395:
time and the changed conditions, both legal and societal. These changed conditions have long undermined the foundations of these judge-made rules, which were established in a by-gone era in consonance with the distorted views of that epoch. Although the unequal treatment of persons because of the color of their skin or other irrelevant reasons, was then the modus operandi of governments, and an accepted practice of societies in general, the continued enforcement of these rules by the courts is today an outdated anachronism, to say the least. Such actions, particularly by courts of the United States, only serve to tarnish our judicial system as the standard-bearer of the best values to which our Nation aspires. Allowing these antiquated rules to remain in place, long after the unequal treatment of
American citizens has become constitutionally, morally and culturally unacceptable in the rest of our Nation, see Brown v. Bd. of Educ., 347 U.S. 483, is an intolerable state of affairs which cannot be excused by hiding behind any theory of law.
334:
lecturing on what it deems to be the nature of the judicial function, the majority seeks to avoid what I believe is its paramount duty over and above these stated goals: to do justice to the civil rights of the four million United States citizens who reside in Puerto Rico. The majority labels this duty with despect as "rhetoric" and "intuitive values." Maj. op. at 3. I beg to differ, and so, I suspect, do a considerable number of those four million U.S. citizens who, lacking any political recourse, look to the courts of the United States for succor because they are without any other avenue of relief. See United States v. Carolene Prods. Co., 304 U.S. 144, 152 n.4 (1938) ("rejudice against discrete and insular minorities may be a special condition, which tends seriously to curtail the operation of those political processes ordinarily to be relied upon to protect minorities and . . . may call for correspondingly more searching judicial inquiry.").
328:
rehearing), which panel the en banc court suppressed, but whose order was adopted as establishing the parameters of the issues to be decided by the en banc court. See IgartĂșa de la Rosa v. United States, 407 F.3d 30, 31 (1st Cir. 2005) (converting to en banc review panel rehearing in which "the parties to address two issues: first, the plaintiffs' claim that the United States was in default of its treaty obligations and, second, the availability of declaratory judgment concerning the government's compliance with any such obligations."). It is these issues that the parties were asked to brief. Instead the majority has sidetracked this appeal into a dead end that is no longer before us: Puerto Rico's lack of electoral college representation, see U.S. Const. art. II, § 1, cl. 2, and our lack of authority to order any constitutional change to such status by reason of that constitutional impediment.
370:
privilege of voting among different categories of citizens is deeply troubling and, not surprisingly, the legal arguments in favor of enfranchising Puerto Rico residents have continued to evolve. Although the en banc decision forecloses this panel's reconsideration of issues the full court resolved, that decision should not be the final word on the subject. Judge
Torruella's dissent highlights important issues that deserve consideration in a new en banc proceeding. As I shall explain, if each of those issues were decided in plaintiffs' favor, United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico would have a viable claim to equal voting rights under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ("ICCPR").
361:
holding in IgartĂșa III is correct. Judge Lipez considers the panel bound by this holding in IgartĂșa III, but he does not express a view of his own on its merit. Chief Judge Lynch and Judge Lipez agree that IgartĂșa III requires dismissal of plaintiffs' claims based on treaties and international law. Judge Lipez joins the holding that dismissal of the case is affirmed. He joins this introduction, the introduction to
Section II, Sections II.A II.B, and II.C.1, and Section III of Chief Judge Lynch's opinion. He expresses additional views in his concurring opinion.
441:
404:
permit United States citizens residing in the capital to vote for members of the House of
Representatives. However, the United States has not taken similar steps with regard to the four million United States citizens and nationals who reside in the U.S. territories, of which close to three million are residents of Puerto Rico. In an opinion concurring in part and dissenting in part in a judicial decision, Circuit Judge
455:
251:, a former governor of Puerto Rico, and the Unfinished Business of American Democracy Committee on behalf of the approximately four million U.S. citizens residing in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, presented a petition to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States seeking the Commission's aid in obtaining enfranchisement.
269:. Although the Republican Party and Democratic Party chapters in Puerto Rico have selected voting delegates to the national nominating conventions participating in U.S. presidential primaries or caucuses, U.S. citizens without a voting residence in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia may not vote in federal elections.
