33:
244:
412:
398:
215:
380:
1552:
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes have the highest tensile strength of any material yet measured, with one measurement of 63 GPa, still well below one theoretical value of 300 GPa. The first nanotube ropes (20 mm in length) whose tensile strength was published (in 2000) had a strength of 3.6 GPa. The
1563:
The strength of spider silk is highly variable. It depends on many factors including kind of silk (Every spider can produce several for sundry purposes.), species, age of silk, temperature, humidity, swiftness at which stress is applied during testing, length stress is applied, and way the silk is
161:; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, depending on the material, it may be dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material.
352:
is calculated assuming the original cross-sectional area before necking. The reversal point is the maximum stress on the engineering stress–strain curve, and the engineering stress coordinate of this point is the ultimate tensile strength, given by point 1.
348:, as the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases due to plastic flow. In a sufficiently ductile material, when necking becomes substantial, it causes a reversal of the engineering stress–strain curve (curve A, figure 2); this is because the
1564:
gathered (forced silking or natural spinning). The value shown in the table, 1,000 MPa, is roughly representative of the results from a few studies involving several different species of spider however specific results varied greatly.
441:
correlates linearly with tensile strength. This important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held
341:. A plastically deformed specimen does not completely return to its original size and shape when unloaded. For many applications, plastic deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the design limitation.
325:, as shown in figure 1 up to point 3. The elastic behavior of materials often extends into a non-linear region, represented in figure 1 by point 2 (the "yield strength"), up to which
2673:
36:
Two vises apply tension to a specimen by pulling at it, stretching the specimen until it fractures. The maximum stress it withstands before fracturing is its ultimate tensile strength.
2619:
2633:
2528:
2159:
206:(lb/in or psi). Kilopounds per square inch (ksi, or sometimes kpsi) is equal to 1000 psi, and is commonly used in the United States, when measuring tensile strengths.
85:
2084:
1900:
1931:
2077:
2185:
2027:
2001:
1975:
1949:
2981:
Yu, Min-Feng; Lourie, O; Dyer, MJ; Moloni, K; Kelly, TF; Ruoff, RS (2000). "Strength and
Breaking Mechanism of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under Tensile Load".
2348:
344:
After the yield point, ductile metals undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the stress increases again with increasing strain, and they begin to
3131:"Quasistatic and continuous dynamic characterization of the mechanical properties of silk from the cobweb of the black widow spider Latrodectus hesperus"
179:
per unit area. For some non-homogeneous materials (or for assembled components) it can be reported just as a force or as a force per unit width. In the
364:. It is, however, used for quality control, because of the ease of testing. It is also used to roughly determine material types for unknown samples.
2665:
1159:
1143:
2210:
168:, in what is called a brittle failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience some plastic deformation and possibly
2936:
123:
is the ultimate tensile strength and has units of stress. The equivalent point for the case of compression, instead of tension, is called the
2571:
1875:
367:
The ultimate tensile strength is a common engineering parameter to design members made of brittle material because such materials have no
2887:
Xu, Wei; Chen, Yun; Zhan, Hang; Nong Wang, Jian (2016). "High-Strength Carbon
Nanotube Film from Improving Alignment and Densification".
3103:
3085:
2240:
2470:
2288:
2266:
158:
2783:
3166:
2640:
2601:
2524:
2155:
2615:
649:
2510:
2314:
1904:
2049:
2792:
3326:
3247:
180:
2115:
199:
2181:
2075:
2023:
1997:
1971:
1945:
2687:
Dang, Chaoqun; et al. (1 January 2021). "Achieving large uniform tensile elasticity in microfabricated diamond".
112:
430:
Typically, the testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-sectional area, and then pulling it with a
3321:
2340:
666:
451:
326:
2262:
322:
248:
120:
333:
will elongate, but will return to its original shape and size when unloaded. Beyond this elastic region, for
2364:"Bioprospecting Finds the Toughest Biological Material: Extraordinary Silk from a Giant Riverine Orb Spider"
1513:
1087:
519:
434:
at a constant strain (change in gauge length divided by initial gauge length) rate until the sample breaks.
