50:
700:. This shift occurred as a result of large-scale transatlantic and rural-urban migration. Migration into the coastal cities created a larger population of potential laborers, which in turn allowed controllers of capital to invest in labor-intensive enterprises on a larger scale. Craft workers found that these changes launched them into competition with each other to a degree that they had not experienced previously, which limited their opportunities and created substantial risks of downward mobility that had not existed prior to that time.
597:
1828:
668:. However, most instances of labor unrest during the colonial period were temporary and isolated, and rarely resulted in the formation of permanent groups of laborers for negotiation purposes. Little legal recourse was available to those injured by the unrest, because strikes were not typically considered illegal. The only known case of criminal prosecution of workers in the colonial era occurred as a result of a carpenters' strike in
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1843:
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of the combination, rather than simply its existence, was the key to illegality. Gibson wrote, "Where the act is lawful for an individual, it can be the subject of a conspiracy, when done in concert, only where there is a direct intention that injury shall result from it." Still other courts rejected
843:
in
Massachusetts in 1842, peaceable combinations of workingmen to raise wages, shorten hours or ensure employment, were illegal in the United States, as they had been under English common law. In England, criminal conspiracy laws were first held to include combinations in restraint of trade in the
835:
illegal, Recorder Moses Levy strongly disagreed, writing that "he acts of the legislature form but a small part of that code from which the citizen is to learn his duties . . . t is in the volumes of the common law we are to seek for information in the far greater number, as well as the most
691:
in 1790, the vast majority of the 1,300 artisans in the city described themselves as "master workman". By 1815, journeymen workers without independent means of production had displaced these "masters" as the majority. By that time journeymen also outnumbered masters in
819:
in post-revolutionary
America. Whether the English common law applied—and in particular whether the common law notion that a conspiracy to raise wages was illegal applied—was frequently the subject of debate between the defense and the prosecution. For instance, in
798:, decreased hours, or improved conditions—which were beyond their ability to obtain as individuals. The cases overwhelmingly resulted in convictions. However, in most instances the plaintiffs' desire was to establish favorable
930:
who accepted lower wages, than what the combination had stipulated. The court held that methods used to obtain higher wages would be unlawful if they were judged to be deleterious to the general welfare of the community.
870:
of
American trade-unionism," illustrating its perceived standing as the major point of divergence in the American and English legal treatment of unions which, "removed the stigma of criminality from labor organizations."
1302:
926:, however, the court held that the combination's existence itself was not unlawful, but nevertheless reached a conviction because the cordwainers had refused to work for any master who paid lower wages, or with any
111:
294:
914:, also held that a combination for the purpose of raising wages was illegal. Several other cases held that the methods used by the unions, rather than the unions themselves, were illegal. For instance, in
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referred to the common law as arbitrary and unknowable and instead praised the legislature as the embodiment of the democratic promise of the revolution. In ruling that a combination to raise wages was
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332:
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2252:
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and the
Supreme Court held this was lawful. Debs won a large number of votes as a Socialist candidate while he was in prison. He was pardoned and released in 1921 after repeal of the Acts.
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175:
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356:
1237:, 41 S. Ct. 172 (1921) even after the Clayton Act 1914, a secondary boycott remained an unlawful restraint of trade. (This was reversed by the NLRA 1935, but reintroduced by LMRA 1947)
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2004:
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660:
The history of labor disputes in
America substantially precedes the Revolutionary period. In 1636, for instance, there was a fishermen's strike on an island off the coast of
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stated, "he doctrine that a combination to raise wages is illegal was allowed to die by common consent. No leading case was required for its overthrow." Nevertheless, while
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of the rights of others or of society" would be illegal. Another line of cases, led by
Justice John Gibson of the Supreme Court Pennsylvania's decision in
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was sentenced to prison after a union's strike was declared unlawful and an injunction granted, but the convictions were overturned on procedural grounds
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As a result of the spate of convictions against combinations of laborers, the typical narrative of early
American labor law states that, prior to
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1090:, argued that organisation on the worker side is necessary to counter combination on the side of capital, if the market is to work fairly.
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2038:
1160: (1908) found that an Oregon statute that a 10-hour maximum day for women was constitutional, with the downside that this justified
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826:, a case in 1806 against a combination of journeymen cordwainers in Philadelphia for conspiracy to raise their wages, the defense
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1943, prohibited use of union contributions directly for political campaigns, though it could be indirect. Made permanent by the
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was not the first case to hold that labor combinations were legal, it was the first to do so explicitly and in clear terms.