373:
Thus, while I agree with Chief Judge Lynch that our panel must adhere to the precedent set five years ago by the en banc court on the constitutional and treaty interpretation issues addressed in the majority opinion, I cannot agree that the plaintiffs' claims should be dismissed without review by the
312:
This case brings before this court the third in a series of law suits by
Gregorio IgartĂșa, a U.S. citizen resident in Puerto Rico, claiming the constitutional right to vote quadrennially for President and Vice President of the United States. Panels of this court have rejected such claims on all three
360:
Chief Judge Lynch and Judge Lipez conclude that this panel is bound by IgartĂșa III's holding that the
Constitution does not permit granting such a right to the plaintiffs by means other than those specified for achieving statehood or by amendment. Chief Judge Lynch independently concludes that this
345:
In 2008, attorney
Gregorio IgartĂșa and others in a fourth round of litigation (IgartĂșa IV) attempted to bring a class action suit claiming they and other U.S. citizen-residents of Puerto Rico have a right to vote for a Representative to the U.S. House of Representatives from Puerto Rico and a right
333:
In doing so, the majority fails to give any weight to the fundamental nature of the right to vote, and the legal consequences of this cardinal principal. Under the combined guise of alleged political question doctrine, its admitted desire to avoid "embarrassment" to the United States, and its pious
386:
This is a fundamental constitutional question that will not go away notwithstanding this Court's repeated efforts to suppress these issues.21 âWe can now add to that dismal list the endeavors of the lead opinion. This is a most unfortunate and denigrating predicament for citizens who for more than
403:
was passed, allowing United States citizens residing in the
District of Columbia to vote for the executive offices. As of 2009 a bill was pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives", and
394:
But perhaps even more egregious is the fact that it is this judiciary that has mechanically parroted the outdated and retrograde underpinnings on which this invented inferiority is perpetuated. This result is now reached without so much as a minimum of analysis or consideration for the passage of
390:
At the root of this problem is the unacceptable role of the courts. Their complicity in the perpetuation of this outcome is unconscionable. As in the case of racial segregation, see Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 557 (1896) (overruled by Brown v. Bd. of Educ., 347 U.S. 482 (1954)), it is the courts
369:
Despite our court's 2005 en banc decision rejecting the right of Puerto Rico's four million residents to vote in presidential elections, the issue of federal voting rights for these longstanding United States citizens remains a compelling legal problem. The unequal distribution of the fundamental
318:
The constitutional claim is readily answered. Voting for
President and Vice President of the United States is governed neither by rhetoric nor intuitive values but by a provision of the Constitution. This provision does not confer the franchise on "U.S. citizens" but on "Electors" who are to be
327:
In its haste to "put constitutional claim fully at rest," maj. op. at 6, the majority has chosen to overlook the issues actually before this en banc court as framed by the order of the rehearing panel, see IgartĂșa de la Rosa v. United States, 404 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 2005) (order granting panel
141:
in the spring of each presidential election year in which the parties choose delegates to the
Republican and Democratic national conventions. While these delegates do vote for their pledged candidate at their respective convention, this marks the end of the territory's participation in the
382:
Although in a different format than presented on prior occasions, we once more have before us issues that arise by reason of the political inequality that exists within the body politic of the United States, as regards the four million citizens of this Nation who reside in Puerto Rico.
133:
in 1917. All judicial claims have been met with political or constitutional challenges; therefore, there has been no change in Puerto Rico's representation in the Congress or representation on the electoral college for the U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
2022:
300:
In 2003, attorney Gregorio IgartĂșa and others in a third round of litigation (IgartĂșa III) filed suit seeking to enfranchise U.S. citizens residents of Puerto Rico with the right to vote for the U.S. President and Vice President.
563:
319:"appoint" by each "State," in "such Manner" as the state legislature may direct, equal to the number of Senators and Representatives to whom the state is entitled. U.S. Const. art. II, § 1, cl. 2; see also id. amend. XII.
988:
2056:
280:
reject the status quo that permits disenfranchisement (from their distinct respective positions on the ideal enfranchised status for the island-nation of Puerto Rico). The remaining political organization, the
1427:
2288:
1182:
313:
occasions. We now do so again, this time en banc, rejecting as well an adjacent claim: that the failure of the Constitution to grant this vote should be declared a violation of U.S. treaty obligations.