2874:
1585:
1377:
203:
1823:
345:
278:
169:
32:
2214:
137:
members, but they are important with brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as
3262:
3049:
2990:
2896:
2829:
2751:
2696:
2375:
830:
438:
124:
116:
3079:"From Highly Efficient Impurity-Free CNT Synthesis to DWNT forests, CNTsolids and Super-Capacitors"
3038:"Tensile strength of single-walled carbon nanotubes directly measured from their macroscopic ropes"
3033:
338:
330:
318:
264:
165:
63:
3286:
3158:
3014:
2775:
2720:
142:
89:
2575:
1867:
1848:
329:
are completely recoverable upon removal of the load; that is, a specimen loaded elastically in
3278:
3150:
3006:
2963:
2912:
2857:
2767:
2739:
2712:
2452:
2403:
2098:
1843:
1828:
1818:
447:
443:
130:
3107:
3270:
3228:
3142:
3057:
2998:
2953:
2945:
2904:
2847:
2837:
2759:
2704:
2442:
2434:
2393:
2383:
2236:
272:
252:
214:
2477:
2292:
1553:
density depends on the manufacturing method, and the lowest value is 0.037 or 0.55 (solid).
2081:
1505:
1445:
1428:
1191:
782:
765:
425:
93:
3130:
3078:
2597:
3266:
3053:
2994:
2900:
2833:
2755:
2700:
2379:
2958:
2931:
2852:
2817:
2447:
2422:
2398:
2363:
2105:), which is a more appropriate measure for brittle materials than "ultimate strength."
1269:
1004:
537:
225:
2550:
243:
3315:
2779:
2724:
1516:
942:
924:
683:
632:
195:
188:
184:
3290:
3248:"Strength and Breaking Mechanism of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under Tensile Load"
3018:
2740:"Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene"
411:
397:
3162:
2502:
2318:
2129:
1054:
958:
361:
108:
92:
that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In
3274:
3211:
Köhler T, Vollrath F (1995). "Thread biomechanics in the two orb-weaving spiders
3002:
2908:
2388:
2211:"Guide to Glass Reinforced Plastic (fibreglass) – East Coast Fibreglass Supplies"
2053:
17:
2800:
1070:
861:
731:
368:
97:
3294:
2842:
2438:
1926:
1038:
814:
798:
616:
431:
379:
1542:
Many of the values depend on manufacturing process and purity or composition.
2763:
2708:
1833:
748:
713:
587:
water quenched 855 °C (1,570 °F), 480 °C (900 °F) temper
489:
134:
101:
3282:
3232:
3154:
3010:
2967:
2949:
2916:
2861:
2771:
2716:
2456:
2407:
1927:
Correlation of Yield
Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels
2421:
Oral, E; Christensen, SD; Malhi, AS; Wannomae, KK; Muratoglu, OK (2006).
1694:
1664:
1634:
1510:
1409:
1348:
1101:
894:
2666:"What is the density of Hydrogenated Boron Nitride Nanotubes (H-BNNT)?"
2471:"Tensile and creep properties of ultra high molecular weight PE fibres"
1838:
1619:
1315:
1175:
357:
334:
146:
3146:
3062:
3037:
218:
Figure 1: "Engineering" stress–strain (σ–ε) curve typical of aluminum
1742:
1333:
1126:
1122:
1118:
974:
554:
3246:
Min-Feng Y, Lourie O, Dyer MJ, Moloni K, Kelly TF, Ruoff RS (2000).
2263:"Soda-Lime (Float) Glass Material Properties :: MakeItFrom.com"
450:
in metalworking industries to extend well beyond the laboratory and
417:
Some parts showing the "cup" shape and some showing the "cone" shape
2877:
Z. Wang, P. Ciselli and T. Peijs, Nanotechnology 18, 455709, 2007.
1299:
878:
378:
213:
176:
138:
31:
1726:
1574:
Human hair strength varies by ethnicity and chemical treatments.
1226:
1209:
187:(Pa) (or a multiple thereof, often megapascals (MPa), using the
3104:"Finding Inspiration in Argiope Trifasciata Spider Silk Fibers"
403:
The "cup" side of the "cup–cone" characteristic failure pattern
356:
Ultimate tensile strength is not used in the design of ductile
107:
The ultimate tensile strength is usually found by performing a
1710:
175:
Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as
27:
Maximum stress withstood by stretched material before breaking
2616:"Uhu endfest 300 epoxy: Strength over setting temperature"
133:
strengths are rarely of any consequence in the design of
96:
materials, the ultimate tensile strength is close to the
571:
Steel, Sandvik
Sanicro 36Mo logging cable precision wire
360:
members because design practices dictate the use of the
104:
materials, the ultimate tensile strength can be higher.
2818:"Elastic straining of free-standing monolayer graphene"
799:
Polyester and chopped strand mat laminate 30% E-glass
66:
3205:
2525:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
2182:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
2156:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
2116:"MatWeb - the Online Materials Information Resource"
2024:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
1998:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
1972:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
1946:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
157:The ultimate tensile strength of a material is an
79:
2362:Agnarsson, I; Kuntner, M; Blackledge, TA (2010).
