889:(PACs) for funds, special interest groups for staff, and political consultants for expertise. The increasing reliance on mass communication leads to a withering of political discourse as the sound bite and an emphasis on the horse-race aspect of politics becomes the norm. This limits the amount and kind of information the public receives, leading to less choice for voters. When voters can stay at home and watch television rather than participate in civic life, the public no longer perceives the need to become involved in democracy—and so the civic life of the democracy withers. As PACs and interest groups become more important, the number of people speaking to the public, providing political information and different political choices and views, declines. Additionally, PAC and interest group spokespeople may not be representative of the public or the groups they claim to speak for, creating disenfranchisement of various (often minority) groups. As independent voting and ticket-splitting rise, parties seek to insulate themselves from the whipsaw effect of elections. The power of incumbency becomes increasingly important, and accessibility by the public declines. Parties seek increasingly moderate positions in order to stay electorally viable, further limiting political choice ("both parties look and sound the same"). As the parties distance themselves from the average voter and seem to offer limited policy options, dealignment worsens. As ideology plays less and less a part in elections, it becomes more and more difficult for parties to forge coalitions of like-minded officeholders. Governmental deadlock becomes common, further encouraging independent voting as citizens perceive "their" party to be ineffective. As ticket-splitting rises, divided government becomes the norm, making it even more difficult for office-holders to enact and implement policies. Politics becomes increasingly volatile, with first one party and then another governing. Although parties once held politicians accountable for their actions, their increasing irrelevance in politics leads to a decline in accountability (and thus even less responsiveness and less democracy). The "
856:
election. The theory of critical elections fit well with what scholars knew about generational effects and the emerging literature on "major shocks" as a variable in determining the existence, direction, and strength of partisanship. It also helped explain the radical shifts in national politics which occurred irregularly in
American history. Scholars also hypothesized that realigning elections rejuvenated public support for the political system, which helped explain the relative stability of American political structures. In time, scholars refined the theory somewhat. The concept of "secular realignment" was developed to account for gradual shifts in politics which had similar effects (eventually) to a critical realigning election. Some studies concluded that "secular realignment" came in short, jerky, periods called "punctuations." Initially, the concept of a realigning election was monolithic, that is, the effects were believed to be national in effect. But beginning in the 1980s,
679:
time could also dramatically influence the direction and strength of partisanship. Many scholars became convinced that partisanship was not bedrock but shifting sand. Important childhood events (such as becoming aware of a presidential campaign) as well as events in adulthood (such as recessions, war, or shifting racial policies) could also affect the level of partisanship. The concept of "retrospective voting"—in which the voter makes political judgments based on the party-in-power's performance over the past few years—deeply influenced studies of partisanship. Applying the concept of retrospectiveness to partisanship, more recent analyses have concluded that retrospective and prospective political party success play a significant role in the direction and strength of partisanship.
567:
easily captured either with a nominal question ("Do you self-identify with an existing political party?", a question which is answered with a "yes" or a "no"), or by a structured ordinal question ("Generally speaking, do you consider yourself a
Democrat, a Republican, an independent, or what?"). The first analyses of this measure of political independence found that there were significant differences between those individuals who self-identified as "independent" and those who listed "no preference" as to party identification. Individuals who expressed "no preference" usually exhibited low levels of interest in politics, low levels of knowledge about the candidates and issues, low frequency of voting, and less confidence in their ability to influence politics.
559:, these studies depicted an independent voter who had the same level of political interest as strong partisans and who voted largely based on the issues with which they strongly agreed or disagreed. However, by focusing on voting behavior, this definition of the independent ignored non-voters. Critics claimed that the independent voter is merely a subset of the larger set of independents, which should also include non-voters. Studies also found that voting and not-voting is deeply affected by the particular candidate running in an election. Voting, therefore, is more reflective of what candidate is running—and therefore a poor measure of partisanship.
716:..If one distinguishes between respondents who are adamant about their independence and those who concede closeness to a party. ... In short, the vast majority of self-defined Independents are not neutral but partisan—a bit bashful about admitting it, but partisan nevertheless. Once this is recognized, the proportion of the electorate that is truly neutral between the two parties is scarcely different now than from what it was in the Eisenhower era. Moreover, because these "pure Independents" now are less inclined to vote, their share of the voting population is, if anything, a bit smaller now than in the 1950s and 1960s.
575:, the measure's confusion of the theoretical relationship between partisanship and the intent to vote, question wording errors which confuse a social group with a political party, failure to predict policy (versus candidate) preferences, question order, and failure to measure partisanship accurately when there are sizeable differences in party size all confound accurate measurement of partisanship and independence using this measure. Even the nature of a survey instrument as a measure of partisanship and independence has been called into question.
872:
useless, it is argued. The theory of secular realignment has been particularly criticized. The replacement of elderly voters (who die) with a new generation of voters (who come of age and are eligible to vote) is normal, not a unique and irregular "punctuation" or "surge," it is claimed. Still other scholars claim there are no regional dealignment variations while others argue that the concept of realignment and dealignment is no longer useful in an era in which political parties are no longer very important in the political system.
124:
47:
666:
Additionally, theorists suggested that older voters favored certain policy preferences (such as strong government pensions and old-age health insurance) which led them to (strongly) favor one party over another. Later studies showed that the initial strong effect of the life-cycle variable was mitigated by generational effects. Party identification seemed strongly affected by certain formative generational events (such as the
435:
654:, which studied the ways in which children are socialized and values inculcated in them. Studies of political partisanship have found that partisanship is strongest when both parents have the same political loyalties, these loyalties are strong, both parents have similarly strong party loyalties, and parental partisanship accords with
863:
But with the "rise of the independent voter" and no realigning election, scholars developed the theory of the "dealigning election." In the dealigning election, all political parties lose support as partisanship decreases and political independence rises. Split-ticket voting and issue-oriented voting
813:
Because independent voters do not have strong affectional ties to political parties, scholars who adhere to the self-identification method for measuring political independence theorize that independents may be more susceptible to the appeals of third-party candidates. It has also been suggested that
682:
Both repeated "minor shocks" and retrospective/prospective assessments of political party success are micro-level, rather than macro-level, variables. That is, while very important in creating political independence, they affect individuals only. For example, John may come to believe that Party A is
678:
But if generational events affected partisanship, some scholars hypothesized that lesser political, social, and economic issues might as well. Conceding that major "shocks" such as the Great
Depression could realign or dealing partisanship, some scholars reasoned that a series of smaller shocks over
665:
Life-cycle and generational effects also contribute to partisanship. Initially, studies indicated that the operative variable was the "life-cycle." That is, a person's partisan attachments naturally grew stronger over time as weak socialization became strong and strong socialization became stronger.