536:
U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3, cl. 2 ("The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States...").
1187:
1167:
1157:
918:
2278:
1177:
1172:
1162:
1152:
357:
The panel is unanimous in agreeing that the U.S. Constitution does not give Puerto Rico residents the right to vote for members of the House of Representatives because Puerto Rico is not a state.
1851:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1813:
1192:
1995:
1935:
1115:
493:
2029:
1940:
1930:
1119:
1111:
488:
400:
212:
145:
1920:
1533:
1048:
513:
1456:
2502:
1925:
1898:
1107:
1404:
1915:
1103:
374:
full court. Given the magnitude of the issues and Judge Torruella's forceful analysis, this is one of those rare occasions when reconsideration of an en banc ruling is warranted.
2314:
1422:
350:
236:
294:
2243:
2034:
478:
985:
1818:
1439:
1097:
1893:
2368:
2101:
1844:
1082:
578:
391:
that are responsible for the creation of this inequality. Furthermore, it is the courts that have clothed this noxious condition in a mantle of legal respectability.
72:, which Puerto Rico and other U.S. territories are not, specifying that members of Congress shall be elected by direct popular vote and that the president and the
2304:
2233:
2167:
1316:
1077:
2309:
1886:
1881:
1876:
204:
200:
1802:
2406:
2044:
2017:
1837:
1321:
512:
The Constitution originally mandated election by popular vote only for the House of Representatives, with Senators being chosen by State legislatures. The
2268:
1469:
1461:
1613:
2446:
2238:
1018:
1013:
418:
228:
2228:
1990:
1373:
1062:
130:
2121:
2051:
282:
2172:
1290:
86:
Puerto Rico is a territory under the sovereignty of the federal government, but is not part of any state nor is it a state itself. It has been
2436:
2389:
1618:
1326:
1043:
107:
2339:
2334:
2142:
1412:
277:
103:
17:
970:
2363:
2253:
2193:
1958:
1551:
1495:
1444:
1067:
950:
651:
633:
73:
265:
Any U.S. citizen who resides in Puerto Rico is effectively disenfranchised at the national level, as are all U.S. citizen residents of
2106:
1860:
1434:
1087:
1057:
1003:
980:
799:
483:
473:
260:
138:
716:
677:
589:
2039:
1546:
609:
235:
concluded that the United States is responsible for violations of the District of Columbia's rights under Articles II and XX of the
115:
80:
77:
57:
1234:
2497:
2394:
1474:
1275:
993:
923:
240:
37:
2431:
2157:
1908:
1510:
1417:
1146:
1023:
1008:
940:
913:
273:
232:
142:
presidential election. Puerto Ricans can vote for president if they are registered to vote and reside in any of the 50 States
2426:
2198:
2066:
1571:
61:
945:
903:
887:
575:
2451:
2258:
1808:
1654:
998:
975:
965:
930:
99:
587:
GREGORIO IGARTĂA, ET AL., Plaintiffs, Appellants, v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, ET AL., Defendants, Appellees. No.â09-2186
408:, who is Puerto Rican, wrote that this inaction is in clear violation of the United States' obligations under the ICCPR.
1623:
1566:
1072:
1028:
960:
955:
935:
2358:
2263:
1797:
1593:
1516:
1388:
857:
1707:
1678:
548:
2223:
2188:
1524:
837:
208:
192:
65:
2324:
2012:
1341:
1331:
1311:
1124:
323:
Judges Campbell and Lipez concurred in the decision. Judge Torruella dissented, opening his dissent as follows:
121:
The lack of direct voting representation in Congress for residents of the territory has been an issue since the
2007:
2002:
1985:
1270:
1224:
744:
468:
426:
266:
1968:
1903:
1792:
1784:
1728:
1633:
1306:
1255:
1229:
106:, a delegate who is not allowed to vote on the floor of the House but can vote on procedural matters and in
2399:
1973:
1712:
1684:
1540:
792:
244:
53:
2061:
1285:
908:
706:
District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Cong. (passed by Senate, February 26, 2009)
1720:
1689:
1628:
1482:
852:
176:
111:
49:
768:
1588:
1265:
832:
184:
168:
87:
387:
one hundred years have been branded with a stigma of inferiority, and all that follows therefrom.
