22:
2835:
2849:
152:
1133:
Thus, in several cases where bodies other than the
Oireachtas were found to have used powers granted to them by primary legislation to make public policy, the impugned primary legislation was read in such a way that it would not have the effect of allowing a subordinate body to make public policy. In
1221:
or bad faith) or a failure to exercise an administrative discretion (e.g., acting at the behest of another or unlawfully applying a government policy) or application of discretionary powers in an irrational and wrong way. Either doctrine may entitle a claimant to various prerogative writs, equitable
952:
of the United States states that: "The validity of corporate action may not be challenged on the ground that the corporation lacks or lacked power to act." The doctrine still lives among non-profit corporations or state-created corporate bodies established for a specific public purpose, such as
1125:
held that the
Oireachtas may delegate certain powers to subordinate bodies through primary legislation, so long as these delegated powers allow the delegatee only to further the principles and policies laid down by the Oireachtas in primary legislation and not craft new principles or policies
1266:
987:. That result was commercially unpalatable. It led to companies being formed with extremely wide and generic objects clauses permitting a company to engage in all manner of commercial activities.
1258:
is better known for not depriving courts of their jurisdiction to declare a decision a nullity, even if a statute expressly prevents it from being subject to judicial review. Further cases such as
1130:
that the
Oireachtas acts within the confines of the constitution, any legislation passed by the Oireachtas must be interpreted in such a way as to be constitutionally valid where possible.
1475:
1126:
themselves. Any piece of primary legislation that grants the power to make public policy to a body other than the
Oireachtas is unconstitutional; however, as there is a presumption in
1275:
1538:
1056:
In many jurisdictions, such as
Australia, legislation provides that a corporation has all the powers of a natural person plus others; also, the validity of acts which are made
1134:
these cases, the primary legislation was held to be constitutional. Still, the subordinate or secondary legislation, which amounted to creating public policy, was held to be
1413:
701:
659:
1557:Ă–rĂĽcĂĽ Esin, The Liability of administration in England and main principles applied in judicial review, in Onar Armagani, Fakulteler Matbaasi, Istanbul 1977, p.660
417:
1388:
1361:
1232:
854:, similar founding documents, or laws authorizing a corporation's formation. Acts attempted by a corporation that are beyond the scope of its charter are
1441:
2816:
1280:
614:
1514:
1491:
1179:
is an example of an appeal heard by the House of Lords that contested that a by-law was beyond the powers conferred to it under section 67 of the
823:
1458:
1175:
518:
327:
905:
If the contract was partially performed, and the performance was held insufficient to bring the doctrine of estoppel into play, a suit for
506:
450:
409:
1309:
51:
used in law to describe an act that requires legal authority but is done without it. Its opposite, an act done under proper authority, is
1427:
388:
1302:
176:
2242:
1800:
1699:
455:
113:
1211:
applies if an administrator did not have the substantive power to make a decision or it was wrought with procedural defects. Broad
116:
which is purported passed without the proper legal authority may be invalid as beyond the powers of the authority which issued it.
2894:
2356:
2225:
1079:
532:
433:
33:
2811:
2158:
2059:
948:; within recent years, almost all business corporations have been chartered to allow them to transact any lawful business. The
2318:
1952:
1332:
949:
1671:
358:
292:
2478:
1957:
1075:
542:
110:
Similarly, statutory and governmental bodies may have limits upon the acts and activities which they legally engage in.