570:
Although some scholars continue to conclude that self-description is the best measure of partisanship or independence, a number of studies have found debilitating problems with this measure. The nature of the voter registration system and the appearance of the ballot, the way the question reinforces
884:
Dealignment—the rise in the number of independent voters—has an extremely deleterious effect on democracy, these scholars claim. Dealignment leads to the rise of candidate-centered elections in which parties and ideologies play little part. Without parties, candidates rely ever-more heavily on mass
642:
To many scholars, independence seemed the flip-side of partisanship. Identifying the variables which are significant in creating partisanship would, therefore, identify the variables which are significant in creating political independence. Subsequently, a very large body of scholarship has emerged
551:
behavior conclusively demonstrated that self-identified independent voters are less interested in specific elections than partisan voters, poorly informed about issues and candidates, and less active politically. However, a contrary view emerged: The independent usually voted on the basis of deeply
826:
since the initial upsurge in the 1950s. They also posit that, when independents who strongly lean toward one party are included in the same group as that party's strong partisans, there has also been little change in party loyalty since the 1950s. For example, partisan
Republicans and independents
700:
Using the self-identification method of measuring political independence, surveys found an increasing number of independent voters beginning in 1966. In 1952, when modern polling on the issue began, the number of independent voters nationwide was 22 percent. By 1976, the number had risen more than
686:
This has led some scholars to conclude that independence is not the flip-side of partisanship. Rather, partisanship and political independence may be two distinct variables, each of which must be measured separately and using different theoretical constructs. Other scholars have concluded that the
1288:
Survey question order is still a vexatious issue. Some studies conclude it biases results, and creates a survey artifact which shows large numbers of independents. See: Heath and Pierce, "It Was Party
Identification All Along: Question Order Effects on Reports of Party Identification in Britain,"
900:
Yet another strain of thought has concluded that "realignment" is occurring. The slow "secular realignment" is not yet over, these scholars say. Regional differences in the level and impact of dealignment simply point up the fact that major shifts in political coalitions are occurring. Slowly but
896:
Other scholars have concluded that dealignment has not harmed democracy. Political parties have adapted to the realities of large numbers of independent voters, it is argued. The candidate-centered election has actually revitalized parties, and led to new party structures and behaviors which have
566:
as a good measure of a person's political independence. The value of self-identification as a measure of a person's political independence or partisanship is that it is seen as a proxy for the behavior which should be exhibited by the independent voter. Additionally, self-identification could be
1319:
In one study, scholars found wide differences in survey respondents' abilities to recall political ideologies and apply them to questions about how they feel about policy issues of the day. Independents, it was suggested, have a lower level of ability to apply ideological tools of assessment to
855:
in 1955, the theory of realigning elections suggested that certain "critical elections" created sudden, massive shifts in the electorate. The political party and policies of the status quo were changed, and a new governing coalition installed which would rule for decades until the next critical
729:
In the United States, voter identification as an independent varies widely across regions as well as states. Inter-party competition, the organizational strength of each party, electoral variables (such as the ease of voter registration, voting procedures, the timing of primaries and elections,
880:
Scholars argue that political parties play a critical supportive role in democracies. Parties regulate the type and number of people seeking election, mobilize voters and enhance turnout, and provide the coalition-building structure essential for office-holders to govern. Parties also serve as
871:
A number of scholars have dismissed the theory of realignment and dealignment, however. They argue that the concept is vague and the data do not support mass change in electoral behavior. The large number of qualifications which must be made to the theory of critical elections has rendered it
1791:
Some disagree that retrospective assessments affect partisanship. The rise of independent voting is less a product of dissatisfaction with political parties than it is the increasing irrelevancy of political parties in the modern electoral process, which is focused on mass communication and
661:
Social groups are another source of partisanship. Friends, relatives, and neighbors often have the same partisan loyalties and strengths as one's parents. The more homogeneous the social group, the more likely the individual will be to develop strong partisan loyalties. When social group
527:, do not utilize a party affiliation system as part of their voter registration process; rather, participation in party affairs is based on enrolling as a member within the party itself, and the number of party members is much smaller than the party's total electorate (for example, the
1320:
policy issues. The survey instrument, with its focus on making snap judgments, may therefore falsely measure the level of political independence. See: Huckfeldt, Levine, Morgan, and
Sprague, "Accessibility and the Political Utility of Partisan and Ideological Orientations,"
1221:
More recent research has found that individuals expressing "no preference" but who have moderate to high levels of political interest behave more like those self-describing themselves as "independents" than they do others who self-describe as "no preference." Wattenberg,
901:
surely, these studies conclude, realignment is happening and will be obvious within a generation. These scholars argue that the surge in independent voters which began in the 1960s has ended, and that there are distinct signs that partisanship is on the rise again.
818:
will increase, leading to greater parity between the strongest political parties, an increase in the number of minor political parties (particularly "down-ballot" in state, county or local races), or possibly even a breakdown in the political party system.
881:
critical reference groups for voters, framing issues and providing and filtering information. These functions, it is claimed cannot otherwise be accomplished, and democracies collapse without them. Only political parties serve these roles.
705:, the number of independent voters had risen from 22 percent to 37 percent. But in the Deep South, the number of independents rose steeply from 14 percent in 1952 to 32 percent in 1976 (and would rise even further, to 35 percent, by 1984).
897:
allowed parties to survive in the age of mass communication. A minority view, however, suggests that the evidence for a resurgence of political parties too equivocal, and that scholars lack the theoretical concepts to make such judgments.
834:
Many scholars also say that partisanship is only one of many variables which predict voting choice. A decline in partisanship may have little to no impact on election outcomes, and much depends on fluctuations in these other factors.
683:
no longer effective and become an independent. Yet, Mary may come to the conclusion that Party A is still effective. Both voters see the same successes and failures, but their retrospective and prospective calculus of success varies.
720:
Several analyses conclude that (whether through survey error or misconceptualization of the nature of political independence) the number of independent voters has remained relatively unchanged in the United States since the 1950s.
662:
homogeneousness is low, the individual is likely to be less strongly socialized into partisan politics and more likely to seek a different party loyalty (whether by disengaging from partisanship or switching partisan loyalties).
687:
causal direction of partisanship must be questioned. While it has long been assumed that partisanship and the strength of partisanship drive attitudes on issues, these scholars conclude that the causal relationship is reversed.
674:
or the social upheaval of the 1960s). Several studies concluded that generational effects were distinct from life-cycle effects, and that both factors were significant in creating (or not) partisanship.
711:
Although the number of self-identified independents has fallen slightly in the 1990s and 2000s, about 30 percent of
American voters still say they are independents (as measured by self-identification).
1306:
Some studies draw the conclusion that a unidimensional concept of partisanship is nevertheless accurate. See: Green, "On the
Dimensionality of Public Sentiment Toward Partisan and Ideological Groups,"
547:
The earliest concept of independents is of a person whose political choices, by definition, were made based on issues and candidates (due to lack of party affiliation). Furthermore, early studies of
611:
827:
who lean
Republican tend to vote for Republican candidates just as frequently in the 1990s as they did in the 1950s. In the United States, the tendency of both strong and weak partisans to
1669:
Some scholars claim there is no life-cycle variable in determinants of partisanship. See: Abramson, "Generational Change and the
Decline of Party Identification in America: 1952-1974,"
1350:
3798:
2876:
Cowden, Jonathan A. "Southernization of the Nation and Nationalization of the South: Racial Conservatism, Social Welfare and White Partisans in the United States, 1956-92."
2154:
March 1995; Cowden, "Southernization of the Nation and Nationalization of the South: Racial Conservatism, Social Welfare and White Partisans in the United States, 1956-92,"
1618:
December 1987; Wong, "The Effects of Age and Political Exposure on the Development of Party Identification Among Asian American and Latino Immigrants in the United States,"
1293:
June 1992. Other studies conclude that survey order has no effect. See: McAllister and Watternberg, "Measuring Levels of Party Identification: Does Question Order Matter?",
2621:
Bishop, George F.; Tuchfarber, Alfred J.; and Oldendick, Robert W. "Change in the Structure of American Political Attitudes: The Nagging Question of Question Wording."
57:
2778:
Clarke, Harold D. and Kornberg, Allan. "Support for the Canadian Progressive Conservative Party Since 1988: The Impact of Economic Evaluations and Economic Issues."
3753:
Wong, J.S. "The Effects of Age and Political Exposure on the Development of Party Identification Among Asian American and Latino Immigrants in the United States."
1372:
730:
etc.), and even turnout seem to greatly affect the number of independents in a state. The effect of these variables is not uniform across all the states, either.
1952:
646:
Parents appear to be a primary source of political socialization and partisanship. Much of the theoretical basis for this hypothesis emerged from the fields of
356:
3145:
Huckfeldt, Robert; Levine, Jeffrey; Morgan, William; and Sprague, John. "Accessibility and the Political Utility of Partisan and Ideological Orientations."
1243:
2004; Clarke and Kornberg, "Support for the Canadian Progressive Conservative Party Since 1988: The Impact of Economic Evaluations and Economic Issues,"
3169:
Jennings, M. Kent and Markus, Gregory B. "Partisan Orientations over the Long Haul: Results from the Three-Wave Political Socialization Panel Study."
1255:
October 1990; Bishop, Tuchfarber, and Oldendick, "Change in the Structure of American Political Attitudes: The Nagging Question of Question Wording,"
2018:
925:
497:
2656:
Bullock III, Charles S.; Hoffman, Donna R.; and Gaddie, Ronald Keith. "Regional Variations in the Realignment of American Politics, 1944-2004."
552:
ingrained beliefs, attitudes and loyalties, and is more like the strongly partisan voter than any other voter (or the idealized "independent").
3096:
Heath, Anthony and Pierce, Roy. "It Was Party Identification All Along: Question Order Effects on Reports of Party Identification in Britain."