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1245:, 261 U.S. 525 (1923) Supreme Court held a minimum wage for women and children in DC was unconstitutional, overturned by
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790:. The central question in these cases was invariably whether workmen in combination would be permitted to use their
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2018:
1987:
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1201:, 243 U.S. 426 (1917) in a change of policy, the US Supreme Court held the 10-hour working day was constitutional
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combination cases in
America. Over the first half of the 19th century, there are twenty-three known cases of
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and holding that a combination to raise wages was by itself illegal. More often combination cases prior to
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which prohibited child labor was unconstitutional, if the articles might never reach inter-state trade
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By the beginning of 19th-century, after the revolution, little had changed. The career path for most
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under a master, followed by moving into independent production. However, over the course of the
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for the NJ mayor to shut down trade union CIO meetings because he thought they were "communist"
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1197:
1137:
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563:
1354:, 312 U.S. 100 (1941) held that all labor standards could be regulated consistently with the
687:, this model rapidly changed, particularly in the major metropolitan areas. For instance, in
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317:
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1355:
1315:
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1044:
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209:
1067:, 158 U.S. 564 (1895) upheld a federal injunction for workers to return to work and held
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for conspiracies followed within the next three decades. However, only one such case,
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1469:, established collective bargaining rights for most employees of the federal government
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1177:
1165:
1157:
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680:
132:
1439:, 417 U.S. 484 (1974) refusing to extend the Equal Protection Clause to pregnant women
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962:
that asked whether the combination was a but-for cause of injury. Thus, as economist
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continued to refine this standard, stating that, "an agreement of two or more to the
783:
693:
665:
1133:, 208 U.S. 161 (1908) upholding yellow dog contracts, agreements to not join a union
17:
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845:
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One of the central themes of the cases prior to the landmark decision in
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1303:
National Labor
Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation
1499:, 12 weeks unpaid parental leave after 12 months work over 50 employees
927:
855:
802:, not to impose harsh penalties, and the fines were typically modest.
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1398:, no secondary action, closed shop, enforceable collective agreements
688:
1769:
1003:(1842), holding that workers have the right to organize and strike.
848:
early in the 17th century. The precedent was solidified in 1721 by
1343: (1937) upholding the legality of the minimum wage, reversing
795:
661:
1306:, 301 U.S. 1 (1937) declaring the NLRA 1935 to be constitutional
1798:
664:
and in 1677 twelve carmen were fined for going on strike in
648:, or legal relations between workers, their employers and
1503:
Worker
Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988
1463:, private pension minimum standards and fiduciary duties
1141:, 236 U.S. 1 (1915) also upholding yellow dog contracts
882:
was actually unusual in strictly following the English
1772:(1976) 20(2) The American Journal of Legal History 118
1168:" with social scientific evidence helped win the case.
1402:
Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959
766:
for criminal conspiracy, taking place in six states:
2233:
Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States
1314:, 307 U.S. 496 (1939) held to be a violation of the
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in contempt of court for continuing to organize the
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2577:U.S. International Development Finance Corporation
1209:, 249 U.S. 211 (1919) after Eugene Debs protested
836:important causes that come before our tribunals."
1467:Title VII of the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978
2426:Office of the United States Trade Representative
1770:'The Development of the Employment at Will Rule'
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2800:History of labor relations in the United States
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1461:Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974
1056:, privatized the railroads and established the
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1511:(introduced in Congress in 2009; did not pass)
1408:, union elections, fiduciary duties of leaders
1311:Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization
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1457:of 1970, health and safety and whistleblowing
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8:
2481:United States International Trade Commission
1757:Labor unions in the United States/References
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1665:
1532:History of unfree labor in the United States
1549:History of labour law in the United Kingdom
1481:, never enacted amendments to the NLRA 1935
995:, holding unions were criminal conspiracies
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2446:United States Trade and Development Agency
1817:
1803:
1795:
629:
615:
87:Industrial Revolution in the United States
28:
2456:Office of the Comptroller of the Currency
642:History of labor law in the United States
918:, cordwainers were again convicted of a
906:in 1806, eighteen other prosecutions of
2592:Export–Import Bank of the United States
1559:
1492:Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
874:However, case law in American prior to
858:guilty of a conspiracy to raise wages.