1932:Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
247:Figure 2: "Engineering" (red) and "true" (blue)
2799:. American Institute of Physics. Archived from
383:Round bar specimen after tensile stress testing
390:Aluminium tensile test samples after breakage
8:
3141:(10). The Company of Biologists: 1937–1949.
2930:Barber, A. H.; Lu, D.; Pugno, N. M. (2015).
463:Typical tensile strengths of some materials
3187:A.M. Howatson, P. G. Lund, and J. D. Todd,
2932:"Extreme strength observed in limpet teeth"
1868:"Generic MMPDS Mechanical Properties Table"
337:materials, such as steel, deformations are
164:Some materials break very sharply, without
3207:(2000). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
2205:
2203:
2130:"Stainless Steel - Grade 302 (UNS S30200)"
1582:
461:
446:testers. This practical correlation helps
3061:
2957:
2851:
2841:
2574:. University of Tennessee. Archived from
2446:
2397:
2387:
71:
65:
242:
3032:Li, F.; Cheng, H. M.; Bai, S.; Su, G.;
2351:from the original on 28 September 2017.
1859:
1579:Typical properties of annealed elements
2937:Journal of the Royal Society Interface
2786:from the original on 19 February 2009.
2531:from the original on 21 February 2015
2243:from the original on 24 February 2015
2188:from the original on 21 February 2015
2162:from the original on 21 February 2015
2097:strictly speaking this figure is the
2004:from the original on 21 February 2015
1978:from the original on 21 February 2015
1952:from the original on 15 December 2013
1895:
1893:
7:
3169:from the original on 1 February 2009
1878:from the original on 1 December 2017
2676:from the original on 13 April 2017.
3091:from the original on 12 June 2010.
2622:from the original on 19 July 2011.
2237:"Properties of Carbon Fiber Tubes"
2030:from the original on 28 March 2017
1476:High-strength carbon nanotube film
864:10% Ni, 1.6% Fe, 1% Mn, balance Cu
317:Many materials can display linear
25:
1925:E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, "
1024:(the strongest human-made fibres)
3129:Blackledge; et al. (2005).
2604:from the original on 3 May 2015.
2513:from the original on 3 May 2007.
2269:from the original on 3 July 2011
615:Steel, high strength alloy ASTM
410:
396:
194:); or, equivalently to pascals,
3221:Journal of Experimental Zoology
3135:Journal of Experimental Biology
650:Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
2087:Typical Properties of Acrylics
783:Polyester resin (unreinforced)
236:Offset strain (typically 0.2%)
1:
2738:Lee, C.; et al. (2008).
181:International System of Units
80:{\displaystyle F_{\text{tu}}}
3275:10.1126/science.287.5453.637
3003:10.1126/science.287.5453.637
2909:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03863
2793:"World's Strongest Material"
2791:Phil Schewe (28 July 2008).
2503:"Mechanical Properties Data"
2389:10.1371/journal.pone.0011234
265:Yield strength (yield point)
200:United States customary unit
88:in notation) is the maximum
3189:Engineering Tables and Data
2797:Inside Science News Service
2551:"Material Properties Chart"
2315:"Toray Properties Document"
1022:Carbon fiber (Toray T1100G)
119:. The highest point of the
3343:
2843:10.1038/s41467-019-14130-0
2439:10.1016/j.arth.2005.07.009
2289:"Basalt Continuous Fibers"
1569:
1558:
1547:
1537:
1462:Carbon nanotube composites
452:universal testing machines
437:When testing some metals,
423:
323:stress–strain relationship
198:per square metre (N/m). A
3215:(Araneae, Araneidae) and
2423:"PubMed Central, Table 3"
1419:engineering 50,000–60,000
1336:glass fiber-optic strands
699:Steel, stainless AISI 302
667:High-density polyethylene
635:, clear cast sheet (PMMA)
476:Ultimate tensile strength
458:Typical tensile strengths
230:Proportional limit stress
41:Ultimate tensile strength
3219:(Araneae, Uloboridae)".
1490:Iron (pure mono-crystal)
1401:~80–90 GPa at microscale
1318:, monocrystalline (m-Si)
3308:(1988). McGraw-Hill, UK
3042:Applied Physics Letters
2764:10.1126/science.1157996
2709:10.1126/science.abc4174
2670:space.stackexchange.com
1584:Typical properties for
815:S-Glass epoxy composite
520:Chromium-vanadium steel
488:Steel, structural ASTM
3233:10.1002/jez.1402710102
3217:Uloboris walckenaerius
2950:10.1098/rsif.2014.1326
2341:"Tensile Testing Hair"
1935:, 17:6 (December 2008)
1378:Boron nitride nanotube
1243:Nylon, molded, 6PLA/6M
1014:4,137 for fibers alone
934:3,450 for fibers alone
384:
321:, defined by a linear
314:
240:
204:pounds per square inch
183:(SI), the unit is the
149:, plastics, and wood.