2889:
2473:
1291:(a popular method of circumventing statutory restrictions on local authorities borrowing money at that time) were all
1218:
816:
729:
206:
1082:, constitutions give federal and provincial or state governments various powers. To go outside those powers would be
1384:
1357:
2448:
1947:
962:
425:
201:
186:
2531:
994:, which essentially abolished the doctrine concerning commercial companies. The position is now regulated by the
974:
847:
774:
709:
498:
368:
196:
2326:
2308:
1122:
669:
536:
211:
171:
1977:
1094:
because it exceeded the constitutional authority of
Congress, the Supreme Court still declared the law to be
2701:
2488:
1962:
1127:
1104:
378:
299:
1117:
842:
describes acts attempted by a corporation that are beyond the scope of powers granted by the corporation's
2756:
2741:
1090:
941:
937:
809:
691:
465:
338:
252:
217:
181:
135:
2860:
2453:
2131:
1942:
1630:
1542:
1511:
1488:
1144:
634:
166:
48:
1628:
The Ultra Vires
Doctrine in a Constitutional Setting: Still the Central Principle of Administrative Law
2581:
1927:
1248:, together with unreasonableness, was mentioned much earlier by Lord Russell in the well-known case,
759:
696:
25:
2736:
1876:
1793:
1158:
1112:
734:
488:
460:
314:
287:
282:
272:
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2210:
2064:
2049:
2027:
1771:
1751:
1704:
1694:
1284:
1192:
1180:
1154:
1071:
995:
991:
920:
within the scope of their employment, the corporation could not defend on the ground the act was
654:
574:
547:
227:
222:
191:
1004:
in corporate law. However, it can still apply to charities, and a shareholder may apply for an
2536:
2458:
2296:
2039:
2034:
1987:
1912:
1906:
1746:
1664:
1327:
930:
Several modern developments relating to corporate formation have limited the probability that
714:
584:
472:
347:
309:
304:
21:
2541:
2508:
2007:
1871:
1866:
1831:
792:
779:
724:
624:
1545:
2790:
2763:
2751:
2731:
2665:
2660:
2643:
2623:
2618:
2598:
2463:
2443:
2438:
2341:
2301:
2012:
1937:
1861:
1846:
1766:
1518:
1495:
1318:
doctrine for administrative law, placing it firmly in the correct constitutional setting.
1288:
1250:
1196:
764:
719:
442:
267:
1088:; for example, although the court did not use the term in striking down a federal law in
1041:
Pensions, bonuses, stock option plans, job severance payments, and other fringe benefits
2867:
2675:
2593:
2182:
2148:
2099:
2084:
1856:
1761:
1741:
1731:
906:
843:
92:
2883:
2721:
2680:
2566:
2546:
2518:
2468:
2433:
2407:
2402:
2395:
2346:
2286:
2126:
2116:
2074:
1997:
1992:
1922:
1881:
1805:
644:
526:
493:
143:
126:
1463:
872:
transaction cannot be ratified by shareholders, even if they wish it to be ratified.
2853:
2603:
2571:
2526:
2264:
2259:
2230:
2143:
2121:
2089:
2022:
2002:
1896:
1836:
1826:
1778:
1736:
1714:
1657:
604:
594:
88:
28:
is the incorporation capital of the United States. Delaware has largely abolished
998:, sections 31 and 39, which similarly significantly reduces the applicability of
967:
Historically all companies in the United
Kingdom were subject to the doctrine of
2834:
2775:
2716:
2706:
2503:
2498:
2336:
2237:
2153:
2112:
2079:
2044:
1967:
1891:
1841:
1756:
1168:
913:
277:
262:
257:
2839:
2768:
2648:
2586:
2331:
2252:
2247:
2205:
2187:
2175:
2136:
1982:
1972:
1932:
1917:
1901:
1851:
1788:
1783:
1298:
1260:
1108:
1005:
984:
889:
855:
797:
563:
513:
2746:
2711:
2653:
2628:
2493:
2390:
2378:
2363:
2351:
2279:
2197:
2170:
2054:
1337:
945:
95:, and attempts to engage in activities beyond their legal capacities may be
2795:
2780:
2483:
2368:
2165:
1709:
876:
859:
769:
1167:
acts by the Crown or its servants were previously a major threat to the
2685:
2633:
2613:
2561:
2373:
2291:
2107:
2069:
2017:
851:
247:
84:
973:
and any act which was outside of the objects specified in a company's
893:, a transaction fully performed by both parties could not be attacked.