822:
Scholars who hold to the behavioral measure of determining political independence point out that there has been little change in the level of
3657:
3206:
2570:
1606:
June 1981; Jennings and Markus, "Partisan Orientations over the Long Haul: Results from the Three-Wave Political Socialization Panel Study,"
742:" is used to describe voters who can change their voting alignment and freedom from political parties. This term may also be applied in
463:
35:
555:
By the 1960s, scholars attempted to define the independent based on behavior, rather than party identification or loyalty. Focusing on
2199:
2004; Ladd, "Like Waiting for Godot: The Uselessness of 'Realignment' for Understanding Change in Contemporary American Politics," in
1792:
candidates rather than parties. See: Miller and Wattenberg, "Measuring Party Identification: Independent or No Partisan Preference?",
528:
31:
3138:
Holbert, R. Lance. "Television News Viewing, Governmental Scope, and Postmaterialist Spending: Assessing Mediation By Partisanship."
3748:
3727:
3713:
3685:
3671:
3643:
3629:
3587:
3573:
3559:
3538:
3524:
3510:
3496:
3468:
3398:
3377:
3363:
3349:
3321:
3307:
3293:
3265:
3241:
3192:
3133:
3112:
3091:
3077:
3056:
3042:
3018:
2983:
2969:
2948:
2920:
2892:
2815:
2801:
2785:
Clarke, Harold D. and Suzuki, Motoshi. "Partisan Dealignment and the Dynamics of Independence in the American Electorate, 1953-88."
2766:
2752:
2672:
2651:
2609:
2556:
2539:
2504:
2483:
1077:
651:
91:
1975:
1067:
3697:
Valentino, Nicholas, and Sears, David O.. "Event-Driven Political Socialization and the Preadult Socialization of Partisanship."
2350:
2007; Holbert, "Television News Viewing, Governmental Scope, and Postmaterialist Spending: Assessing Mediation By Partisanship,"
814:
the more independent voters, the more volatile elections and the political system will be. Others hypothesize that the amount of
368:
2635:
Brody, Richard A. and Rothenberg, Lawrence S. "The Instability of Partisanship: An Analysis of the 1980 Presidential Election."
1808:
Carsey and Layman, "Changing Sides or Changing Minds? Party Identification and Policy Preferences in the American Electorate,"
3438:
Norpoth, Helmut and Rusk, Jerrold G. "Partisan Dealignment in the American Electorate: Itemizing the Deductions Since 1964."
2822:
2743:
Chaffee, Steven H.; McLeod, Jack M.; and Wackman, Daniel B. "Family Communication Patterns and Adolescent Participation." In
361:
351:
2460:
Abramson, Paul R. "Developing Party Identification: A Further Examination of Life-Cycle, Generational, and Period Effects."
2932:
Finkel, Steven E. and Scarrow, Howard A. "Party Identification and Party Enrollment: The Difference and the Consequences."
2614:
Billingsley, Keith R. and Tucker, Clyde. "Generations, Status and Party Identification: A Theory of Operant Conditioning."
1335:
3256:"Like Waiting for Godot: The Uselessness of 'Realignment' for Understanding Change in Contemporary American Politics." In
372:
2830:
1686:
March 1997; Valentino and Sears, "Event-Driven Political Socialization and the Preadult Socialization of Partisanship,"
893:" becomes more important, since single officeholders with great power become the only politicians capable of governing.
860:
began to conclude that realigning elections could occur on sub-national levels (such as regions or even within states).
701:
half, to 36 percent of the electorate. Regionally, the rise of the independent voter was even more apparent. In the non-
532:
505:
1614:
August 1993; Billingsley and Tucker, "Generations, Status and Party Identification: A Theory of Operant Conditioning,"
1602:
February 1979; Claggett, "Partisan Acquisition vs. Partisan Intensity: Life-Cycle, Generational, and Period Effects,"
187:
3410:
Miller, Arthur H. and Wattenberg, Martin P. "Measuring Party Identification: Independent or No Partisan Preference?"
73:
3246:
Knoke, David and Hout, Michael. "Social and Demographic Factors in American Political Party Affiliations, 1952-72."
3197:
Keith, Bruce E.; Magleby, David B.; Nelson, Candice J.; Orr, Elizabeth; Westlye, Mark C.; and Wolfinger, Raymond E.
3176:
Johnston, Richard. "Party Identification Measures in the Anglo-American Democracies: A National Survey Experiment."
1598:
Abramson, "Developing Party Identification: A Further Examination of Life-Cycle, Generational, and Period Effects,"
3732:
Weakliem, David and Heath, Anthony. "Regional Differences in Class Dealignment: A Comment on Johnston and Pattie."
3382:
McAllister, Ian and Watternberg, Martin P. "Measuring Levels of Party Identification: Does Question Order Matter?"
1760:
July 1989; Brody and Rothenberg, "The Instability of Partisanship: An Analysis of the 1980 Presidential Election,"
886:
708:
Gallup polls data shows independent leaning voters represent the majority of American voters, a trend since 2004.
504:. An independent is variously defined as a voter who votes for candidates on issues rather than on the basis of a
3613:
Shively, W. Phillips. "The Development of Party Identification Among Adults: Exploration of a Functional Model."
3517:
Post-Broadcast Democracy: How Media Choice Increases Inequality in Political Involvement and Polarizes Elections.
3461:
Realignment and Party Revival: Understanding American Electoral Politics at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century.
3452:
Page, Benjamin I. and Jones, Calvin C. "Reciprocal Effects of Policy Preferences, Party Loyalties and the Vote."
3288:
Jeffrey E. Cohen, Richard Fleisher, and Paul Kantor, eds. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 2001.
2925:
Finkel, Steven E. and Opp, Karl-Dieter. "Party Identification and Participation in Collective Political Action."
2712:
Carmines, Edward G. and Stimson, James A. "Issue Evolution, Population Replacement, and Normal Partisan Change."
2348:
Post-Broadcast Democracy: How Media Choice Increases Inequality in Political Involvement and Polarizes Elections,
2090:
Realignment and Party Revival: Understanding American Electoral Politics at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century,
1394:
2771:
Claggett, William. "Partisan Acquisition vs. Partisan Intensity: Life-Cycle, Generational, and Period Effects."
2705:
Carmines, Edward G.; McIver, John P.; and Stimson, James A. "Unrealized Partisanship: A Theory of Dealignment."
1723:
Clarke and Suzuki, "Partisan Dealignment and the Dynamics of Independence in the American Electorate, 1953-88,"
1412:
An elector who has chosen not to be a member of any political party as indicated on the voter registration card.
1431:
1967; Beck and Jennings, "Family Traditions, Political Periods, and the Development of Partisan Orientations,"
647:
230:
1996:
1927:
795:
775:
456:
313:
3424:
Niemi, Richard G. and M. Kent Jennings. "Issues and Inheritance in the Formation of Party Identification."
2883:
Dalton, Russell J.; McAllister, Ian; and Wattenberg, Martin P. "The Consequences of Partisan Dealignment."
2726:
1275:
Johnston, "Party Identification Measures in the Anglo-American Democracies: A National Survey Experiment,"
3803:
3023:
Green, Donald Philip. "On the Dimensionality of Public Sentiment Toward Partisan and Ideological Groups."
1756:
December 2002; Lockerbie, "Change in Party Identification: The Role of Prospective Economic Evaluations,"
1656:
Norpoth and Rusk, "Partisan Dealignment in the American Electorate: Itemizing the Deductions Since 1964,"
1552:
March 1969; Huddy, "From Social to Political Identity: A Critical Examination of Social Identity Theory,"
915:
828:
405:
69:
2727:"Changing Sides or Changing Minds? Party Identification and Policy Preferences in the American Electorate
2509:
Allsop, Dee and Weisberg, Herbert F. "Measuring Change in Party Identification in an Election Campaign."
2137:
Bullock, Hoffman, and Gaddie, "Regional Variations in the Realignment of American Politics, 1944-2004,"
245:
240:
2897:
Dennis, Jack. "Political Independence in America, Part I: On Being an Independent Partisan Supporter."
2467:
Abramson, Paul R. "Generational Change and the Decline of Party Identification in America: 1952-1974."