81:
37:
3306:Mechanical Metallurgy
3106:. JOM. Archived from
2822:Nature Communications
2080:23 March 2014 at the
1824:Strength of materials
932:1,500 for laminates,
382:
246:
217:
82:
35:
3327:Elasticity (physics)
3102:Elices; et al.
2803:on 25 February 2009.
2321:on 17 September 2018
1901:"Tensile Properties"
1366:345 at 1,000 °C
1162:(Dyneema or Spectra)
1088:Darwin's bark spider
1012:1,600 for laminates,
439:indentation hardness
125:compressive strength
64:
3267:2000Sci...287..637Y
3241:Life without metals
3203:Giancoli, Douglas,
3054:2000ApPhL..77.3161L
2995:2000Sci...287..637Y
2901:2016NanoL..16..946X
2834:2020NatCo..11..284C
2756:2008Sci...321..385L
2701:2021Sci...371...76D
2598:"Comparing aramids"
2380:2010PLoSO...511234A
2217:on 16 February 2015
1907:on 16 February 2014
1874:. 6 December 2014.
1589:
1364:275 at 500 °C,
1212:(parallel to grain)
464:
249:stress–strain curve
166:plastic deformation
143:composite materials
121:stress–strain curve
3304:George E. Dieter,
3213:Araneus diadematus
3110:on 15 January 2009
3034:Dresselhaus, M. S.
2295:on 3 November 2009
2136:. 25 February 2013
2103:modulus of rupture
1583:
1417:intrinsic 130,000;
1362:400 at 25 °C,
1256:Nylon fiber, drawn
462:
385:
350:engineering stress
315:
241:
159:intensive property
113:engineering stress
111:and recording the
77:
38:
3322:Materials science
3261:(5453): 637–640.
3147:10.1242/jeb.01597
3063:10.1063/1.1324984
2989:(5453): 637–640.
2600:. Teijin Aramid.
2099:flexural strength
1844:Tension (physics)
1829:Tensile structure
1819:Flexural strength
1810:
1809:
1532:
1531:
1030:7,000 fibre alone
716:4.5% C, ASTM A-48
601:Steel, API 5L X65
585:Steel, AISI 4130,
448:quality assurance
444:Rockwell hardness
288:Apparent stress (
260:Ultimate strength
222:Ultimate strength
210:Ductile materials
172:before fracture.
74:
57:ultimate strength
18:Ultimate strength
16:(Redirected from
3334:
3301:
3300:on 4 March 2011.
3299:
3293:. Archived from
3252:
3236:
3192:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3115:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3083:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3029:
3023:
3022:
2978:
2972:
2971:
2961:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2884:
2878:
2872:
2866:
2865:
2855:
2845:
2816:Cao, K. (2020).
2813:
2807:
2804:
2787:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2684:
2678:
2677:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2645:
2639:. Archived from
2638:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2578:on 19 April 2015
2568:
2562:
2561:
2555:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2488:
2482:
2476:. Archived from
2475:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2450:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2401:
2391:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2317:. Archived from
2311:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2291:. Archived from
2285:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2233:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2213:. Archived from
2207:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2126:
2120:
2119:
2112:
2106:
2095:
2089:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2052:. Archived from
2050:"USStubular.com"
2046:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2020:
2014:
2013:
2011:
2009:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1942:
1936:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1903:. Archived from
1897:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1864:
1590:
1573:
1562:
1551:
1541:
1448:(see note below)
1073:(see note below)
465:
414:
400:
319:elastic behavior
273:Strain hardening
253:structural steel
86:
84:
83:
78:
76:
75:
72:
49:tensile strength
21:
3342:
3341:
3337:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3312:
3311:
3297:
3250:
3245:
3210:
3200:
3198:Further reading
3195:
3186:
3182:
3172:
3170:
3128:
3127:
3123:
3113:
3111:
3101:
3100:
3096:
3088:
3081:
3076:
3075:
3071:
3031:
3030:
3026:
2980:
2979:
2975:
2929:
2928:
2924:
2886:
2885:
2881:
2873:
2869:
2815:
2814:
2810:
2790:
2750:(5887): 385–8.
2737:
2736:
2732:
2695:(6524): 76–78.