815:, was the applicability of the English
40:
1527:Labor trafficking in the United States
1392:Labor Management Relations Act of 1947
1225:, 247 U.S. 251 (1918) 5 to 4 that the
890:did not hold that unions were illegal
735:abolished slavery on February 24, 1863
2471:Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
1659:(1721) 8 Mod 10, 88 ER 9; Commons, iv
1173:Gompers v. Buck's Stove and Range Co.
7:
2646:2008–2010 automotive industry crisis
2476:National Credit Union Administration
2461:Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
1497:Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993
1473:Humphrey–Hawkins Full Employment Act
1429:Age Discrimination in Employment Act
1365:Fair Employment Practices Commission
1297:National Labor Relations Act of 1935
1234:Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering
1213:publicly he was arrested under the
851:R v Journeymen-Taylors of Cambridge
794:power to obtain benefits—increased
92:History of the United States dollar
2810:History of education in California
2805:Legal history of the United States
2466:Securities and Exchange Commission
1544:Labor history of the United States
1455:Occupational Safety and Health Act
1185:Commission on Industrial Relations
754:These conditions led to the first
25:
1443:Pregnancy Discrimination Act 1978
1351:United States v. Darby Lumber Co.
652:in the United States of America.
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2326:Bureau of Engraving and Printing
1842:
1841:
1826:
1322:Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
1291:National Industrial Recovery Act
1054:Railroad Transportation Act 1920
811:, which settled the legality of
595:
48:
1788:Principles of Labor Legislation
1755:For a more detailed guide, see
1329:West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish
1293:1933, declared unconstitutional
2728:List of Americans by net worth
2441:National Labor Relations Board
1847:Companies of the United States
894:, but rather found some other
107:United States dollar § History
1:
2656:China–United States trade war
2451:Customs and Border Protection
2431:Small Business Administration
2114:Metropolitan Statistical Area
1270:Norris–La Guardia Act of 1932
1242:Adkins v. Children's Hospital
1018:Antitrust and the Lochner era
992:Philadelphia Cordwainers case
644:refers to the development of
2769:Outline of the United States
1833:Economy of the United States
715:Slavery in the United States
295:Companies listed on the NYSE
42:Economy of the United States
2651:2008 economic stimulus plan
2243:Water supply and sanitation
1324:, minimum wage and overtime
1088:Massachusetts Supreme Court
1024:United States antitrust law
862:went so far as to refer to
2831:
2641:2007–2008 financial crisis
2411:Department of the Treasury
1754:
1284:United States v. Hutcheson
1276:Apex Hosiery Co. v. Leader
1256:
1021:
922:to raise wages. Unlike in
712:
2746:
2570:International development
2388:Intercontinental Exchange
1839:
1265:Railway Labor Act of 1926
1104:The Danbury Hatters' case
1084:Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
958:illegality in favor of a
739:Emancipation Proclamation
374:Economy by city or county
2774:Economy of North America
2636:2006–2012 housing bubble
2436:Internal Revenue Service
2104:Targeted Employment Area
1509:Employee Free Choice Act
1479:Labor Reform Act of 1977
1449:Legislation in the 1970s
1424:Civil Rights Act of 1964
1227:Keating-Owen Act of 1916
943:Commonwealth v. Carlisle
602:United States portal
32:This article is part of
2815:United States labor law
2618:Pathways out of Poverty
2587:Build Back Better World
2539:State unemployment rate
2403:Government institutions
2383:New York Board of Trade
2358:New York Stock Exchange
1522:United States labor law
646:United States labor law
357:State unemployment rate
2738:Science and technology
2504:International rankings
2416:Department of Commerce
2378:Chicago Board of Trade
2086:Special Economic Zones
1371:Employment Act of 1946
1176:, 221 U.S. 418 (1911)
1130:Adair v. United States
1082:, 167 Mass. 92 (1896)
1049:Railway Labor Act 1926
986:Commonwealth v. Pullis
974:Legalisation of unions
934:Commonwealth v. Morrow
823:Commonwealth v. Pullis
727:Dred Scott v. Sandford
2795:History of labour law
1878:Industrial Revolution
1419:Equal Pay Act of 1963
1413:Civil rights movement
1279:, 310 U.S. 469 (1940)
1215:Espionage Act of 1917
1206:Debs v. United States
792:collective bargaining
709:Slavery and abolition
685:Industrial Revolution
2601:Economic initiatives
1058:Railroad Labor Board
1040:Arbitration Act 1888
1000:Commonwealth v. Hunt
980:Thirteenth Amendment
808:Commonwealth v. Hunt
750:Illegality of unions
744:Thirteenth Amendment
352:State credit ratings
176:Water and sanitation
67:Agricultural history
18:US labor law history
2733:American economists
2421:Department of Labor
2262:Law and regulations
