium War
2736:
2698:Sino-Burmese War
2645:
2623:Battle of Penghu
2591:Seven Grievances
2573:
2566:
2545:
2538:
2531:
2522:
2478:Wright, Arnold.
2411:Sigel, Louis T.
2376:Nield, Robert.
2234:
2216:
2215:
2206:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2184:
2178:
2171:
2165:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2117:
2108:
2097:
2091:
2083:Chow Tse-Tsung,
2081:
2075:
2068:
2062:
2055:
2049:
2038:
2032:
2025:
2019:
2009:
2003:
1996:
1990:
1983:
1977:
1972:Yen-p'ing Hao,
1970:
1964:
1953:
1947:
1942:Rhoads Murphey,
1940:
1934:
1924:
1918:
1913:Klaus Mühlhahn,
1911:
1905:
1895:
1889:
1882:
1876:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1851:
1821:Unequal treaties
1805:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1791:
1786:
1785:
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1677:
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1636:
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1566:
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1507:
1503:
1501:
1500:
1466:Modern Province
1460:
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1434:
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305:or municipality
303:Current province
300:
245:Klaus Mühlhahn:
197:Second World War
140:Second Opium War
47:unequal treaties
44:
36:
3982:
3981:
3977:
3976:
3975:
3973:
3972:
3971:
3932:
3931:
3930:
3925:
3921:Willow Palisade
3867:Chuang Guandong
3836:
3808:
3758:
3717:Treaty of Kulja
3702:Treaty of Aigun
3635:
3627:
3526:History of Ming
3478:
3472:
3410:
3404:
3330:Special regions
3325:
3264:Imperial Guards
3230:
3022:
2981:1911 Revolution
2927:
2924:
2917:
2894:Boxer Rebellion
2854:Sino-French War
2804:Amur Annexation
2749:First Opium War
2737:
2734:
2727:
2646:
2643:
2634:
2618:Great Clearance
2574:
2571:
2555:
2549:
2500:Wayback Machine
2492:
2458:
2456:Primary sources
2440:Wood, Frances.
2292:Hibbard, Peter
2241:
2239:Further reading
2222:
2213:
2209:
2200:
2196:
2186:
2185:
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2172:
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2163:
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2101:Pacific Affairs
2098:
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2035:
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2022:
2010:
2006:
1997:
1993:
1984:
1980:
1971:
1967:
1954:
1950:
1941:
1937:
1926:Arnold Wright,
1925:
1921:
1912:
1908:
1896:
1892:
1884:Peter Hibbard,
1883:
1879:
1867:
1863:
1853:
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1844:
1801:
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1787:
1782:
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1627:
1625:
1624:
1612:New Territories
1591:
1589:
1588:
1557:
1555:
1554:
1527:
1525:
1524:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1447:
1429:
1427:
1426:
1397:New Taipei City
1383:
1381:
1370:
1368:
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1124:
1122:
1121:
1118:Austria-Hungary
1111:
1109:
1098:
1096:
1095:
1084:
1082:
1081:
1071:
1069:
1058:
1056:
1055:
964:
962:
952:
950:
939:
937:
936:
925:
923:
922:
919:Austria-Hungary
912:
910:
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886:
884:
873:
871:
870:
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794:
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706:
679:
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655:
653:
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598:
596:
595:
557:
555:
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533:
530:Empire of Japan
523:
521:
510:
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482:
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468:
442:
440:
439:
375:
373:
372:
356:
354:
343:
341:
340:
304:
291:
217:
215:Impact on China
201:Chiang Kai-shek
184:
148:
146:Characteristics
89:First Opium War
77:
71:
63:Empire of Japan
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3980:
3978:
3970:
3969:
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3959:
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3829:
3824:
3818:
3816:
3810:
3809:
3807:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3784:Kangxi Tongbao
3781:
3775:
3773:
3764:
3760:
3759:
3757:
3756:
3755:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
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3724:
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3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
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3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3657:Boxer Protocol
3649:
3644:
3638:
3636:
3629:
3628:
3626:
3625:
3624:
3623:
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3604:
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3474:
3473:
3471:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3423:Forbidden City
3420:
3414:
3412:
3406:
3405:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3400:
3390:
3389:
3388:
3386:General of Ili
3383:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3369:List of ambans
3366:
3356:
3355:
3354:
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3306:
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3206:
3201:
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3165:
3164:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
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3124:
3119:
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3109:
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3015:
3010:
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2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2834:Margary Affair
2831:
2826:
2824:Mudan incident
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2764:Nian Rebellion
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2740:
2738:
2733:
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2726:
2725:
2720:
2715:
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2547:
2540:
2533:
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2519:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2491:
2490:External links
2488:
2487:
2486:
2476:
2466:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2445:
2438:
2435:Social History
2431:
2420:
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2259:
2249:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2208:
2207:
2194:
2191:. p. 145.