1251:
September 1992; Alvarez, "The Puzzle of Party Identification: Dimensionality of an Important Concept,"
3431:
Norpoth, Helmut and Rusk, Jerrold G. "Electoral Myth and Reality: Realignments in American Politics."
3417:
Nardulli, Peter F. "The Concept of a Critical Realignment, Electoral Behavior, and Political Change."
2684:
Campbell, David E. "The Young and the Realigning: A Test of the Socialization Theory of Realignment."
1235:
Finkel and Scarrow, "Party Identification and Party Enrollment: The Difference and the Consequences,"
3543:
Putz, David W. "Partisan Conversion in the 1990s: Ideological Realignment Meets Measurement Theory."
2723:
1976:"Swaying the disgruntled floating voter. The rise of populist parties in contemporary Dutch politics"
920:
346:
1636:
Shively, "The Development of Party Identification Among Adults: Exploration of a Functional Model,"
1499:
Knoke and Hout, "Social and Demographic Factors in American Political Party Affiliations, 1952-72,"
1451:
1977; Chaffee, McLeod and Wackman, "Family Communication Patterns and Adolescent Participation," in
868:(one party controls the executive branch, while another controls the legislature) becomes the norm.
3270:
Ladd, Carll Everett. "The 1994 Congressional Elections: The Postindustrial Realignment Continues."
2516:
Alvarez, R. Michael. "The Puzzle of Party Identification: Dimensionality of an Important Concept."
2238:
Weakliem and Heath, "Regional Differences in Class Dealignment: A Comment on Johnston and Pattie,"
1682:
Sears and Valentino, "Politics Matters: Political Events as Catalysts for Preadult Socialization,"
890:
844:
563:
509:
157:
3664:
Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States.
2070:
Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States,
3596:
3326:
Lockerbie, Brad. "Change in Party Identification: The Role of Prospective Economic Evaluations."
3253:
2865:
2857:
2593:
Beck, Paul Allen and Jennings, M. Kent. "Parents As 'Middlepersons' in Political Socialization."
1208:
Miller and Wattenberg, "Measuring Party Identification: Independent or No Partisan Preference?",
1148:
Dennis, "Political Independence in America, Part I: On Being an Independent Partisan Supporter,"
865:
667:
572:
524:
449:
275:
143:
1182:
1981; Page and Jones, "Reciprocal Effects of Policy Preferences, Party Loyalties and the Vote,"
123:
3690:
Tubbesing, Carl D. "Predicting the Present: Realigning Elections and Redistributive Policies."
571:
a unidimensional interpretation of the political arena, the measure's failure to function in a
3744:
3723:
3709:
3681:
3667:
3653:
3639:
3625:
3583:
3569:
3555:
3534:
3520:
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3464:
3394:
3373:
3359:
3345:
3317:
3303:
3289:
3261:
3237:
3202:
3188:
3129:
3108:
3087:
3073:
3052:
3038:
3014:
2979:
2965:
2944:
2916:
2888:
2811:
2797:
2762:
2748:
2668:
2647:
2605:
2583:
2566:
2552:
2535:
2500:
2479:
2080:
June 1991; Norpoth and Rusk, "Electoral Myth and Reality: Realignments in American Politics,"
1073:
857:
391:
255:
225:
152:
108:
3606:
Shea, Daniel M. "The Passing of Realignment and the Advent of the 'Base-less' Party System."
3403:
Miller, Warren E. "Party identification, Realignment, and Party Voting: Back to the Basics."
2565:
Philip Cowley, David Denver, Justin Fisher and Andrew Russell, eds. London: Routledge, 1999.
2225:
Carmines and Stimson, "Issue Evolution, Population Replacement, and Normal Partisan Change,"
2150:
Nardulli, "The Concept of a Critical Realignment, Electoral Behavior, and Political Change,"
2092:
2000; Tubbesing, "Predicting the Present: Realigning Elections and Redistributive Policies,"
1535:
Campbell, "The Young and the Realigning: A Test of the Socialization Theory of Realignment,"
2847:
2839:
2719:
2453:
Abramowitz, Alan I. and Saunders, Kyle L. "Ideological Realignment in the U.S. Electorate."
2212:
Putz, "Partisan Conversion in the 1990s: Ideological Realignment Meets Measurement Theory,"
1882:
1386:
930:
848:
823:
815:
786:
766:
671:
556:
416:
411:
328:
295:
265:
250:
207:
182:
177:
172:
162:
3002:
Goldberg, Arthur S. "Social Determinism and Rationality As Bases of Party Identification."
2121:
November 1987; Campbell, "Party Systems and Realignments in the United States, 1868-2004,"
831:
in down-ballot races is even stronger than it is for presidential and congressional races.
3473:
Petrocik, John R. "An Analysis of Intransitivities in the Index of Party Identification."
2178:
1990; Ladd, "The 1994 Congressional Elections: The Postindustrial Realignment Continues,"
513:
501:
439:
421:
396:
318:
192:
148:
3155:. "From Social to Political Identity: A Critical Examination of Social Identity Theory."
2076:
2003; Miller, "Party identification, Realignment, and Party Voting: Back to the Basics,"
1739:
Allsop and Weisberg, "Measuring Change in Party Identification in an Election Campaign,"
1572:
Finkel and Opp, "Party Identification and Participation in Collective Political Action,"
535:, only has 400,000 members). The closest equivalent is the so-called "floater voters" or
2761:
John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson, eds. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1985.
2586:. "Family Traditions, Political Periods, and the Development of Partisan Orientations."
1336:"The Florida Voter: Dramatic growth of 'no party affiliation' reshapes Florida politics"
3592:
2544:
1467:
Niemi and Jennings, "Issues and Inheritance in the Formation of Party Identification,"
852:
655:
270:
235:
167:
3445:
Norrander, Barbara. "Explaining Cross-State Variation in Independent Identification."
3277:
Ladd, Everett C. and Hadley, Charles D. "Party Definition and Party Differentiation."
2084:
June 2007; Abramowitz and Saunders, "Ideological Realignment in the U.S. Electorate,"
1556:
March 2001; Greene, "Understanding Party Identification: A Social Identity Approach,"
434:
3792:
3030:
2691:
Campbell, James E. "Party Systems and Realignments in the United States, 1868-2004."
1399:
1259:
May 1978; Bartle, "Improving the Measurement of Party Identification in Britain," in
625:, a registered voter who chooses not to affiliate with a political party is termed a
607:
489:
285:
197:
2869:
2182:
Spring 1995; Lawrence, "On the Resurgence of Party Identification in the 1990s," in
1368:
753:
Dutch politics also uses the term floating voter to describe party non-affiliation.
3743:
James A. Thurber and Candice J. Nelson, eds. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995.
3152:
2251:
Shea, "The Passing of Realignment and the Advent of the 'Base-less' Party System,"
2038:
Miller, "Party identification, Realignment, and Party Voting: Back to the Basics,"
1778:
Carmines, McIver, and Stimson, "Unrealized Partisanship: A Theory of Dealignment,"
595:, a registered voter who chooses not to affiliate with a political party is termed
260:
17:
3061:
Greene, Steven. "Understanding Party Identification: A Social Identity Approach."
3049:
Responsible Partisanship?: The Evolution of American Political Parties Since 1950.
2995:
Giles, Michael W. and Hertz, Kaenan. "Racial Threat and Partisan Identification."
2988:
Franklin, Charles H. and Jackson, John E. "The Dynamics of Party Identification."
2488:
Achen, Christopher H. "Parental Socialization and Rational Party Identification."
2421:
Responsible Partisanship?: The Evolution of American Political Parties Since 1950,
2302:
Responsible Partisanship?: The Evolution of American Political Parties Since 1950,
1112:
Petrocik, "An Analysis of Intransitivities in the Index of Party Identification,"
2561:
Bartle, John. "Improving the Measurement of Party Identification in Britain." In
1548:
Goldberg, "Social Determinism and Rationality As Bases of Party Identification,"
3284:
Lawrence, David G. "On the Resurgence of Party Identification in the 1990s." In
2757:
Chubb, John E. and Peterson, Paul E. "Realignment and Institutionalization." In
2677:
Campbell, Angus; Converse, Phillip E.; Miller, Warren E.; and Stokes, Donald E.