2109:Foreign Trade Zones
1406:Landrum–Griffin Act
1377:Post-war regulation
1287:, 312 US 219 (1941)
1222:Hammer v. Dagenhart
1192:Clayton Act of 1914
1111:Lochner v. New York
1079:Vegelahn v. Guntner
1047:, precursor to the
733:Arizona Organic Act
2711:National Standards
2551:Standard of living
2316:Financial services
2228:Illegal drug trade
2044:Telecommunications
1436:Geduldig v. Aiello
1383:Smith–Connally Act
1162:sex discrimination
1086:dissenting in the
1011:Master and Servant
721:Compromise of 1850
704:Nineteenth century
256:Financial services
2782:
2781:
2284:Right-to-work law
1198:Bunting v. Oregon
1138:Coppage v. Kansas
670:Savannah, Georgia
639:
638:
564:Right-to-work law
287:Largest companies
77:Petroleum history
16:(Redirected from
2822:
2767:
2766:
2757:
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2608:AmeriCorps VISTA
2582:Blue Dot Network
2372:NASDAQ Composite
2279:Child labor laws
2253:Trading partners
2099:Opportunity Zone
2094:Empowerment Zone
2034:Renewable energy
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1396:Taft–Hartley Act
1387:Taft–Hartley Act
1253:Modern labor law
1146:Muller v. Oregon
1035:Adamson Act 1916
1030:Sherman Act 1890
1007:Horace Gray Wood
916:People v. Melvin
912:People v. Fisher
656:Pre-independence
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520:Washington, D.C.
362:Union membership
341:State statistics
307:Economy by state
184:Secondary sector
112:History by state
60:Economic history
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2005:Pharmaceuticals
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1868:American School
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1573:Commons, ii-iii
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1488:
1451:
1415:
1379:
1356:Commerce Clause
1316:First Amendment
1261:
1255:
1095:Loewe v. Lawlor
1045:Erdman Act 1898
1026:
1020:
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752:
717:
711:
706:
679:still involved
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279:Stock exchanges
218:Social programs
210:Tertiary sector
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2355:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2312:
2310:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2213:Postal history
2210:
2208:Communications
2205:
2203:Transportation
2199:
2197:
2195:infrastructure
2187:
2186:
2184:
2183:
2182:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2161:
2156:
2155:
2154:
2152:Oil refineries
2149:
2139:
2134:
2128:
2126:
2120:
2119:
2117:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2090:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1953:Electric power
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1897:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1859:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1840:
1837:
1836:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1814:
1807:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1779:
1778:
1774:
1773:
1765:
1764:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1746:
1737:
1728:
1716:
1707:
1698:
1689:
1673:
1661:
1652:
1643:
1631:
1619:
1610:
1601:
1589:
1575:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1551:
1546:
1535:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1512:
1506:
1500:
1494:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1476:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1440:
1432:
1426:
1421:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1399:
1389:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1368:
1362:
1347:
1325:
1319:
1307:
1299:
1294:
1288:
1280:
1272:
1267:
1254:
1251:
1250:
1249:
1238:
1230:
1218:
1202:
1194:
1189:
1181:
1178:Samuel Gompers
1169:
1166:Brandeis Brief
1142:
1134:
1126:
1107:
1091:
1075:
1073:Pullman Strike
1060:
1051:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1004:
996:
989:(1806) or the
982:
975:
972:
854:, which found
751:
748:
747:
746:
741:
736:
730:
723:
713:Main article:
710:
707:
705:
702:
681:apprenticeship
657:
654:
637:
636:
634:
633:
626:
619:
611:
608:
607:
606:
605:
588:
587:
584:
583:
567:
566:
561:
556:
551:
545:
544:
536:
531:
530:
527:
526:
523:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
490:Salt Lake City
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
376:
373:
372:
369:
368:
365:
364:
359:
354:
349:
343:
342:
338:
337:
330:
325:
320:
315:
309:
306:
305:
302:
301:
298:
297:
291:
290:
282:
281:
276:
271:
266:
260:
259:
251:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
223:Transportation
220:
214:
213:
205:
204:
202:Pulp and paper
199:
197:Iron and steel
194:
188:
187:
179:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
143:
137:
136:
133:Primary sector
128:
123:
122:
119:
118:
115:
114:
109:
104:
102:Tariff History
99:
97:Lumber history
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
63:
58:
57:
54:
53:
45:
44:
38:
37:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2827:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2762:
2760:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2745:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2625:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2599:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2509:States by GDP
2507:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2260:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2132:Energy policy
2130:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2006:
2003:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1933:Biotechnology
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1834:
1820:
1815:
1813:
1808:
1806:
1801:
1800:
1797:
1790:
1789:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1761:
1758:
1750:
1741:
1738:
1732:
1729:
1723:
1721:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1702:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1656:
1653:
1647:
1644:
1641:Lloyd, 107-24
1638:
1636:
1632:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1617:Commons, viii
1614:
1611:
1605:
1602:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1576:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1400:
1397:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1330:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1313:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1262:
1260:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1147:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1112:
1108:
1106:
1105:
1100:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1080:
1076:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1065:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1027:
1025:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1005:
1002:
1001:
997:
994:
993:
988:
987:
983:
981:
978:
977:
973:
971:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
948:
944:
940:
936:
935:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
896:justification
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
872:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
852:
847:
842:
837:
834:
829:
825:
824:
818:
814:
810:
809:
803:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
784:Massachusetts
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
749:
745:
742:
740:
737:
734:
731:
729:
728:
724:
722:
719:
718:
716:
708:
703:
701:
699:
695:
694:New York City
690:
686:
682:
678:
673:
671:
667:
666:New York City
663:
655:
653:
651:
647:
643:
632:
627:
625:
620:
618:
613:
612:
610:
609:
603:
592:
591:
590:
589:
581:
577:
574:
573:
572:
571:
565:
562:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
546:
543:
542:
538:
537:
534:
529:
528:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
460:New York City
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
377:
371:
370:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
347:State budgets
345:
344:
340:
339:
336:
335:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
310:
304:
303:
296:
293:
292:
289:
288:
284:
283:
280:
277:
275:
274:Largest banks
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
261:
258:
257:
253:
252:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
215:
212:
211:
207:
206:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
189:
186:
185:
181:
180:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
138:
135:
134:
130:
129:
126:
121:
120:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
78:
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
64:
61:
56:
55:
51:
47:
46:
43:
39:
35:
31:
30:
27:
19:
2720:
2706:Demographics
2556:Urbanization
2529:Unemployment
2341:Central bank
2289:Minimum wage
2071:Video gaming
1786:
1768:JM Feinman,
1740:
1735:Tomlins, 147
1731:
1726:Tomlins, 146
1710:
1705:Tomlins, 140
1701:
1696:Tomlins, 139
1692:
1655:
1646:
1629:Tomlins, 133
1613:
1608:Tomlins, 128
1604:
1599:Tomlins, 112
1587:Tomlins, 111
1537:
1536:
1434:
1359:
1358:, reversing
1349:
1344:
1327:
1309:
1301:
1282:
1274:
1246:
1240:
1232:
1220:
1204:
1196:
1183:
1171:
1144:
1136:
1128:
1109:
1102:
1099:208 U.S. 274
1093:
1077:
1062:
1010:
998:
990:
984:
967:
955:
951:
945:, held that
942:
932:
923:
915:
911:
903:
891:
887:
879:
875:
873:
863:
860:Leonard Levy
849:
846:Star Chamber
840:
838:
832:
821:
806:
804:
768:Pennsylvania
753:
725:
698:Philadelphia
674:
659:
650:trade unions
641:
640:
576:Unemployment
569:
568:
559:Minimum wage
554:Labor unions
539:
475:Philadelphia
430:Indianapolis
333:
285:
264:Central bank
254:
208:
182:
131:
82:Shipbuilding
26:
2722:Made in USA
2674:Agriculture
2524:Labor force
2496:Development
2353:Wall Street
2346:Other banks
2294:Food safety
2029:Real estate
1998:Gold mining
1958:Electronics
1913:Aquaculture
1650:Commons, iv
1211:World War I
1125: (1905)
1069:Eugene Debs
964:Edwin Witte
878:was mixed.