2179:
2166:
2157:
2142:
2109:
2092:
2076:
2063:
2050:
2033:
2031:(Elgar, 2011).
2020:
2004:
1991:
1978:
1965:
1948:
1935:
1919:
1906:
1897:Robert Nield,
1890:
1877:
1861:
1858:. p. 146.
1845:
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1828:
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1806:
1792:
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1741:Ganghwa Treaty
1739:Following the
1736:
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1634:United Kingdom
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1578:Kiautschou Bay
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51:Western powers
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3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3896:Manchu people
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3881:
3877:
3875:
3874:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3862:Canton System
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3843:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3827:Hubu Guanpiao
3825:
3823:
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3819:
3817:
3815:
3811:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
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3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3498:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3483:
3481:
3477:Society &
3475:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3443:Summer Palace
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3433:Mukden Palace
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3409:Palaces &
3407:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3394:
3391:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3374:
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3292:
3290:
3287:
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3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3249:Eight Banners
3247:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3237:
3233:
3227:
3224:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
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3138:
3135:
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3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3102:Grand Council
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
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3055:
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3042:
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3033:
3029:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
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2979:
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2951:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
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2932:
2931:
2929:
2922:20th century
2920:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2904:
2900:
2897:
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2890:
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2825:
2822:
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2762:
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2742:
2741:
2739:
2732:19th century
2730:
2724:
2721:
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2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
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2679:
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2641:
2637:
2631:
2628:
2624:
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2609:
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2599:
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2589:
2587:
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2579:
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2567:
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2546:
2541:
2539:
2534:
2532:
2527:
2526:
2523:
2517:
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2494:
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2475:
2471:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2459:
2455:
2451:(2008): 159+.
2450:
2446:
2443:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2425:
2422:Tai, En-Sai.
2421:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2407:
2403:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2389:
2385:
2383:
2379:
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2278:
2274:
2271:
2267:
2264:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2226:
2220:
2219:public domain
2211:
2210:
2204:
2198:
2195:
2190:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2170:
2167:
2161:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2143:9780674271913
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2116:
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2110:
2106:
2102:
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2060:
2054:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2030:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2014:
2008:
2005:
2001:
1995:
1992:
1988:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1939:
1936:
1933:
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1920:
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1689:
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1661:
1659:
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1654:
1650:
1646:
1643:and its 1860
1642:
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1623:
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1618:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1599:
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1520:
1519:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1472:Lease holder
1461:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1444:
1437:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1408:
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1362:
1358:
1355:
1342:
1330:
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1326:
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1306:
1292:
1279:
1278:United States
1266:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1217:
1213:
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1208:
1206:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1178:
1174:
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1159:
1146:
1132:
1119:
1106:
1092:
1079:
1078:United States
1066:
1054:
1051:
1049:
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1035:
1033:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1021:
1019:
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1010:
1008:
1006:
1002:
999:
997:
995:
990:
986:
983:
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979:
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960:
947:
933:
920:
907:
894:
893:United States
881:
869:
866:
864:
859:
855:
852:
849:
846:
842:
839:
837:
835:
831:
827:
815:
812:
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806:
802:
788:
776:
773:
770:
765:
761:
757:
745:
742:
739:
735:
731:
717:
705:
702:
700:
695:
691:
687:
675:
673:
671:
667:
663:
651:
648:
646:
641:
637:
634:
632:
630:
625:
622:
621:
618:
616:
614:
610:
606:
594:
591:
589:
584:
580:
577:
575:
573:
569:
565:
553:
551:
549:
545:
542:
537:
531:
518:
504:
490:
478:
475:
472:
469:(now part of
467:
462:
458:
455:
450:
438:
435:
433:
428:
425:
424:
421:
419:
417:
413:
410:
407:
405:
400:
396:
391:
387:
383:
370:
366:
364:
363:United States
351:
338:
334:
333:
331:
328:
326:
321:
318:
317:
313:
310:
307:
302:
301:
298:
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136:
134:
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126:
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118:
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90:
81:
76:
68:
66:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
40:
32:
28:
22:
3916:Treaty ports
3915:
3878:
3871:
3845:Other topics
3618:
3611:
3589:
3577:
3560:
3555:Peiwen Yunfu
3553:
3531:
3524:
3495:
3244:Beiyang Army
3226:Zongli Yamen
3082:Da-Qing Bank
2899:Red Lanterns
2552:Qing dynasty
2479:
2469:
2462:
2448:
2441:
2434:
2423:
2417:Modern China
2416:
2405:
2394:
2387:
2377:
2367:
2357:
2345:
2335:
2325:
2315:
2300:
2299:Hoare. J.E.
2293:
2286:
2276:
2269:
2262:
2252:
2245:
2228:
2202:
2197:
2188:
2182:
2174:
2173:J.E. Hoare,
2169:
2160:
2121:
2100:
2095:
2084:
2079:
2071:
2066:
2058:
2053:
2041:
2036:
2028:
2023:
2012:
2007:
1999:
1994:
1986:
1981:
1973:
1968:
1956:
1951:
1943:
1938:
1927:
1922:
1914:
1909:
1898:
1893:
1885:
1880:
1869:
1864:
1855:
1849:
1803:Japan portal
1789:China portal
1757:Imo Incident
1738:
1693:
1653:Guangzhouwan
1448:
1390:Soviet Union
1354:Soviet Union
1318:Soviet Union
1243:Heilongjiang
867:1876–1940s?
847:(Qiongshan)
294:
292:
272:
261:
253:
243:
235:
222:
218:
189:
185:
177:
173:
157:
149:
137:
86:
55:Qing dynasty
27:Treaty ports
26:
25:
3852:Aisin Gioro
3814:Paper money
3573:Qing poetry
3294:Wuwei Corps
3289:Shuishiying
3050:Family tree
2275:Gull E. M.
1753:Meiji Japan
1702:, in 1854 (
3936:Categories
3520:Four Wangs
3411:mausoleums
3364:Golden Urn
3337:Inner Asia
3314:Xiang Army
3284:Hushenying
3209:Liangguang
3189:Liangjiang
3127:Lifan Yuan
3032:Government
2152:jj.2915805
2057:Mühlhahn,
2042:T'oung Pao
1985:Mühlhahn,
1842:References
1662:1911–1946
1647:extension
1585:1897–1922
1551:1898–1930
1521:1905–1945
1492:1898–1905
1463:Territory
1252:1898–1946
1052:1860–1902
774:1842–WWII
743:1842–1912
703:1842–1945
649:1841–1842
592:1937–1945
476:1858–1945
436:1861–1929
329:1842–1946
107:(Canton),
61:) and the
3342:Manchuria
3309:Huai Army
3299:Yong Ying
3184:Shaan-Gan
2640:High Qing
2586:Later Jin
2338:. (1918)
2328:. (1910)
2061:, p. 115.