2325:
Dalton, McAllister, and Wattenberg, "The Consequences of Partisan Dealignment,"
512:; a voter who does not have long-standing loyalty to, or identification with, a
138:
3599:"Politics Matters: Political Events as Catalysts for Preadult Socialization."
3566:
Realignment: The Theory that Changed the Way We Think About American Politics.
2074:
Realignment: The Theory that Changed the Way We Think About American Politics,
935:
743:
739:
702:
658:(for example, the wealthy are Republicans or the poor are Labour supporters).
536:
401:
280:
3768:
3720:
The Rise of Candidate-Centered Politics: Presidential Elections of the 1980s.
3035:
The State of the Parties: The Changing Role of Contemporary American Parties.
2628:
Brody, Richard and Page, Benjamin I. "Comment: Assessment of Policy Voting."
2392:
The Rise of Candidate-Centered Politics: Presidential Elections of the 1980s,
2298:
The State of the Parties: The Changing Role of Contemporary American Parties,
1852:
Norrander, "Explaining Cross-State Variation in Independent Identification",
3162:
Jacoby, William G. "The Impact of Party Identification on Issue Attitudes."
2497:
Why Parties?: The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America.
2413:
Why Parties?: The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America,
2270:
Why Parties?: The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America,
1423:
Beck and Jennings, "Parents As 'Middlepersons' in Political Socialization,"
202:
3739:
Wolfinger, Raymond E. "The Promising Adolescence of Campaign Surveys." In
3260:
Byron E. Shafer, ed. Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991.
2794:
Partisan Realignment: Voters, Parties, and Government in American History.
2176:
Partisan Realignment: Voters, Parties, and Government in American History,
3568:
Paperback ed. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2003.
3300:
Presidential Campaigns and Elections: Issues and Images in the Media Age.
2852:
2356:
Presidential Campaigns and Elections: Issues and Images in the Media Age,
1690:
July 1998; Franklin and Jackson, "The Dynamics of Party Identification,"
910:
517:
290:
115:
3580:
The Party's Just Begun: Shaping Political Parties for America's Future.
2843:
2409:
The Party's Just Begun: Shaping Political Parties for America's Future,
2266:
The Party's Just Begun: Shaping Political Parties for America's Future,
1610:
December 1984; Cassel, "A Test of Converse's Theory of Party Support,"
592:
3185:
Party Identification, Political Behavior, and the American Electorate.
2953:
Fiorina, Morris. "Parties and Partisanship: A 40-Year Retrospective."
2861:
1823:
Party Identification, Political Behavior, and the American Electorate,
1247:
March 1992; Converse and Pierce, "Partisanship and the Party System,"
516:; a voter who does not usually vote for the same political party from
3624:
Paperback ed. Stillwater, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006.
2478:
Paperback ed. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 2005.
2096:
Summer 1975; Pomper, "The Classification of Presidential Elections,"
847:—a dramatic shift in the electoral coalition supporting the existing
747:
622:
548:
493:
323:
3778:
3622:
Party Wars: Polarization and the Politics of National Policy Making.
2425:
Party Wars: Polarization And the Politics of National Policy Making,
2310:
Party Wars: Polarization and the Politics of National Policy Making,
851:—has been an important one in political theory. First enunciated by
3773:
1483:
Achen, "Parental Socialization and Rational Party Identification,"
3505:
Paperback ed. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1988.
3503:
Voters, Elections and Parties: The Practice of Democratic Theory.
2736:
Cassel, Carol A. "A Test of Converse's Theory of Party Support."
2314:
Voters, Elections and Parties: The Practice of Democratic Theory,
1834:
Jacoby, "The Impact of Party Identification on Issue Attitudes,"
3480:
Pomper, Gerald. "The Classification of Presidential Elections."
3128:
10th ed. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 2006.
3051:
Paperback ed. Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2003.
762:
523:
Many voting systems outside of the United States, including the
3356:
The Parties Respond: Changes in American Parties and Campaigns.
3333:
Lockerbie, Brad. "Party Identification: Constancy and Change."
2575:
Beck, Paul Allen. "Partisan Dealignment in the Postwar South."
2417:
The Parties Respond: Changes in American Parties and Campaigns,
2278:
The Parties Respond: Changes in American Parties and Campaigns,
2170:
Chubb and Peterson, "Realignment and Institutionalization," in
2117:
May 1959; Campbell, "The Revised Theory of Surge and Decline,"
1912:
Wolfinger, "The Promising Adolescence of Campaign Surveys," in
1369:"Massachusetts Directory of Political Parties and Designations"
1161:
Ladd and Hadley, "Party Definition and Party Differentiation,"
998:
Wolfinger, "The Promising Adolescence of Campaign Surveys," in
3666:
Rev. ed. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1983.
3531:
Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community.
3316:
Paperback ed. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2006.
2792:
Clubb, Jerome M.; Flanigan, William H.; and Zingale, Nancy H.
2698:
Campbell, James E. "The Revised Theory of Surge and Decline."
2436:
Fiorina, "Parties and Partisanship: A 40-Year Retrospective,"
2344:
Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community,
1517:
Giles and Hertz, "Racial Threat and Partisan Identification,"
520:
to election; or a voter who self-describes as an independent.
40:
3372:
Paperback ed. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2004.
3258:
The End of Realignment? Interpreting American Electoral Eras.
3013:
Paperback ed. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2004.
2201:
The End of Realignment? Interpreting American Electoral Eras,
1926:
Young, Sarah; Pitas, Costas; Piper, Elizabeth (20 May 2016).
738:
In the British parliamentary system, a similar concept of a "
56:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
2665:
Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics.
2066:
Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics,
2019:"Why hasn't Iran's president announced bid for re-election?"
1069:
Political Change in Britain: Forces Shaping Electoral Choice
3554:
Paperback ed. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000.
3218:
Key, Jr., V.O. "Secular Realignment and the Party System."
3722:
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1991.
3708:
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998.
3638:
Paperback ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
2978:
6th ed. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Publishers, 1988.
2499:
Paperback ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
1928:"Undecided voters may hold the UK's future in their hands"
3489:
Voter's Choice: Varieties of American Electoral Behavior.
3215:
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1966.
3086:
Rev. ed. Beverly Hills, Calif.: SAGE Publications, 1998.
3084:
Seducing America: How Television Charms the Modern Voter.
2667:
Paperback ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1971.
2474:
Abramson, Paul R.; Aldrich, John H.; and Rohde, David W.
2360:
Seducing America: How Television Charms the Modern Voter,
2102:
Voter's Choice: Varieties of American Electoral Behavior,
1752:
Lockerbie, "Party Identification: Constancy and Change,"
3491:
Rev ed. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1983.
3201:
Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1992.
3009:
Green, Donald; Palmquist, Bradley; and Schickler, Eric.
2644:
Parties and Elections in America: The Electoral Process.
2384:
Parties and Elections in America: The Electoral Process,
2306:
Parties and Elections in America: The Electoral Process,
1174:
Brody and Page, "Comment: Assessment of Policy Voting,"
1098:
Keith; Magleby; Nelson; Orr; Westlye; Wolfinger (1992).
3652:
6th ed. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1988.
539:, who do not consistently vote for a particular party.
65:
3706:
The Decline of American Political Parties, 1952-1996.
3037:
5th ed. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006.
2646:
4th ed. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004.
1224:
The Decline of American Political Parties, 1952-1996,
800:
780:
3533:
Paperback ed. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001.
3302:
2d ed. Itasca, Ill.: F.E. Peacock Publishers, 1995.
2962:
Retrospective Voting in American National Elections.
1705:
Retrospective Voting in American National Elections,
1180:
Retrospective Voting in American National Elections,
3119:
The Development of Political Attitudes in Children.
3072:Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000.
2821:Converse, Philip E.; Pierce, Roy (September 1992).
1868:Beck, "Partisan Dealignment in the Postwar South,"
1429:
The Development of Political Attitudes in Children,
3286:American Political Parties: Decline or Resurgence?
2184:American Political Parties: Decline or Resurgence?
1864:
1862:
1338:. Tampa Bay Times/Miami Herald Tallahassee Bureau.
3783:
3225:Key, Jr., V.O. "A Theory of Critical Elections."