2686:
2685:
2681:
2664:
2663:
2659:
2649:
2647:
2646:on 25 July 2011
2643:
2636:
2632:
2631:
2627:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2596:
2595:
2591:
2581:
2579:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2558:Advanced Nylons
2553:
2549:
2548:
2544:
2534:
2532:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2507:www.mse.mtu.edu
2501:
2500:
2496:
2486:
2484:
2483:on 28 June 2007
2480:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2324:
2322:
2313:
2312:
2308:
2298:
2296:
2287:
2286:
2282:
2272:
2270:
2261:
2260:
2256:
2246:
2244:
2235:
2234:
2230:
2220:
2218:
2209:
2208:
2201:
2191:
2189:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2165:
2163:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2139:
2137:
2128:
2127:
2123:
2114:
2113:
2109:
2096:
2092:
2082:Wayback Machine
2073:
2069:
2059:
2057:
2056:on 13 July 2009
2048:
2047:
2043:
2033:
2031:
2022:
2021:
2017:
2007:
2005:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1981:
1979:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1955:
1953:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1924:
1920:
1910:
1908:
1899:
1898:
1891:
1881:
1879:
1872:stressebook.com
1866:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1849:Young's modulus
1815:
1613:
1611:
1606:
1604:
1599:
1597:
1581:
1567:
1556:
1545:
1535:
1525:
1506:Patella vulgata
1446:Carbon nanotube
1429:carbon nanotube
1418:
1400:
1365:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1192:Polybenzoxazole
1023:
1013:
933:
847:Copper 99.9% Cu
831:Aluminium alloy
766:Aluminium alloy
586:
482:
477:
472:
460:
428:
426:Tensile testing
422:
421:
420:
419:
418:
415:
406:
405:
404:
401:
392:
391:
377:
313:
302:Actual stress (
298:
284:
239:
212:
155:
67:
62:
61:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3340:
3338:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3314:
3313:
3310:
3309:
3302:
3243:
3237:
3208:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3193:
3180:
3121:
3094:
3069:
3024:
2973:
2922:
2895:(2): 946–952.
2879:
2867:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2730:
2679:
2657:
2625:
2607:
2589:
2572:"Nylon Fibers"
2563:
2542:
2516:
2494:
2462:
2427:J Arthroplasty
2413:
2354:
2332:
2306:
2280:
2254:
2228:
2199:
2173:
2147:
2121:
2107:
2090:
2067:
2041:
2015:
1989:
1963:
1937:
1918:
1889:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1795:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1768:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1755:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1719:
1716:
1713:
1707:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1677:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1647:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1608:
1601:
1594:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1565:
1554:
1543:
1530:
1529:
1527:
1522:
1520:
1500:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1473:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1459:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1442:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1424:
1423:
1420:
1415:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1402:
1397:
1394:
1390:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1374:
1373:
1370:
1367:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1329:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1312:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1270:Epoxy adhesive
1266:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1253:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1205:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1188:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1172:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1098:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1083:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1067:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1019:
1018:
1015:
1010:
1007:
1001:
1000:
997:
994:
991:
987:
986:
983:
980:
977:
971:
970:
967:
964:
961:
955:
954:
951:
948:
945:
939:
938:
935:
930:
927:
921:
920:
917:
914:
911:
907:
906:
903:
900:
897:
891:
890:
887:
884:
881:
875:
874:
871:
868:
865:
858:
857:
854:
851:
848:
844:
843:
840:
837:
834:
827:
826:
823:
820:
817:
811:
810:
807:
804:
801:
795:
794:
791:
788:
785:
779:
778:
775:
772:
769:
762:
761:
758:
755:
752:
745:
744:
741:
738:
735:
727:
726:
723:
720:
717:
710:
709:
706:
703:
700:
696:
695:
692:
689:
686:
680:
679:
676:
673:
670:
663:
662:
659:
656:
653:
646:
645:
642:
639:
636:
629:
628:
625:
622:
619:
612:
611:
608:
605:
602:
598:
597:
594:
591:
588:
582:
581:
578:
575:
572:
568:
567:
564:
561:
558:
550:
549:
546:
543:
540:
538:Maraging steel
533:
532:
529:
526:
523:
516:
515:
512:
509:
506:
502:
501:
498:
495:
492:
485:
484:
479:
474:
471:Yield strength
469:
459:
456:
424:Main article:
416:
409:
408:
407:
402:
395:
394:
393:
389:
388:
387:
386:
376:
373:
312:
311:
300:
296:
285:
283:
282:
276:
270:
267:
262:
256:
238:
237:
234:
231:
228:
226:Yield strength
223:
219:
211:
208:
154:
151:
70:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3339:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3307:
3303:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3249:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3209:
3206:
3202:
3201:
3197:
3190:
3184:
3181:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3125:
3122:
3109:
3105:
3098:
3095:
3087:
3080:
3073:
3070:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3028:
3025:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2977:
2974:
2969:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2926:
2923:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2883:
2880:
2876:
2871:
2868:
2863:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2809:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2789:
2788:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2734:
2731:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2683:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2658:
2642:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2611:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2593:
2590:
2577:
2573:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2552:
2546:
2543:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2498:
2495:
2479:
2472:
2466:
2463:
2458:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2433:(4): 580–91.