1682:Zhanjiang
1658:Guangdong
1617:Hong Kong
1582:Shandong
1542:Weihaiwei
1361:Manzhouli
1221:Changchun
1182:Niuzhuang
771:(Canton)
769:Guangzhou
764:Guangdong
629:Chongqing
416:Zhenjiang
209:Chongqing
105:Guangzhou
97:Hong Kong
3794:Hongqian
3763:Currency
3633:Treaties
3539:Kaozheng
3486:Booi Aha
3428:Hetu Ala
3381:Timeline
3376:Xinjiang
3347:Mongolia
3304:Chu Army
3279:New Army
3236:Military
3174:Viceroys
2472:(1867).
1989:110–114.
1775:See also
1763:, while
1720:Nagasaki
1712:Kanagawa
1700:Hakodate
1547:Shandong
1486:Liaoning
1481:Kwantung
1308:and the
1294:; later
1205:Shenyang
1177:Liaoning
1158:Portugal
1027:Shandong
959:Portugal
640:Zhejiang
588:Changsha
492:; later
432:Jiujiang
353:and the
325:Shanghai
320:Shanghai
297:(2015).
169:Old Bund
101:Shanghai
39:Japanese
3779:Zhiqian
3771:Coinage
3508:Economy
3479:culture
3214:Yun-Gui
3204:Min-Zhe
3199:Sichuan
3194:Huguang
3040:Emperor
2561:History
2498:at the
2482:(1908)
2380:(2015)
2360:(1908)
2348:(1918)
2221::
1930:(1908)
1903:Online.
1901:(2015)
1765:Incheon
1724:Niigata
1696:Shimoda
1645:Kowloon
1605:Qingdao
1598:Germany
1291:Germany
1232:Hunchun
1194:Yingkou
1170:Belgium
1105:Germany
1048:Tianjin
1016:Dengyue
978:Nanning
971:Belgium
906:Germany
858:Guangxi
834:Sanshui
809:Shantou
790:; then
740:(Amoy)
719:, then
670:Wenzhou
624:Sichuan
572:Yichang
517:Germany
427:Jiangxi
404:Nanjing
399:Jiangsu
339:of the
91:by the
31:Chinese
3393:Taiwan
2569:Early
2554:topics
2484:online
2474:online
2444:(1998)
2428:online
2399:online
2382:Online
2372:Online
2362:online
2350:online
2340:online
2330:online
2320:Online
2307:
2281:online
2257:online
2150:
2140:
2105:online
2089:online
2046:online
2017:online
1961:online
1932:online
1874:online
1769:Wonsan
1745:Joseon
1722:, and
1675:France
1672:
1631:
1595:
1571:Weihai
1561:
1531:
1515:Dalian
1505:Russia
1502:
1475:Notes
1436:France
1433:
1419:Tainan
1414:Tainan
1402:Tamsui
1387:
1377:Russia
1374:
1351:
1341:Russia
1338:
1315:
1302:
1288:
1275:
1265:Russia
1262:
1248:Harbin
1167:
1155:
1142:
1131:France
1128:
1115:
1102:
1091:Russia
1088:
1075:
1062:
1032:Yantai
994:Mengzi
989:Yunnan
968:
956:
943:
932:France
929:
916:
903:
890:
877:
863:Beihai
845:Haikou
823:
798:
784:
753:
738:Xiamen
727:
713:
699:Fuzhou
694:Fujian
683:
659:
645:Ningbo
613:Yuzhou
602:
561:
548:Shashi
541:Russia
527:
514:
503:France
500:
486:
466:Hankou
446:
382:France
379:
360:
347:
165:Ningbo
117:Xiamen
115:, and
113:Fuzhou
109:Ningbo
33::
3585:Queue
3503:Dibao
3359:Tibet
3179:Zhili
3062:Amban
2225:China
2148:JSTOR
1761:Busan
1716:Hyogo
1534:Japan
1469:Date
1451:lease
1423:1858
1406:1862
1325:Aihun
1305:Japan
1216:Jilin
1186:1858
1145:Italy
1043:Hebei
1005:Simao
946:Italy
850:1858
813:1858
801:Japan
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