2113:Key, "Secular Realignment and the Party System,"
1774:
1772:
1770:
3126:Parties, Politics, and Public Policy in America.
2810:Beverly Hills, Calif.: SAGE Publications, 1976.
2274:Parties, Politics, and Public Policy in America,
1997:"Iranian Candidates Vie for 'Party of the Wind'"
1531:
1529:
1527:
1463:
1461:
3676:Thurber, James A. and Nelson, Candice J., eds.
3140:Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media.
2964:New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1981.
2796:Rev. ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990.
2530:Backstrom, Charles H. and Hursh-César, Gerald.
2352:Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media,
1951:Marcel, Boogers; Voerman, Gerrit (2003-01-01).
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
843:For more than half a century, the concept of a
714:
3358:4th ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2002.
2976:Political Behavior of the American Electorate.
2166:
2164:
1373:Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts
984:Political Behavior of the American Electorate,
3680:2d ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2004.
2551:Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977.
2534:2nd ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1981.
1513:
1511:
1509:
643:which has attempted to analyze partisanship.
457:
54:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
3519:New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
3124:Hetherington, Marc J. and Keefe, William J.
2476:Change and Continuity in the 2004 Elections.
1897:Change and Continuity in the 2004 Elections,
1848:
1846:
1844:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1568:
1566:
1402:: Elections Division. March 2020. p. 60
1239:June 1985; Green, Palmquist, and Schickler,
1066:Butler, David; Stokes, Donald (1969-06-18).
3236:2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: AEI Press, 1990.
2974:Flanigan, William H. and Zingale, Nancy H.
2915:2d ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.
2523:Ambinder, Marc. "A Nation of Free Agents."
1899:2005; Ambinder, "A Nation of Free Agents",
1271:
1269:
994:
992:
864:increase, leading to political volatility.
3799:Political terminology of the United States
3107:12th ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2007.
2133:
2131:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1443:
1441:
1126:
1124:
1122:
612:enroll in a political party or designation
464:
450:
103:
27:Voter not aligned with any political party
2911:Eldersveld, Samuel J. and Walton, Hanes.
2887:New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
2851:
1804:
1802:
1735:
1733:
1144:
1142:
1140:
978:
976:
974:
972:
970:
531:, which received 12 million votes in the
92:Learn how and when to remove this message
3314:Key Concepts in Political Communication.
3187:Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985.
2747:Jack Dennis, ed. New York: Wiley. 1973.
2340:Key Concepts in Political Communication,
1495:
1493:
1479:
1477:
956:
954:
952:
950:
610:, a registered voter who chooses not to
583:There are several synonyms for the term
3741:Campaigns and Elections American Style.
3678:Campaigns and Elections American Style.
3648:Sorauf, Frank J. and Beck, Paul Allen.
2563:British Elections & Parties Review.
2372:Campaigns and Elections American Style,
2051:Key, "A Theory of Critical Elections,"
1914:Campaigns and Elections American Style,
1261:British Elections & Parties Review,
1049:Campbell, Converse, Miller and Stokes,
1000:Campaigns and Elections American Style,
946:
926:Independent Republican (disambiguation)
114:
3447:American Journal of Political Science.
3426:American Journal of Political Science.
3412:American Journal of Political Science.
3344:Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1999.
3178:American Journal of Political Science.
3164:American Journal of Political Science.
3147:American Journal of Political Science.
3117:Hess, Robert D. and Torney, Judith V.
3025:American Journal of Political Science.
2913:Political Parties in American Society.
2780:Canadian Journal of Political Science.
2773:American Journal of Political Science.
2731:American Journal of Political Science.
2700:American Journal of Political Science.
2623:American Journal of Political Science.
2511:American Journal of Political Science.
2462:American Journal of Political Science.
2286:Political Parties in American Society,
2119:American Journal of Political Science,
1953:"Surfing citizens and floating voters"
1836:American Journal of Political Science,
1810:American Journal of Political Science,
1794:American Journal of Political Science,
1741:American Journal of Political Science,
1604:American Journal of Political Science,
1600:American Journal of Political Science,
1469:American Journal of Political Science,
1351:"In Mass., there's even a Pizza Party"
1322:American Journal of Political Science,
1308:American Journal of Political Science,
1277:American Journal of Political Science,
1257:American Journal of Political Science,
1245:Canadian Journal of Political Science,
1210:American Journal of Political Science,
1093:
1091:
1089:
3047:Green, John C. and Herrnson, Paul S.
2904:DeVries, Walter and Tarrance, Lance.
2899:British Journal of Political Science.
2878:British Journal of Political Science.
2787:British Journal of Political Science.
2637:British Journal of Political Science.
2600:Berry, Jeffrey M. and Wilcox, Clyde.
2156:British Journal of Political Science,
1854:American Journal of Political Science
1762:British Journal of Political Science,
1725:British Journal of Political Science,
1150:British Journal of Political Science,
1012:
1010:
1008:
7:
3578:Sabato, Larry J. and Larson, Bruce.
3463:New York: Praeger Publishers, 2000.
2943:Rev. ed. New York: Macmillan, 1992.
2908:Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1972.
2759:New Directions in American Politics.
2745:Socialization to Politics: A Reader.
2172:New Directions in American Politics,
1995:Shabani, Mohammad Ali (2013-06-03).
1453:Socialization to Politics: A Reader,
1334:Steve Bousquet (November 20, 2015).
1061:
1059:
3389:McSweeney, Dean and Zvesper, John.
2823:"Partisanship and the party system"
2174:1985; Clubb, Flanigan and Zingale,
790:
770:
562:More recently, scholars focused on
36:Independence Party (disambiguation)
3615:American Political Science Review.
3601:American Political Science Review.
3454:American Political Science Review.
3440:American Political Science Review.
3419:American Political Science Review.
3405:American Political Science Review.
3234:The New American Political System.
3199:The Myth of the Independent Voter.
3171:American Political Science Review.
3004:American Political Science Review.
2997:American Political Science Review.
2990:American Political Science Review.
2714:American Political Science Review.
2630:American Political Science Review.
2577:American Political Science Review.
2469:American Political Science Review.
2364:The New American Political System,
2227:American Political Science Review,
2152:American Political Science Review,
2078:American Political Science Review,
2040:American Political Science Review,
1870:American Political Science Review,
1692:American Political Science Review,
1684:American Political Science Review,
1671:American Political Science Review,
1658:American Political Science Review,
1638:American Political Science Review,
1608:American Political Science Review,
1550:American Political Science Review,
1519:American Political Science Review,
1184:American Political Science Review,
1176:American Political Science Review,
529:Social Democratic Party of Germany
32:Independent Party (disambiguation)
25:
3582:2nd ed. New York: Longman, 2001.
2604:4th ed. New York: Longman, 2006.
1349:Rhodes, George (August 6, 2015).
1100:The Myth of the Independent Voter
805:), which can be rapidly excited.
3342:Essentials of American Politics.
2396:Essentials of American Politics,
2017:Faghihi, Rohollah (2017-01-18).
1427:February 1975; Hess and Torney,
1387:"Vote by Mail Procedures Manual"
765:, known as "Party of the Wind" (
746:votes, such as in the vote for "
433:
122:
45:
2681:New York: Wiley and Sons, 1960.
761:There is a large swing vote in
2955:Journal of Political Behavior.
2808:The Dynamics of Party Support.
2490:Journal of Political Behavior.
2438:Journal of Political Behavior,
2272:1995; Hetherington and Keefe,
1587:The Dynamics of Party Support,
1485:Journal of Political Behavior,
691:Increase of independent voters
1:
3769:Independent Voters of America
3248:American Sociological Review.
2292:2000; McSweeney and Zvesper,
2284:2007; Eldersveld and Walton,
1895:Abramson, Aldrich and Rohde,
1501:American Sociological Review,
3636:Party Influence in Congress.
3272:Political Science Quarterly.
2388:Party Influence in Congress,
2282:Party Influence in Congress,
2180:Political Science Quarterly,
573:multi-party political system
533:2021 German federal election
525:British parliamentary system
3608:American Politics Research.
3393:New York: Routledge, 1991.
3391:American Political Parties.
3335:American Politics Research.
3328:American Politics Research.
3213:The Responsible Electorate.
2616:Journal Political Behavior.
2602:The Interest Group Society.
2518:American Politics Research.