2785:
2638:
2383:
2274:
2269:
2215:
1886:
1028:
can still arise in the following kinds of activities in some states:
151:
2726:
2670:
2576:
2417:
2220:
1719:
20:
2608:
2556:
2412:
1810:
1726:
1603:
Council of Civil
Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service
1267:
Council of Civil
Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service
917:
1653:
1680:
1153:
describes patents, ordinances, and the like enacted under the
410:
Charitable incorporated organisation (England and Wales)
1008:, in advance only, to prevent an act which is claimed to be
1512:
Sn 125 Constitution may limit powers and set out objectives
1476:
Rolled Steel Products (Holdings) Ltd v British Steel Corp
1236:, Lord Reid is credited with formulating the doctrine of
885:
where the transaction was fully performed by one party.
65:
may equivalently be termed "valid", and those that are
1649:
1615:
Hammersmith and Fulham London Borough Council v Hazell
1276:
Hammersmith and Fulham London Borough Council v Hazell
1385:"Abolishment of Ultra Vires Doctrine with Exceptions"
1157:
of the Crown that contradict statutes enacted by the
1222:
remedies or statutory orders if they are satisfied.
896:
If the contract was fully executory, the defense of
2804:
2694:
2517:
2426:
2317:
2196:
2098:
1819:
1687:
1254:, regarding challenging by-laws and other rules.
1044:The power to acquire shares of other corporations
909:for recovery of benefits conferred was available.
101:. Most countries have restricted the doctrine of
1414:Ashbury Railway Carriage and Iron Co Ltd v Riche
1111:(parliament) is the sole lawmaking body in the
418:Scottish charitable incorporated organisation
1665:
1489:Sn 124 Legal capacity and powers of a Company
1217:applies if there is an abuse of power (e.g.,
1140:the primary legislation and was struck down.
879:usually precluded reliance on the defense of
817:
8:
1453:
1451:
1567:Anisminic v Foreign Compensation Commission
1313:
1292:
1243:
1237:
1233:Anisminic v Foreign Compensation Commission
1212:
1206:
1200:
1162:
1148:
1135:
1095:
1083:
1057:
1023:
1022:According to American laws, the concept of
1009:
999:
990:The position was changed by statute by the
978:
968:
931:
921:
897:
880:
867:
837:
102:
96:
75:
66:
60:
53:
41:
1672:
1658:
1650:
824:
810:
334:
130:
1442:Woolwich Equitable Building Society v IRC
1408:
1406:
16:Legal concept meaning powers are exceeded
2817:History of the American legal profession
1593:AC 768 (see Lord Wilberforce's judgment)
1358:"Top 5 US States For Company Formations"
1348:
936:acts will occur. Except in the case of
555:
480:
399:
337:
142:
519:Limited liability limited partnership
434:Industrial and provident society
32:in relation to corporations under the
1459:Boddington v British Transport Police
1356:Evelina Munteanu (25 November 2014).
1176:Boddington v British Transport Police
1161:. Almost unheard of in modern times,
1047:The power to enter into a partnership
1032:Charitable or political contributions
616:Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung
59:('within the powers'). Acts that are
7:
1605:AC 374 (see Lord Diplock's judgment)
1591:Bromley LBC v Greater London Council
1383:Francis Pileggi (4 September 2012).
1364:from the original on 7 November 2017
1270:have sought to refine the doctrine.
1261:Bromley LBC v Greater London Council
107:in relation to companies by statute.
80:can arise in a variety of contexts:
1428:Hazell v Hammersmith and Fulham LBC
1205:in a narrow or broad sense. Narrow
1035:Guaranty of indebtedness of another
14:
1801:Restitution and unjust enrichment
1391:from the original on 1 April 2023
1310:St Catharine's College, Cambridge
1103:According to Article 15.2 of the
2848:
2847:
2833:
1525:, Commonwealth Consolidated Acts
1502:, Commonwealth Consolidated Acts
902:might be raised by either party.