211:, which state that electors are to be chosen by "the People of the several States." In 1961, the
2471:
2347:
2147:
2111:
1760:
1697:
1598:
1378:
822:
749:
446:
95:
52:. Residents of Puerto Rico and other U.S. territories do not have voting representation in the
2203:
1736:
1659:
1603:
1488:
1260:
877:
785:
405:
248:
745:
Recent Case: First Circuit Denies En Banc Petition's Claim of Nonapportionment to Puerto Rico
605:
285:, has officially stated that it favors fixing the remaining "deficits of democracy" that the
2441:
2411:
2329:
1978:
1963:
1769:
1649:
1608:
1582:
1556:
1501:
1450:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1280:
882:
827:
546:
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (Organization of American States) REPORT NÂș 98/03*
216:
180:
126:
417:
First Circuit rejected another lawsuit by IgartĂșa challenging Puerto Rico's exclusion from
2126:
2116:
2091:
1576:
1250:
1038:
720:
685:
593:
586:
582:
552:
460:
91:
620:
2353:
2319:
2273:
2248:
1702:
1383:
1366:
1346:
1336:
847:
842:
290:
110:. In most other U.S. overseas (and historically pre-state) territories, as well as the
454:
304:
The U.S. Court of Appeals decision in 2005, on appeal of the decision in IgartĂșa III,
2491:
2461:
2456:
2384:
2152:
1829:
867:
196:
165:
122:
41:
29:
378:
Torruella opened his Opinion Concurring in Part and Dissenting in Part, as follows:
2421:
2162:
2096:
1752:
1744:
422:
286:
161:
566:
to the Organization of American States Inter-American Commission of Human Rights.
399:
In 1961, just a few years after the United Nations first ratified the ICCPR, the
872:
157:
45:
33:
862:
436:
172:
69:
1561:
635:
Report By the President's Task Force On Puerto Rico's Status (December 2007)
622:
Report By the President's Task Force On Puerto Rico's Status (December 2005)
293:
administrations have publicly recognized in writing through reports of the
261:
Voting rights in the United States § Overseas and nonresident citizens
18:
U.S. Government disenfranchisement of U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico
545:
2466:
2416:
808:
654:. Findlaw, quoting the decision by the Appeals Court of the First Circuit
717:"GREGORIO IGARTĂA ET AL v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ET AL (IGARTUA IV)"
413:
2476:
219:; the insular areas, however, were not addressed in that Amendment.
2057:
Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996
94:
by the Congress) subject to the Congress' plenary powers under the
1777:
188:
1833:
781:
777:
678:"GREGORIO IGARTĂA ET AL v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ET AL"
1814:
Art in the women's suffrage movement in the United States
2030:
Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act
489:
Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution
401:
Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution
146:
2016 United States presidential primaries in Puerto Rico
98:
of Article IV, sec. 3, of the U.S. Constitution. In the
346:
to have Representatives from Puerto Rico in that body.
494:
Implications of Puerto Rico's current political status
1534:
Centenary of Women's Suffrage Commemorative Fountain
351:
United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit
308:, 417 F.3d 145 (1st Cir. P.R. 2005), reads in part:
237:
American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man
2377:
2297:
2216:
2181:
2135:
2084:
2077:
2035:
Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act
1949:
1867:
1668:
1642:
1401:
1299:
1243:
1135:
896:
815:
479:
Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act
576:IgartĂșaâde la Rosa v. United States (IgartĂșa III)
365:Lipez opened his concurrence opinion as follows:
243:an effective opportunity to participate in their
1996:U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division
1819:Music and women's suffrage in the United States
1440:Women's suffrage organizations and publications
516:specified direct popular election for Senators.