2432:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2414:
2409:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2374:(9): e11234.
2373:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2355:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2336:
2333:
2320:
2316:
2310:
2307:
2294:
2290:
2284:
2281:
2268:
2264:
2258:
2255:
2242:
2238:
2232:
2229:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2204:
2200:
2187:
2183:
2177:
2174:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2148:
2135:
2131:
2125:
2122:
2117:
2111:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2071:
2068:
2055:
2051:
2045:
2042:
2029:
2025:
2019:
2016:
2003:
1999:
1993:
1990:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1964:
1951:
1947:
1941:
1938:
1934:
1933:
1928:
1922:
1919:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1863:
1860:
1854:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1632:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1617:
1609:
1602:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1517:nanocomposite
1515:
1512:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1456:
1454:11,000–63,000
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1361:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1330:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1189:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1160:UHMWPE fibers
1158:
1157:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:Spider silk,
1085:
1084:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1021:
1020:
1016:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1002:
998:
995:
992:
989:
988:
984:
981:
978:
976:
973:
972:
968:
965:
962:
960:
957:
956:
952:
949:
946:
944:
941:
940:
936:
931:
928:
926:
923:
922:
918:
915:
912:
909:
908:
904:
901:
898:
896:
893:
892:
888:
885:
882:
880:
877:
876:
872:
869:
866:
863:
860:
859:
855:
852:
849:
846:
845:
841:
838:
835:
832:
829:
828:
824:
821:
818:
816:
813:
812:
808:
805:
802:
800:
797:
796:
792:
789:
786:
784:
781:
780:
776:
773:
770:
767:
764:
763:
759:
756:
753:
750:
747:
746:
742:
739:
736:
733:
729:
728:
724:
721:
718:
715:
712:
711:
707:
704:
701:
698:
697:
693:
690:
687:
685:
684:Polypropylene
682:
681:
677:
674:
671:
668:
665:
664:
660:
657:
654:
651:
648:
647:
643:
640:
637:
634:
631:
630:
626:
623:
620:
618:
614:
613:
609:
606:
603:
600:
599:
595:
592:
589:
584:
583:
579:
576:
573:
570:
569:
565:
562:
559:
556:
552:
551:
547:
544:
541:
539:
535:
534:
530:
527:
524:
521:
518:
517:
513:
510:
507:
504:
503:
499:
496:
493:
491:
487:
486:
480:
475:
470:
467:
466:
457:
455:
453:
449:
445:
440:
435:
433:
427:
413:
399:
381:
374:
372:
370:
365:
363:
359:
354:
351:
347:
342:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
309:
305:
301:
295:
291:
287:
286:
280:
277:
274:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
257:
254:
250:
245:
235:
232:
229:
227:
224:
221:
220:
216:
209:
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
190:
186:
182:
178:
173:
171:
167:
162:
160:
152:
150:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
105:
103:
100:, whereas in
99:
95:
91:
87:
68:
58:
54:
50:
46:
43:(also called
42:
34:
30:
19:
3305:
3295:the original
3258:
3254:
3240:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3204:
3188:
3183:
3171:. Retrieved
3138:
3134:
3124:
3112:. Retrieved
3108:the original
3097:
3072:
3048:(20): 3161.
3045:
3041:
3027:
2986:
2982:
2976:
2944:(105): 105.
2941:
2935:
2925:
2892:
2889:Nano Letters
2888:
2882:
2870:
2828:(284): 284.