661:Société à responsabilité limitée
150:
34:Delaware General Corporation Law
2812:History of the legal profession
916:of the corporation committed a
1333:Judicial Review in English Law
1038:Loans to officers or directors
950:Model Business Corporation Act
1:
1645:4th Edition, 1996 West Group
1303:raft of satellite litigation
543:Massachusetts business trust
1219:Wednesbury unreasonableness
953:universities or charities.
730:Piercing the corporate veil
426:Community interest company
401:UK / Ireland / Commonwealth
389:Economic interest grouping
47:('beyond the powers') is a
2911:
2479:International legal theory
1958:International slavery laws
1953:International human rights
1948:International criminal law
963:United Kingdom company law
960:
944:), this legal doctrine is
499:Limited liability company
124:
2827:
2532:Administration of justice
975:memorandum of association
848:articles of incorporation
710:Internal affairs doctrine
705:and estoppel corporations
74:Legal issues relating to
2309:Basic structure doctrine
2159:Natural and legal rights
2040:Public international law
1128:Irish constitutional law
1123:Supreme Court of Ireland
134:This article is part of
2895:Latin legal terminology
2489:Principle of typicality
1963:International trade law
1643:The Law of Corporation
1230:In the seminal case of
938:non-profit corporations
380:Societas unius personae
242:General corporate forms
114:Subordinate legislation
91:sometimes have limited
1535:United States v. Lopez
1464:[1998] UKHL 13
1314:
1312:) proposes a modified
1293:
1244:
1238:
1213:
1207:
1201:
1163:
1149:
1136:
1096:
1091:United States v. Lopez
1084:
1058:
1024:
1010:
1000:
979:
969:
942:municipal corporations
932:
922:
898:
881:
868:
838:
692:Business judgment rule
103:
97:
76:
67:
61:
54:
42:
37:
2484:Principle of legality
2243:Delegated legislation
1943:Intellectual property
1631:Cambridge Law Journal
1523:Corporations Act 2001
1500:Corporations Act 2001
1197:judicially reviewable
1145:UK constitutional law
1118:CityView Press v AnCo
636:Naamloze vennootschap
626:Kabushiki gaisha
443:Limited company
93:legal capacity to act
24:
2702:Barristers' chambers
2644:Legal representation
2582:Justice of the peace
1928:Financial regulation
760:Beneficial ownership
697:Corporate governance
533:Delaware corporation
360:Societas cooperativa
26:Wilmington, Delaware
2737:Election commission
2449:Expressive function
1978:Landlord–tenant law
1877:Consumer protection
1641:Robert W. Hamilton.
1285:interest rate swaps
1159:Crown-in-Parliament
1113:Republic of Ireland
1052:Other jurisdictions
775:Corporate registers
735:Rochdale Principles
489:Benefit corporation
315:Sole proprietorship
2890:Administrative law
2695:Legal institutions
2562:Lawsuit/Litigation
2552:Dispute resolution
2357:Catholic canon law
2065:State of emergency
2028:Will and testament
1752:Law of obligations
1705:Constitutional law
1695:Administrative law
1517:2006-05-15 at the
1494:2006-05-15 at the
1417:(1875) LR 7 HL 653
1360:. Inc Plan (USA).
1193:administrative law
1187:Administrative law
1181:Transport Act 1962
1155:prerogative powers
1105:Irish constitution
1074:, particularly in
1072:constitutional law
1066:Constitutional law
996:Companies Act 2006
992:Companies Act 1985
836:In corporate law,
576:Aktiengesellschaft
548:Nevada corporation
71:termed "invalid".