380:
367:
355:
325:
310:
223:Inter-American Commission on Human Rights claim
36:, like the voting rights of residents of other
1327:National Women's Rights Convention (1850â1869)
671:
669:
645:
643:
295:President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status
114:, a similar representative position is styled
68:grants congressional voting representation to
2503:History of voting rights in the United States
2310:Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era
1845:
793:
215:extended the right to choose electors to the
8:
183:. Insular areas, including Puerto Rico, the
2407:Democratic backsliding in the United States
2045:Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment Act
171:that is neither a part of one of the fifty
144:(For an example of how this functions, see
2081:
1852:
1838:
1830:
1470:Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst Memorial
1139:
800:
786:
778:
585:, 417 F.3d 145 (1st Cir. 2005) (en banc),
137:Like other territories, Puerto Rico holds
1803:Women's Suffrage Centennial silver dollar
421:, over the dissents of Judges Torruella,
419:United States congressional apportionment
229:Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
1374:1920 United States presidential election
191:, are not allowed to choose electors in
2052:National Voter Registration Act of 1993
2008:Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
1614:Women's Rights National Historical Park
529:
505:
2289:United States Virgin Islands residents
1291:Suffragette bombing and arson campaign
32:of United States citizens who live in
1332:Trial of Susan B. Anthony (1872â1873)
1147:International Woman Suffrage Alliance
652:"De La Rosa et al. vs. United States"
7:
1882:House Electors Qualifications Clause
1685:"The March of the Women" (1910 song)
1413:List of suffragists and suffragettes
1276:Women's Coronation Procession (1911)
306:Igartua-de la Rosa v. United States
2279:Northern Mariana Islands residents
1861:Voting rights in the United States
1655:National Voting Rights Museum (US)
1619:Women's Suffrage National Monument
1435:Historiography of the Suffragettes
1389:Selma to Montgomery marches (1965)
484:District of Columbia voting rights
474:Voting rights in the United States
25:
2040:Federal Voting Assistance Program
1547:Turning Point Suffragist Memorial
610:Federal Voting Assistance Program
255:Disenfranchisement in Puerto Rico
2447:Ranked-choice voting in the U.S.
2364:Women's poll tax repeal movement
1698:"Sister Suffragette" (1964 song)
1496:Women's Rights Pioneers Monument
1342:Woman Suffrage Procession (1913)
1312:Declaration of Sentiments (1848)
771: (1st Cir. 2017) (mem.).
453:
439:
239:by denying District of Columbia
1991:U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
1909:Privileges or Immunities Clause
1511:Kate Sheppard National Memorial
1271:Battle of Downing Street (1910)
914:1902 Commonwealth Franchise Act
274:Puerto Rican Independence Party
267:U.S. unincorporated territories
233:Organization of American States
195:or elect voting members of the
102:, Puerto Rico is entitled to a
2269:District of Columbia residents
2199:Multiple non-transferable vote
2122:Voter registration in the U.S.
2067:Election Assistance Commission
1887:Congressional Elections Clause
1322:Ohio Women's Convention (1850)
1307:Seneca Falls Convention (1848)
139:presidential primary elections
1:
2452:National Voting Rights Museum
2062:Help America Vote Act of 2002
606:"Voting Residency Guidelines"
100:U.S. House of Representatives
2315:Timeline of women's suffrage
1428:in majority-Muslim countries
1418:Timeline of women's suffrage
1357:Silent Sentinels (1917â1919)
1286:Open Christmas Letter (1914)
1235:2019â2020 Hong Kong protests
2369:History of direct democracy
2359:Selma to Montgomery marches
2102:Initiatives and referendums
1798:New Zealand ten-dollar note
1465:(Emmeline Pankhurst statue)
1379:"Give Us the Ballot" (1957)
1317:Rochester Convention (1848)
1102:Constitutional amendments:
888:Women's liberation movement
193:U.S. presidential elections
143:
2519:
2189:First-past-the-post voting
1959:U.S. Department of Justice
1337:Suffrage Hikes (1912â1914)
592:September 5, 2018, at the
258:
227:On December 29, 2003, The
209:United States Constitution
66:United States Constitution
56:, and are not entitled to
2325:Woman Suffrage Procession
2013:Voting Rights Act of 1965
1805:(2020 U.S. commemorative)
1624:International Women's Day
1142:
38:United States territories
2264:American Samoa residents
2003:Civil Rights Act of 1960
1986:Civil Rights Act of 1957
1708:Women's suffrage in film
1679:The Women's Marseillaise
1567:Suffragette Handkerchief
1445:Women's rights activists
1225:Hong Kong 1 July marches
743:
469:Elections in Puerto Rico
427:Ojetta Rogeriee Thompson
340:IgartĂșa v. United States
283:Popular Democratic Party
44:citizens in each of the
2498:Politics of Puerto Rico
1969:Enforcement Act of 1870
1904:Equal Protection Clause
1809:2020 US ten-dollar bill
1793:Susan B. Anthony dollar
1730:Not for Ourselves Alone
1352:Suffrage Special (1916)
1281:Great Pilgrimage (1913)
1230:2014 Hong Kong protests
828:Right to run for office
353:decision read in part:
247:. On October 17, 2006,
40:, differ from those of
1974:Second Enforcement Act
1476:Elizabeth Cady Stanton
1125:1965 Voting Rights Act
397:
376:
363:
336:
321:
54:United States Congress
2427:Elections in the U.S.