2825:
2821:
2811:
2801:the original
2796:
2747:
2743:
2733:
2692:
2688:
2682:
2669:
2660:
2648:. Retrieved
2641:the original
2628:
2610:
2592:
2580:. Retrieved
2576:the original
2566:
2557:
2545:
2533:. Retrieved
2519:
2506:
2497:
2485:. Retrieved
2478:the original
2465:
2430:
2426:
2416:
2371:
2367:
2357:
2344:
2335:
2325:17 September
2323:. Retrieved
2319:the original
2309:
2297:. Retrieved
2293:the original
2283:
2271:. Retrieved
2257:
2245:. Retrieved
2231:
2219:. Retrieved
2215:the original
2190:. Retrieved
2176:
2164:. Retrieved
2150:
2138:. Retrieved
2133:
2124:
2110:
2102:
2093:
2074:
2070:
2058:. Retrieved
2054:the original
2044:
2032:. Retrieved
2018:
2006:. Retrieved
1992:
1980:. Retrieved
1966:
1954:. Retrieved
1940:
1930:
1921:
1909:. Retrieved
1905:the original
1880:. Retrieved
1871:
1862:
1629:5,000–9,000
1568:
1557:
1546:
1536:
1526:3,000–6,500
1504:
1055:Bamboo fiber
1005:Carbon fiber
959:Basalt fiber
536:Steel, 2800
436:
429:
366:
362:yield stress
355:
349:
343:
327:deformations
316:
307:
303:
293:
289:
259:
191:
174:
163:
156:
129:
109:tensile test
106:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
39:
29:
3239:T Follett,
2650:1 September
2535:20 February
2299:29 December
2273:20 February
2247:20 February
2221:20 February
2192:20 February
2166:20 February
2034:20 February
2008:20 February
1982:20 February
1956:20 February
1911:20 February
1457:0.037–1.34
1332:Ultra-pure
1183:2,850–3,340
1167:2,300–3,500
1071:Spider silk
862:Cupronickel
732:Liquidmetal
505:Steel, 1090
369:yield point
251:typical of
98:yield point
3316:Categories
3173:23 January
3114:23 January
2634:"Fols.org"
2345:instron.us
2140:2 February
1855:References
1039:Human hair
432:tensometer
153:Definition
2780:206512830
2725:229935085
1834:Toughness
1784:Aluminium
1588:elements
749:Beryllium
740:550–1,600
714:Cast iron
661:0.9–1.53
522:AISI 6150
490:A36 steel
468:Material
189:SI prefix
3291:10758240
3283:10649994
3227:: 1–17.
3167:Archived
3155:15879074
3086:Archived
3077:K.Hata.
3036:(2000).
3019:10758240
3011:10649994
2968:25694539
2917:26757031
2862:31941941
2784:Archived
2772:18635798
2717:33384375
2674:Archived
2620:Archived
2602:Archived
2582:25 April
2529:Archived
2511:Archived
2457:16781413
2408:20856804
2368:PLOS ONE
2349:Archived
2267:Archived
2241:Archived
2186:Archived
2160:Archived
2134:AZoM.com
2078:Archived
2028:Archived
2002:Archived
1976:Archived
1950:Archived
1882:27 April
1876:Archived
1813:See also
1753:140–195
1737:200–400
1695:Tantalum
1675:246–370
1665:Titanium
1645:550–620
1635:Tungsten
1612:strength
1610:Ultimate
1605:strength
1593:Element
1586:annealed
1511:goethite
1410:Graphene
1372:3.9–4.1
1349:Sapphire
1102:Silkworm
1065:0.4–0.8
990:Concrete
895:Tungsten
751:99.9% Be
233:Fracture
147:ceramics
3263:Bibcode
3255:Science
3191:, p. 41
3163:9678391
3050:Bibcode
2991:Bibcode
2983:Science
2959:4387522
2897:Bibcode
2875:IOP.org
2853:6962388
2830:Bibcode
2752:Bibcode
2744:Science
2697:Bibcode
2689:Science
2448:2716092
2399:2939878
2376:Bibcode
2060:27 June
1839:Failure
1750:140–350
1734:200–400
1721:15–200
1672:100–225
1620:Silicon
1598:modulus
1596:Young's
1514:whisker
1509:teeth (
1503:Limpet
1393:Diamond
1316:Silicon
1294:
1232:104–121
1221:
1194:(Zylon)
1176:Vectran
1062:350–500
1049:
1046:200–250
1043:140–160
943:S-Glass
925:E-Glass
833:6061-T6
825:
809:
793:
768:2014-T6
734:" alloy
691:19.7–80
633:Acrylic
553:Steel,
497:400–550
483:(g/cm)
481:Density
375:Testing
339:plastic
335:ductile
331:tension
279:Necking
269:Rupture