38:
2877:
2876:
2537:Constitutionalism
2459:Law and economics
2297:Act of parliament
2035:Product liability
1988:Legal archaeology
1913:Environmental law
1907:Entertainment law
1747:International law
1328:Judicial activism
1289:local authorities
1115:. In the case of
834:
833:
715:Limited liability
677:
676:
586:Ansvarlig selskap
473:Unlimited company
310:Shelf corporation
305:Shell corporation
293:Limited liability
2902:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2838:
2837:
2661:Question of fact
2542:Criminal justice
1872:Construction law
1867:Conflict of laws
1832:Agricultural law
1674:
1667:
1660:
1651:
1634:
1624:
1618:
1612:
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1600:
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1532:
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1503:
1486:
1480:
1472:
1466:
1455:
1446:
1438:
1432:
1424:
1418:
1410:
1401:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1380:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1353:
1317:
1296:
1287:entered into by
1247:
1241:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1195:, an act may be
1166:
1152:
1139:
1099:
1087:
1061:
1027:
1013:
1003:
982:
972:
935:
925:
901:
884:
875:The doctrine of
871:
841:
826:
819:
812:
780:Registered agent
725:Drag-along right
665:
650:
640:
630:
620:
610:
600:
590:
580:
570:
539:
522:
502:
446:
437:
429:
421:
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402:
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384:
374:
370:Societas privata
364:
354:
335:
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131:
106:
100:
79:
70:
64:
57:
45:
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2901:
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2879:
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2832:
2823:
2800:
2791:Political party
2764:Legal education
2752:Law enforcement
2732:Court of equity
2690:
2666:Question of law
2619:Practice of law
2599:Judicial review
2513:
2464:Legal formalism
2444:Comparative law
2439:Contract theory
2422:
2342:Legal pluralism
2313:
2302:Act of Congress
2226:Executive order
2192:
2094:
2013:Nationality law
1938:Immigration law
1862:Competition law
1815:
1683:
1678:
1648:
1637:
1625:
1621:
1613:
1609:
1601:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1579:Kruse v Johnson
1577:
1573:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1533:
1529:
1519:Wayback Machine
1510:
1506:
1496:Wayback Machine
1487:
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1355:
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1350:
1346:
1324:
1251:Kruse v Johnson
1228:
1189:
1121:, however, the
1068:
1054:
1020:
965:
959:
830:
785:
784:
765:Civil procedure
755:
747:
746:
720:Tag-along right
687:
679:
678:
663:
648:
638:
628:
618:
608:
598:
588:
578:
568:
537:statutory trust
531:
520:
500:
444:
441:
435:
427:
419:
411:
400:
390:
382:
372:
362:
352:
332:
330:by jurisdiction
329:
328:Corporate forms
320:
319:
300:Private limited
268:Holding company
243:
235:
234:
216:
162:
161:By jurisdiction
129:
123:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2906:
2898:
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2857:
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2840:Law portal
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2676:Trial advocacy
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2206:Ballot measure
2202:
2200:
2194:
2193:
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2190:
2185:
2183:Legal treatise
2180:
2179:
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2173:
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2161:
2151:
2149:Letters patent
2146:
2141:
2140:
2139:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2110:
2104:
2102:
2100:Sources of law
2096:
2095:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2085:Unenforced law
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
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2015:
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1308:Mark Elliott (
1281:House of Lords
1227:
1226:United Kingdom
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1185:
1067:
1064:
1062:is preserved.