2284:Puerto Rico residents
2023:covered jurisdictions
1457:BelmontâPaul Monument
1384:Freedom Summer (1964)
1261:Women's Sunday (1908)
650:Boudin, Chief Judge.
278:New Progressive Party
259:Further information:
199:. This grows out of
104:resident commissioner
1722:Shoulder to Shoulder
1691:The Mother of Us All
1634:Women's Equality Day
1629:Susan B. Anthony Day
1483:Suffragette Memorial
1088:District of Columbia
858:Non-resident citizen
723:on September 5, 2018
688:on September 5, 2018
676:Lynch, Chief Judge.
411:In August 2017, the
217:District of Columbia
177:District of Columbia
131:Puerto Rico citizens
112:District of Columbia
90:(given a measure of
81:chosen by the states
76:shall be elected by
50:District of Columbia
1589:Hunger Strike Medal
1266:Black Friday (1910)
769:868 F.3d 24
596:(November 24, 2010)
245:federal legislature
185:U.S. Virgin Islands
2472:Voter registration
2348:Give Us the Ballot
2244:Transgender people
2148:Grandfather clause
2112:Provisional ballot
1732:(1999 documentary)
1599:Suffrage jewellery
823:Universal suffrage
581:2012-03-16 at the
551:2011-10-01 at the
447:Puerto Rico portal
175:nor a part of the
96:territorial clause
2485:
2484:
2432:Electoral College
2254:African Americans
2212:
2211:
2204:One man, one vote
2173:Voter suppression
1827:
1826:
1738:Iron Jawed Angels
1660:Umbrella Movement
1604:Suffragette penny
1518:Millicent Fawcett
1489:Portrait Monument
1397:
1396:
1251:WSPU march (1906)
1068:African Americans
986:Spain (Civil War,
878:Compulsory voting
406:Juan R. Torruella
16:(Redirected from
2510:
2442:Electoral system
2437:Electoral reform
2412:Disfranchisement
2400:Native Americans
2390:Campaign finance
2335:U.S. suffragists
2330:Silent Sentinels
2259:Native Americans
2082:
1979:Ku Klux Klan Act
1964:Enforcement Acts
1854:
1847:
1840:
1831:
1650:Age of candidacy
1583:Holloway Jingles
1557:Pankhurst Centre
1528:(2008 sculpture)
1451:Leser v. Garnett
1256:Mud March (1907)
1140:
1073:Native Americans
883:Disfranchisement
802:
795:
788:
779:
772:
766:
764:IgartĂșa v. Trump
760:
754:
753:
752:1155 (2018).