2380:The Interest Group Society,
2294:American Political Parties,
2253:American Politics Research,
1758:American Politics Research,
1754:American Politics Research,
1616:Journal Political Behavior,
1253:American Politics Research,
1195:Backstrom and Hursh-César,
1018:The Responsible Electorate,
887:political action committees
801:
781:
296:Right to stand for election
68:, discuss the issue on the
3820:
3650:Party Politics in America.
3105:Party Politics in America.
3011:Partisan Hearts and Minds.
2885:Parties Without Partisans.
2419:2002; Green and Herrnson,
2370:1992; Thurber and Nelson,
2327:Parties Without Partisans,
2300:2006; Green and Herrnson,
1241:Partisan Hearts and Minds,
1132:Party Politics in America,
962:Party Politics in America,
29:
3784:Independent Voter Network
3384:Public Opinion Quarterly.
3354:Maisel, Louis Sandy, ed.
3279:Public Opinion Quarterly.
2686:Public Opinion Quarterly.
2658:Social Science Quarterly.
2139:Social Science Quarterly,
1537:Public Opinion Quarterly,
1295:Public Opinion Quarterly,
1163:Public Opinion Quarterly,
931:Radical center (politics)
885:media for communication,
3552:The Life of the Parties.
2378:2000; Berry and Wilcox,
2296:1991; Green and Coffey,
2290:The Life of the Parties,
30:Not to be confused with
3370:Electoral Realignments.
2693:Social Science History.
2549:Social Learning Theory.
2354:December 2005; Levine,
2197:Electoral Realignments,
2123:Social Science History,
1449:Social Learning Theory,
480:, often also called an
3779:Independent Voting.Org
3718:Wattenberg, Martin P.
3704:Wattenberg, Martin P.
3597:Valentino, Nicholas A.
3475:Political Methodology.
3183:Kamieniecki, Sheldon.
3121:Chicago: Aldine, 1967.
3033:and Coffey, Daniel J.
2663:Burnham, Walter Dean.
2088:August 1998; Paulson,
1114:Political Methodology,
1029:DeVries and Tarrance,
982:Flanigan and Zingale,
916:Independent politician
829:vote a straight ticket
718:
362:Next general elections
3157:Political Psychology.
3063:Political Psychology.
2582:Beck, Paul Allen and
2100:August 1967; Pomper,
1558:Political Psychology,
1554:Political Psychology,
876:Impact of dealignment
656:socio-economic status
621:In the U.S. state of
606:In the U.S. state of
591:In the U.S. state of
246:Boundary delimitation
3774:IndependentVoice.org
3734:Political Geography.
3662:Sundquist, James L.
3550:Reichley, A. James.
3545:Journal of Politics.
3482:Journal of Politics.
3227:Journal of Politics.
3220:Journal of Politics.
2934:Journal of Politics.
2927:Journal of Politics.
2906:The Ticket Splitter.
2806:Converse, Philip E.
2738:Journal of Politics.
2707:Journal of Politics.
2595:Journal of Politics.
2588:Journal of Politics.
2455:Journal of Politics.
2240:Political Geography,
2214:Journal of Politics,
2115:Journal of Politics,
2098:Journal of Politics,
2086:Journal of Politics,
2053:Journal of Politics,
1903:, September 3, 2006.
1885:. 20 September 2007.
1780:Journal of Politics,
1612:Journal of Politics,
1574:Journal of Politics,
1433:Journal of Politics,
1425:Journal of Politics,
1237:Journal of Politics,
1178:June 1972; Fiorina,
1031:The Ticket Splitter,
921:Independent Democrat
858:political scientists
839:Realigning elections
696:In the United States
627:non-affiliated voter
597:no party affiliation
486:non-affiliated voter
347:Elections by country
74:create a new article
66:improve this article
3755:Political Behavior.
3699:Political Behavior.
3620:Sinclair, Barbara.
3564:Rosenof, Theodore.
3254:Ladd, Everett Carll
3103:Hershey, Marjorie.
2960:Fiorina, Morris P.
2941:Divided Government.
2724:Layman, Geoffrey C.
2679:The American Voter.
2407:Sabato and Larson,
2368:Divided Government,
2264:Sabato and Larson,
1974:van Kessel, Stijn.
1883:"Party Affiliation"
1688:Political Behavior,
1620:Political Behavior,
1249:Political Behavior,
1051:The American Voter,
891:Imperial Presidency
845:realigning election
785:), or "grey vote" (
564:self-identification
440:Politics portal
18:Unaffiliated voters
3433:Electoral Studies.
3312:Lilleker, Darren.
3098:Electoral Studies.
3082:Hart, Roderick P.
3068:Hart, Roderick P.
2844:10.1007/BF00991980
2831:Political Behavior
2527:September 3, 2006.
2390:2007; Wattenberg,
2082:Electoral Studies,
1957:Information Polity
1291:Electoral Studies,
866:Divided government
638:Partisan influence
506:political ideology
500:themselves with a
482:unaffiliated voter
3658:978-0-673-39750-8
3634:Smith, Steven S.
3459:Paulson, Arthur.
3368:Mayhew, David R.
3207:978-0-520-07720-1
2939:Fiorina, Morris.
2720:Carsey, Thomas M.
2642:Buckley, Kara Z.
2584:Jennings, M. Kent
2571:978-0-7146-5015-9
2495:Aldrich, John H.
2068:1971; Sundquist,
1916:1995, p. 184-185.
960:Sorauf and Beck,
799:
779:
585:independent voter
478:independent voter
474:
473:
392:Election security
375:elections in 2024
329:Electoral systems
256:Electoral college
226:Anonymous elector
102:
101:
94:
76:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
3811:
3529:Putnam, Robert.
3501:Pomper, Gerald.
3487:Pomper, Gerald.
2873:
2855:
2827:
2532:Survey Research.
2525:Washington Post.
2441:
2434:
2428:
2423:2003; Sinclair,
2405:
2399:
2336:
2330:
2323:
2317:
2308:2004; Sinclair,
2288:2000; Reichley,
2262:
2256:
2249:
2243:
2236:
2230:
2223:
2217:
2210:
2204:
2193:
2187:
2168:
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2135:
2126:
2111:
2105:
2062:
2056:
2049:
2043:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2014:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2004:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1983:
1982:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1938:
1923:
1917:
1910:
1904:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1879:
1873:
1866:
1857:
1850:
1839:
1832:
1826:
1819:
1813:
1806:
1797:
1789:
1783:
1776:
1765:
1750:
1744:
1737:
1728:
1721:
1708:
1701:
1695:
1680:
1674:
1667:
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1654:
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1634:
1623:
1596:
1590:
1583:
1577:
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1561:
1546:
1540:
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1522:
1515:
1504:
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1472:
1465:
1456:
1445:
1436:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1409:
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1391:
1383:
1377:
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1365:
1359:
1358:
1346:
1340:
1339:
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1325:
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1311:
1304:
1298:
1286:
1280:
1273:
1264:
1233:
1227:
1219:
1213:
1206:
1200:
1197:Survey Research,
1193:
1187:
1172:
1166:
1159:
1153:
1146:
1135:
1128:
1117:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1095:
1084:
1083:
1063:
1054:
1047:
1034:
1027:
1021:
1014:
1003:
996:
987:
980:
965:
958:
849:political system
824:ticket-splitting
816:ticket-splitting
804:
794:
792:
784:
774:
772:
672:Great Depression
648:child psychology
557:ticket splitters
466:
459:
452:
438:
437:
417:Election science
412:Electoral reform
266:Election silence
251:Crossover voting
208:Two-round system
126:
104:
97:
90:
86:
83:
77:
49:
48:
41:
21:
3819:
3818:
3814:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3809:
3808:
3789:
3788:
3765:
3760:
3593:Sears, David O.
3515:Prior, Markus.
3442:September 1982.
3340:Mackay, David.
3298:Levine, Myron.
3232:King, Anthony.
2825:
2820:
2660:September 2006.
2545:Bandura, Albert
2449:
2444:
2435:
2431:
2411:2001; Aldrich,
2406:
2402:
2382:2006; Buckley,
2366:1990; Fiorina,
2337:
2333:
2324:
2320:
2304:2003; Buckley,
2268:2001; Aldrich,
2263:
2259:
2250:
2246:
2237:
2233:
2224:
2220:
2211:
2207:
2194:
2190:
2169:
2162:
2149:
2145:
2141:September 2006.