1053:
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1016:
958:
957:United Kingdom
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907:quasi-contract
903:
894:
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873:
844:objects clause
832:
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507:Low-profit LLC
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2681:Trier of fact
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2567:Legal opinion
2565:
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2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2547:Court-martial
2545:
2543:
2540:
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2528:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2520:
2519:Jurisprudence
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2500:
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2416:
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2411:
2409:
2408:Statutory law
2406:
2404:
2403:Socialist law
2401:
2397:
2396:Byzantine law
2394:
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2347:Religious law
2345:
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2328:
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2320:
2319:Legal systems
2316:
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2075:Transport law
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2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
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2001:
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1993:Legal fiction
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1981:
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1934:
1931:
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1923:Financial law
1921:
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1914:
1911:
1908:
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1882:Corporate law
1880:
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1806:Statutory law
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1688:Core subjects
1686:
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1670:
1668:
1663:
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1639:
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1626:Elliott, M.,
1623:
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1311:
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1301:, sparking a
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1120:
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1086:
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1080:United States
1077:
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1034:
1031:
1030:
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1018:United States
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789:
788:
781:
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766:
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761:
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754:Related areas
751:
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528:
527:S corporation
525:
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517:
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503:
497:
495:
494:C corporation
492:
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487:
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481:United States
479:
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220:
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207:United States
205:
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168:
165:
164:
158:
157:
153:
149:
148:
145:
144:Corporate law
141:
137:
133:
132:
128:
127:Corporate law
121:Corporate law
120:
115:
112:
109:
105:
99:
94:
90:
89:legal persons
86:
83:
82:
81:
78:
72:
69:
63:
58:
56:
50:
46:
44:
35:
31:
27:
23:
19:
2866:
2859:
2845:
2831:
2604:Jurisdiction
2572:Legal remedy
2527:Adjudication
2427:Legal theory
2265:Ratification
2260:Promulgation
2231:Proclamation
2211:Codification
2144:Human rights
2132:Divine right
2122:Constitution
2090:Women in law
2008:Military law
2003:Marriage law
1998:Maritime law
1897:Election law
1837:Aviation law
1827:Abortion law
1779:Property law
1715:Criminal law
1642:
1627:
1622:
1614:
1610:
1602:
1598:
1590:
1586:
1578:
1574:
1566:
1562:
1553:
1548: (1995).
1534:
1530:
1522:
1507:
1499:
1484:
1474:
1470:
1457:
1440:
1436:
1426:
1422:
1412:
1393:. Retrieved
1378:
1366:. Retrieved
1351:
1307:
1274:
1272:
1265:
1259:
1255:
1249:
1231:
1229:
1190:
1174:
1173:
1142:
1132:
1116:
1102:
1089:
1069:
1055:
1021:
989:
966:
929:
888:
835:
740:
739:
702:
660:
645:
635:
625:
615:
606:Aksjeselskap
605:
596:Aktieselskab
595:
585:
575:
564:
451:by guarantee
379:
369:
359:
348:
253:Conglomerate
197:South Africa
73:
52:
49:Latin phrase
40:
39:
29:
18:
2776:Legislature
2707:Bureaucracy
2504:Rule of man
2499:Rule of law
2474:Libertarian
2337:Chinese law
2238:Legislation
2188:Regulations
2176:Law reports
2154:Natural law
2050:Reparations
2045:Refugee law
1968:Jurimetrics
1909:(Media law)
1847:Banking law
1842:Amnesty law
1820:Disciplines
1757:Private law
1633:Vol. 58 129
1315:ultra vires
1294:ultra vires
1245:ultra vires
1242:. However,
1239:ultra vires
1214:ultra vires
1208:ultra vires
1202:ultra vires
1169:rule of law
1164:ultra vires
1150:ultra vires
1137:ultra vires
1097:ultra vires
1085:ultra vires
1059:ultra vires
1025:ultra vires
1011:ultra vires
1001:ultra vires
980:ultra vires
970:ultra vires
946:obsolescent
940:(including
933:ultra vires
923:ultra vires
899:ultra vires
882:ultra vires
869:ultra vires
839:ultra vires
741:Ultra vires
461:proprietary
278:Partnership
273:Joint-stock
263:Corporation
258:Cooperative
104:ultra vires
98:ultra vires
77:ultra vires
68:ultra vires
62:intra vires
55:intra vires
43:Ultra vires
30:ultra vires
2884:Categories
2769:Law school
2649:Prosecutor
2587:Magistrate
2374:Jewish law
2332:Common law
2253:Rulemaking
2248:Regulation
2198:Law making
2137:Divine law
2113:Legal code
2060:Sports law
1983:Law of war
1933:Health law
1918:Family law
1902:Energy law
1852:Bankruptcy
1789:Punishment
1784:Public law
1395:7 November
1368:7 November
1344:References
1283:held that
1109:Oireachtas
1006:injunction
961:See also:
890:A fortiori
798:Law portal
646:Osakeyhtiö
565:Aktiebolag
514:Series LLC
125:See also:
87:and other
2747:Judiciary
2742:Executive
2717:The bench
2654:Solicitor
2629:Barrister
2509:Sociology
2494:Pseudolaw
2434:Anarchist
2391:Roman law
2379:Parsi law
2364:Hindu law
2352:Canon law
2327:Civil law
2280:Concordat
2171:Precedent
2080:Trust law
2055:Space law
1892:Drugs law
1762:Procedure
1700:Civil law
1569:2 WLR 163
1338:Precedent
1256:Anisminic
977:would be
686:Doctrines
456:by shares
172:Australia
85:Companies
2854:Category
2796:Tribunal
2781:Military
2624:Attorney
2594:Judgment
2454:Feminist
2369:Jain law
2166:Case law
1887:Cyberlaw
1794:Corporal
1772:Criminal
1742:Evidence
1732:Doctrine
1710:Contract
1546:549, 567
1515:Archived
1492:Archived
1389:Archived
1362:Archived
1322:See also
1078:and the
877:estoppel
860:voidable
770:Contract
703:De facto
535: /
349:Societas
167:Anguilla
136:a series
2868:Outline
2805:History
2712:The bar
2686:Verdict
2634:Counsel
2614:Justice
2469:History
2292:Statute
2108:Charter
2070:Tax law
2018:Probate
1581:2 QB 91
852:by-laws
670:more...
288:Limited
283:General
248:Company
228:Germany
212:Vietnam
2786:Police
2757:Agency
2639:Lawyer
2384:Sharia
2275:Treaty
2270:Repeal
2216:Decree
2127:Custom
2023:Estate
1973:Labour
1737:Equity
1617:2 AC 1
1479:Ch 246
1431:2 AC 1
1279:, the
1107:, the
1076:Canada
1070:Under
912:If an
850:, its
846:, its
664:(SARL)
639:(N.V.)
629:(K.K.)
619:(GmbH)
567:
556:Others
521:(LLLP)
466:public
445:(Ltd.)
420:(SCIO)
391:(EEIG)
351:
223:France
182:Canada
2861:Index
2727:Court
2671:Trial
2577:Judge
2418:Yassa
2221:Edict
1767:Civil
1720:Crime
1541:
1462:
1445:AC 70
914:agent
599:(A/S)
589:(ANS)
501:(LLC)
436:(IPS)
428:(CIC)
412:(CIO)
383:(SUP)
373:(SPE)
363:(SCE)
192:India
2609:Jury
2557:Fiqh
2413:Xeer
1811:Tort
1727:Deed
1543:U.S.
1397:2017
1370:2017
1299:void
1297:and
1264:and
1199:for
985:void
983:and
918:tort
856:void
655:S.A.
649:(Oy)
609:(AS)
579:(AG)
569:(AB)
353:(SE)
1681:Law
1539:514
1273:In
1191:In
1143:In
866:An
862:.
858:or
177:BVI
2886::
2115:/
1537:,
1521:,
1498:,
1450:^
1405:^
1387:.
1305:.
1183:.
1171:.
1147:,
1100:.
1014:.
202:UK
138:on
1673:e
1666:t
1659:v
1399:.
1372:.
926:.
825:e
818:t
811:v
36:.
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