747:
739:
733:
732:
730:
728:
719:. Archived from
713:
707:
704:
698:
697:
695:
693:
684:. Archived from
673:
664:
663:
661:
659:
647:
638:
631:
625:
618:
612:
603:
597:
573:
567:
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543:
537:
534:
517:
510:
463:
458:
457:
449:
444:
443:
442:
181:federal district
149:
127:U.S. citizenship
108:House committees
21:
2518:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2488:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2373:
2293:
2208:
2177:
2143:Electoral fraud
2131:
2127:Voting in space
2117:Recall election
2092:Absentee ballot
2073:
1951:
1945:
1869:
1863:
1858:
1828:
1823:
1788:(upcoming film)
1714:Votes for Women
1670:
1664:
1638:
1577:Holloway brooch
1572:Holloway banner
1403:
1393:
1362:Night of Terror
1295:
1239:
1131:
892:
811:
806:
776:
775:
762:
761:
757:
741:
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736:
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689:
675:
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657:
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648:
641:
632:
628:
619:
615:
604:
600:
594:Wayback Machine
583:Wayback Machine
574:
570:
562:
558:
553:Wayback Machine
544:
540:
535:
531:
526:
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511:
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461:Politics portal
459:
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445:
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343:
330:
329:
315:
314:
263:
257:
225:
179:, the nation's
155:
58:electoral votes
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2516:
2514:
2506:
2505:
2500:
2490:
2489:
2483:
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2474:
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2392:
2387:
2381:
2379:
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2374:
2372:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2354:Freedom Summer
2351:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2320:Suffrage Hikes
2317:
2312:
2307:
2301:
2299:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2274:Guam residents
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2194:Gerrymandering
2191:
2185:
2183:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2139:
2137:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2088:
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2079:
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2074:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2048:
2047:
2042:
2032:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1993:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1961:
1955:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1941:26th Amendment
1938:
1936:24th Amendment
1933:
1931:23rd Amendment
1928:
1926:19th Amendment
1923:
1921:17th Amendment
1918:
1916:15th Amendment
1913:
1912:
1911:
1906:
1899:14th Amendment
1896:
1891:
1890:
1889:
1884:
1873:
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1868:Constitutional
1865:
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1856:
1849:
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1822:
1821:
1816:
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1800:
1795:
1790:
1782:
1781:(2022 musical)
1774:
1773:(2018 musical)
1766:
1758:
1750:
1742:
1734:
1726:
1718:
1710:
1705:
1703:Suffrage plays
1700:
1695:
1687:
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1662:
1657:
1652:
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1586:
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1564:
1559:
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1549:
1544:
1537:
1530:
1526:Great Petition
1522:
1514:
1507:
1499:
1492:
1485:
1480:
1472:
1467:
1463:Rise up, Women
1459:
1454:
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1432:
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1407:
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1392:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1367:Prison Special
1364:
1354:
1349:
1347:Suffrage Torch
1344:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1296:
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1128:
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1080:
1075:
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1065:
1055:
1054:
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1046:
1041:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1019:Cayman Islands
1009:United Kingdom
1006:
1001:
996:
991:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
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953:
948:
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927:
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865:
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845:
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835:
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819:
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812:
807:
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804:
797:
790:
782:
774:
773:
755:
734:
708:
699:
665:
639:
626:
613:
598:
568:
556:
538:
528:
527:
525:
522:
519:
518:
514:17th amendment
504:
503:
501:
498:
497:
496:
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
465:
464:
450:
434:
431:
342:
337:
291:George W. Bush
256:
253:
249:Pedro RossellĂł
224:
221:
213:23rd amendment
154:
151:
74:vice president
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2515:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2462:Secret ballot
2460:
2458:
2457:Redistricting
2455:
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2385:Ballot access
2383:
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2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2184:
2182:Vote dilution
2180:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2168:Voter ID laws
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2153:Literacy test
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2107:Postal voting
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
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2093:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2068:
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2060:
2058:
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2041:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1956:
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1948:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1894:1st Amendment
1892:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1866:
1862:
1855:
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1759:
1757:
1755:
1751:
1749:
1748:(2013 sitcom)
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1741:
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1735:
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1727:
1725:
1724:(1974 series)
1723:
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1600:
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1508:
1506:
1504:
1500:
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1421:
1420:
1419:
1416:
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1400:
1390:
1387:
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1377:
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1372:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
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1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
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1242:
1236:
1233:
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1228:
1226:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1148:
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1144:
1141:
1138:
1134:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1058:United States
1056:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
971:Liechtenstein
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
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917:
915:
912:
911:
910:
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905:
902:
901:
899:
895:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
868:Demeny voting
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
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821:
820:
818:
814:
810:
803:
798:
796:
791:
789:
784:
783:
780:
770:
765:
759:
756:
751:
750:Harv. L. Rev.