196:newtons
170:necking
135:ductile
131:Tensile
115:versus
102:ductile
94:brittle
3289:
3281:
3161:
3153:
3017:
3009:
2966:
2956:
2915:
2860:
2850:
2778:
2770:
2723:
2715:
2487:11 May
2455:
2445:
2406:
2396:
1793:40–50
1758:Silver
1743:Nickel
1731:85–105
1680:Copper
1656:80–100
1614:(MPa)
1607:(MPa)
1603:Yield
1600:(GPa)
1498:7.874
1427:First
1385:33,000
1334:silica
1285:Rubber
1229:(limb)
1215:
1208:Wood,
1180:
1144:UHMWPE
1127:Twaron
1123:Kevlar
1119:Aramid
1110:
1059:
1027:
975:Marble
913:
905:19.25
669:(HDPE)
555:AerMet
478:(MPa)
473:(MPa)
358:static
281:region
275:region
185:pascal
139:alloys
117:strain
90:stress
3298:(PDF)
3287:S2CID
3251:(PDF)
3159:S2CID
3089:(PDF)
3082:(PDF)
3015:S2CID
2776:S2CID
2721:S2CID
2644:(PDF)
2637:(PDF)
2554:(PDF)
2481:(PDF)
2474:(PDF)
1790:15–20
1524:4,900
1482:9,600
1468:1,200
1437:3,600
1431:ropes
1399:2,800
1396:1,600
1388:2.62
1369:1,900
1341:4,100
1327:2.33
1324:7,000
1310:2.46
1307:3,100
1300:Boron
1277:12–30
1264:1.13
1251:1.15
1248:75-85
1203:1.56
1200:5,800
1197:2,700
1170:0.97
1154:0.97
1138:1.44
1135:3,757
1132:3,620
1092:1,652
1078:1,000
1033:1.79
1017:1.75
966:4,840
953:2.48
950:4,710
937:2.57
919:2.53
910:Glass
902:1,510
889:8.73
883:200 +
879:Brass
873:8.94
856:8.92
822:2,358
819:2,358
760:1.84
737:1,723
708:7.86
694:0.91
688:12–43
678:0.85
672:26–33
652:(ABS)
644:1.16
596:7.85
593:1,110
580:8.00
577:2,070
574:1,758
566:7.86
563:2,430
560:2,160
548:8.00
545:2,693
542:2,617
514:7.58
255:.
177:force
3279:PMID
3175:2009
3151:PMID
3116:2009
3007:PMID
2964:PMID
2913:PMID
2858:PMID
2768:PMID
2713:PMID
2652:2010
2584:2015
2537:2015
2489:2007
2453:PMID
2404:PMID
2327:2018
2301:2009
2275:2015
2249:2015
2223:2015
2194:2015
2168:2015
2142:2023
2101:(or
2085:IAPD
2062:2009
2036:2015
2010:2015
1984:2015
1958:2015
1913:2015
1884:2018
1798:Lead
1779:100
1771:Gold
1766:170
1727:Zinc
1718:9–14
1705:200
1689:210
1659:350
1650:Iron
1440:1.3
1422:1.0
1404:3.5
1238:1.6
1227:Bone
1210:pine
1186:1.4
1113:1.3
1104:silk
1081:1.3
999:2.7
985:2.6
969:2.7
842:2.7
777:2.8
743:6.1
725:7.3
627:7.8
617:A514
610:7.8
531:7.8
500:7.8
346:neck
192:mega
3271:doi
3259:287
3229:doi
3225:271
3143:doi
3139:208
3058:doi
2999:doi
2987:287
2954:PMC
2946:doi
2905:doi
2848:PMC
2838:doi
2760:doi
2748:321
2705:doi
2693:371
2443:PMC
2435:doi
2394:PMC
2384:doi
1929:",
1806:12
1747:170
1711:Tin
1702:180
1699:186
1686:117
1683:130
1669:120
1653:211
1642:550
1639:411
1624:107
1351:(Al
1261:900
1235:130
1125:or
1107:500
996:2–5
899:941
886:500
870:350
867:130
853:220
839:300
836:241
806:100
803:100
774:483
771:414
757:448
754:345
722:200
719:130
705:620
702:275
624:760
621:690
607:531
604:448
590:951
557:340
528:940
525:620
511:841
508:247
494:250
202:is
59:or
45:UTS
3318::
3285:.
3277:.
3269:.
3257:.
3253:.
3223:.
3165:.
3157:.
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2026:.
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1974:.
1948:.
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1870:.
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1787:70
1774:79
1761:83
1715:47
1570:^d
1559:^c
1548:^b
1538:^a
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1485:—
1471:—
1291:16
1280:—
1218:40
1151:52
1148:24
982:15
916:33
850:70
790:55
787:55
675:37
658:43
655:43
641:87
638:72
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1357:3
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308:A
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297:0
294:A
292:/
290:F
69:F
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