868:Magna Carta
764:prosecution
549:Child labor
445:Long Island
435:Kansas City
415:Door County
156:Electricity
141:Agriculture
2789:Categories
2679:Bankruptcy
2561:Emigration
2546:Corruption
2486:Statistics
2393:Accounting
2269:Tax system
2179:Geothermal
2049:Television
2014:Publishing
1978:Hedge fund
1918:Automotive
1893:Industries
1883:Gilded Age
1783:JR Commons
1751:References
1744:Witte, 827
1714:Shaler, 24
1687:Witte, 825
1505:(WARN Act)
1486:Post 1970s
1257:See also:
1101:(1908) or
1064:In re Debs
1022:See also:
920:conspiracy
902:. After
900:conviction
884:common law
817:common law
760:indictment
570:Employment
515:Youngstown
485:Pittsburgh
450:Louisville
313:California
243:Healthcare
192:Automotive
2684:Companies
2613:Job Corps
2274:Labor law
2164:Renewable
2147:Oil shale
1671:Levy, 183
939:prejudice
844:Court of
828:attorneys
800:precedent
780:Louisiana
672:in 1746.
541:Labor Law
505:St. Louis
495:San Diego
440:Lexington
400:Cleveland
380:Allentown
248:Insurance
233:Education
151:Petroleum
2759:Category
2750:See also
2716:FCC mark
2223:Shipping
2066:Textiles
2009:Pharmacy
1983:Internet
1973:Gambling
1923:Aviation
1901:Industry
1763:Articles
1538:History:
1516:See also
1259:New Deal
954:rule of
908:laborers
866:as the "
788:Virginia
776:New York
772:Maryland
677:artisans
510:Stamford
405:Columbus
323:New York
238:Gambling
171:Forestry
34:a series
2694:Top 500
2689:Largest
2519:Poverty
2336:History
2331:Banking
2308:banking
2304:Finance
2248:Exports
2218:Tourism
2159:Nuclear
2061:Tourism
2054:Digital
2024:Railway
1968:Fishing
1906:History
1863:History
1855:History
1475:of 1978
1431:of 1967
1404:or the
1394:or the
1247:Parrish
1164:. The "
952:Pullis'
928:laborer
856:tailors
500:Spokane
480:Phoenix
465:Norfolk
455:Memphis
425:Houston
410:Detroit
395:Chicago
390:Buffalo
385:Atlanta
334:more...
328:Florida
269:Banking
228:Tourism
166:Fishing
125:Sectors
2628:Events
2534:Causes
2368:NASDAQ
2321:Dollar
2124:Energy
1993:Mining
1948:Cotton
1943:Coffee
1938:Cement
1791:(1916)
1367:(1941)
1360:Hammer
1345:Adkins
1188:(1915)
1013:(1877)
956:per se
947:motive
924:Pullis
904:Pullis
898:for a
892:per se
880:Pullis
833:per se
813:unions
689:Boston
580:Causes
161:Mining
146:Energy
36:on the
2238:Ports
2191:Trade
2174:Solar
2039:Steel
2019:Radio
1988:Media
1777:Books
1555:Notes
1336:
1153:
1118:
796:wages
756:labor
662:Maine
533:Labor
470:Omaha
318:Texas
2699:SOEs
2306:and
2193:and
2169:Wind
2137:Coal
2076:Wine
2007:and
1963:Film
1928:Beer
1338:U.S.
1155:U.S.
1120:U.S.
968:Hunt
960:rule
888:Hunt
876:Hunt
864:Hunt
841:Hunt
786:and
762:and
696:and
420:Erie
2142:Oil
1341:379
1334:300
1158:412
1151:208
1116:198
2791::
1785:,
1719:^
1676:^
1664:^
1634:^
1622:^
1592:^
1578:^
1562:^
1332:,
1149:,
1123:45
1114:,
1009:,
782:,
778:,
774:,
770:,
2374:)
2370:(
2364:)
2360:(
1818:e
1811:t
1804:v
1759:.
630:e
623:t
616:v
582:)
578:(
20:)
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