746:
738:
735:
722:
718:
712:
709:
703:
700:
687:
683:
679:
672:
670:
666:
653:
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627:
624:
623:
617:
614:
611:
607:
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584:
580:
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572:
569:
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560:
557:
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550:
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539:
533:
530:
523:
515:
509:
506:
499:
495:
492:
490:
487:
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475:
472:
470:
467:
466:
462:
456:
451:
448:
437:
432:
430:
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424:
420:
416:
415:
409:
407:
402:
396:
392:
388:
384:
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366:
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288:
284:
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275:
270:
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262:
254:
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250:
246:
242:
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230:
222:
220:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
197:U.S. Congress
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
167:
166:United States
163:
159:
152:
150:
147:
140:
135:
132:
128:
124:
123:U.S. Congress
119:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
84:
82:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
42:United States
39:
35:
31:
30:Voting rights
27:
19:
2422:Election law
2340:Publications
2283:
2249:Young adults
2163:Voter caging
2097:Early voting
2085:Voter access
1952:and agencies
1950:Federal laws
1785:
1776:
1768:
1761:
1753:
1746:Up the Women
1745:
1737:
1729:
1721:
1713:
1693:(1947 opera)
1690:
1609:Suffrage Oak
1594:Justice Bell
1581:
1539:
1532:
1525:
1517:
1509:
1502:
1494:
1487:
1475:
1462:
1449:
1149:conferences
1092:
816:Basic topics
763:
758:
737:
725:. Retrieved
721:the original
711:
702:
690:. Retrieved
686:the original
681:
656:. Retrieved
634:
629:
621:
616:
601:
571:
559:
541:
532:
508:
423:Kermit Lipez
412:
410:
398:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
372:
368:
364:
359:
356:
348:
344:
339:
332:
326:
322:
317:
311:
305:
303:
299:
287:Bill Clinton
271:
264:
226:
201:Articles One
162:insular area
156:
136:
120:
85:
46:fifty states
28:
26:
2395:Citizenship
2136:Vote denial
1764:(2015 film)
1762:Suffragette
1756:(2014 film)
1740:(2004 film)
1716:(1912 film)
1552:Eagle House
1405:(memorials)
1093:Puerto Rico
1004:Switzerland
981:New Zealand
873:Suffragette
853:Non-citizen
692:October 21,
158:Puerto Rico
70:U.S. states
34:Puerto Rico
2492:Categories
2239:Foreigners
2078:State laws
2018:amendments
1870:provisions
1541:Resilience
1083:foreigners
989:Francoist)
919:aboriginal
897:By country
863:Voting age
658:October 2,
524:References
153:Background
1877:Article I
1562:Paulsdale
994:Sri Lanka
951:Hong Kong
909:Australia
349:The 2010
272:Both the
169:territory
92:self-rule
88:organized
62:president
2467:Suffrage
2417:Election
2305:Timeline
2217:By group
2158:Poll tax
1024:Scotland
941:Colombia
809:Suffrage
727:June 27,
590:Archived
579:Archived
564:Petition
549:Archived
433:See also
276:and the
241:citizens
125:granted
116:Delegate
78:electors
48:and the
2378:Related
2298:History
1786:Lioness
1671:culture
1669:Popular
1643:Related
1503:Forward
946:Ecuador
904:Austria
682:Findlaw
414:en banc
231:of the
207:of the
160:is an
2477:Voting
2234:Felons
1770:Sylvia
1520:statue
1505:statue
1478:statue
1136:Events
1098:states
1078:felons
999:Sweden
976:Mexico
966:Kuwait
931:Canada
767:,
748:, 131
742:Note,
425:, and
173:states
64:. The
2229:Women
1778:Suffs
1754:Selma
1402:Women
1063:women
1035:laws
1029:Wales
1014:women
961:Japan
956:India
936:Chile
924:women
848:Youth
843:Black
833:Women
500:Notes
1218:14th
1213:13th
1208:12th
1203:11th
1198:10th
1120:26th
1116:24th
1112:23rd
1108:19th
1104:15th
1049:1928
1044:1918
1039:1832
729:2018
694:2011
660:2007
289:and
203:and
189:Guam
187:and
60:for
2224:Men
1193:9th
1188:8th
1183:7th
1178:6th
1173:5th
1168:4th
1163:3rd
1158:2nd
1153:1st
1110:,
838:Men
205:Two
164:âa
129:to
2494::
1423:US
1300:US
1244:UK
1118:,
1114:,
1106:,
680:.
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642:^
608:,
429:.
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118:.
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801:e
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787:v
731:.
696:.
662:.
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