2136:
2129:
2112:
2108:
2072:1983; Rosenof,
2063:
2059:
2050:
2046:
2037:
2033:
2024:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2011:
2002:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1980:
1978:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1936:
1934:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1911:
1907:
1901:Washington Post
1894:
1890:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1867:
1860:
1851:
1842:
1833:
1829:
1820:
1816:
1807:
1800:
1790:
1786:
1777:
1768:
1751:
1747:
1738:
1731:
1722:
1711:
1702:
1698:
1681:
1677:
1668:
1664:
1660:September 1982.
1655:
1644:
1635:
1626:
1597:
1593:
1584:
1580:
1571:
1564:
1547:
1543:
1534:
1525:
1516:
1507:
1498:
1491:
1482:
1475:
1466:
1459:
1446:
1439:
1422:
1418:
1405:
1403:
1389:
1385:
1384:
1380:
1367:
1366:
1362:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1333:
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1328:
1318:
1314:
1305:
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1287:
1283:
1274:
1267:
1234:
1230:
1220:
1216:
1207:
1203:
1194:
1190:
1173:
1169:
1160:
1156:
1147:
1138:
1129:
1120:
1111:
1107:
1097:
1096:
1087:
1080:
1065:
1064:
1057:
1048:
1037:
1028:
1024:
1015:
1006:
997:
990:
981:
968:
959:
948:
944:
907:
878:
841:
811:
802:Ra'ye Ḵākestarí
759:
736:
727:
698:
693:
652:social learning
640:
581:
545:
514:political party
502:political party
470:
432:
427:
426:
422:Paper candidate
397:Electoral fraud
387:
379:
378:
352:Close elections
342:
334:
333:
319:Political party
309:
301:
300:
221:
213:
212:
134:
109:Politics series
98:
87:
81:
78:
63:
50:
46:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3817:
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3807:
3806:
3801:
3791:
3790:
3787:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3764:
3763:External links
3761:
3759:
3758:
3757:December 2000.
3751:
3737:
3736:November 1995.
3730:
3716:
3702:
3695:
3688:
3674:
3660:
3646:
3632:
3618:
3617:December 1979.
3611:
3604:
3590:
3576:
3562:
3548:
3547:November 2002.
3541:
3527:
3513:
3499:
3485:
3478:
3471:
3457:
3456:December 1979.
3450:
3443:
3436:
3429:
3428:November 1991.
3422:
3415:
3414:February 1983.
3408:
3401:
3387:
3380:
3366:
3352:
3338:
3337:December 2002.
3331:
3324:
3310:
3296:
3282:
3275:
3268:
3251:
3244:
3230:
3229:February 1955.
3223:
3216:
3211:Key Jr., V.O.
3209:
3195:
3181:
3174:
3173:December 1984.
3167:
3160:
3150:
3143:
3142:December 2005.
3136:
3122:
3115:
3101:
3094:
3080:
3070:Campaign Talk.
3066:
3059:
3045:
3031:Green, John C.
3028:
3021:
3007:
3000:
2993:
2992:December 1983.
2986:
2972:
2958:
2951:
2937:
2930:
2923:
2909:
2902:
2895:
2881:
2874:
2838:(3): 239–259.
2818:
2804:
2790:
2783:
2776:
2769:
2755:
2741:
2734:
2717:
2710:
2703:
2702:November 1987.
2696:
2689:
2682:
2675:
2661:
2654:
2640:
2633:
2626:
2619:
2618:December 1987.
2612:
2598:
2597:February 1975.
2591:
2580:
2573:
2559:
2542:
2528:
2521:
2514:
2513:November 1988.
2507:
2493:
2486:
2472:
2465:
2464:February 1979.
2458:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2429:
2415:1995; Maisel,
2400:
2394:1991; Mackay,
2376:Campaign Talk,
2342:2006; Putnam,
2331:
2318:
2312:2006; Pomper,
2276:2006; Maisel,
2257:
2244:
2242:November 1995.
2231:
2218:
2216:November 2002.
2205:
2188:
2160:
2143:
2127:
2106:
2057:
2055:February 1955.
2044:
2031:
2009:
1987:
1966:
1943:
1918:
1905:
1888:
1874:
1858:
1840:
1827:
1814:
1798:
1796:February 1983.
1784:
1766:
1745:
1743:November 1988.
1729:
1709:
1696:
1694:December 1983.
1675:
1662:
1642:
1640:December 1979.
1624:
1622:December 2000.
1591:
1578:
1562:
1541:
1523:
1505:
1489:
1473:
1471:November 1991.
1457:
1437:
1416:
1395:sos.oregon.gov
1378:
1360:
1341:
1326:
1312:
1299:
1281:
1265:
1228:
1214:
1212:February 1983.
1201:
1188:
1186:December 1979.
1167:
1154:
1136:
1118:
1105:
1085:
1078:
1055:
1035:
1022:
1004:
988:
966:
945:
943:
940:
939:
938:
933:
928:
923:
918:
913:
906:
903:
877:
874:
853:V. O. Key, Jr.
840:
837:
810:
807:
758:
755:
740:floating voter
735:
732:
726:
723:
697:
694:
692:
689:
639:
636:
635:
634:
619:
604:
580:
577:
544:
541:
498:does not align
472:
471:
469:
468:
461:
454:
446:
443:
442:
429:
428:
425:
424:
419:
414:
409:
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314:Administration
310:
307:
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271:Gerrymandering
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60:of the subject
58:worldwide view
53:
51:
44:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3816:
3805:
3804:Voting theory
3802:
3800:
3797:
3796:
3794:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3766:
3762:
3756:
3752:
3750:
3749:0-8133-1966-8
3746:
3742:
3738:
3735:
3731:
3729:
3728:0-674-77130-3
3725:
3721:
3717:
3715:
3714:0-674-19435-7
3711:
3707:
3703:
3700:
3696:
3693:
3689:
3687:
3686:0-8133-4181-7
3683:
3679:
3675:
3673:
3672:0-8157-8225-X
3669:
3665:
3661:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3645:
3644:0-521-70387-5
3641:
3637:
3633:
3631:
3630:0-8061-3779-7
3627:
3623:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3605:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3588:0-321-08912-X
3585:
3581:
3577:
3575:
3574:0-7425-3105-8
3571:
3567:
3563:
3561:
3560:0-7425-0888-9
3557:
3553:
3549:
3546:
3542:
3540:
3539:0-7432-0304-6
3536:
3532:
3528:
3526:
3525:0-521-85872-0
3522:
3518:
3514:
3512:
3511:1-56000-561-0
3508:
3504:
3500:
3498:
3497:0-8191-3188-1
3494:
3490:
3486:
3483:
3479:
3476:
3472:
3470:
3469:0-275-96865-0
3466:
3462:
3458:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3444:
3441:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3427:
3423:
3420:
3416:
3413:
3409:
3406:
3402:
3400:
3399:0-415-01169-8
3396:
3392:
3388:
3385:
3381:
3379:
3378:0-300-09365-9
3375:
3371:
3367:
3365:
3364:0-8133-6455-8
3361:
3357:
3353:
3351:
3350:0-8133-6755-7
3347:
3343:
3339:
3336:
3332:
3329:
3325:
3323:
3322:1-4129-1831-6
3319:
3315:
3311:
3309:
3308:0-87581-394-1
3305:
3301:
3297:
3295:
3294:1-56802-585-8
3291:
3287:
3283:
3280:
3276:
3273:
3269:
3267:
3266:0-299-12974-8
3263:
3259:
3255:
3252:
3250:October 1974.
3249:
3245:
3243:
3242:0-8447-3710-0
3239:
3235:
3231:
3228:
3224:
3221:
3217:
3214:
3210:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3194:
3193:0-313-24358-1
3190:
3186:
3182:
3179:
3175:
3172:
3168:
3165:
3161:
3158:
3154:
3153:Huddy, Leonie
3151:
3148:
3144:
3141:
3137:
3135:
3134:1-933116-79-X
3131:
3127:
3123:
3120:
3116:
3114:
3113:0-321-41491-8
3110:
3106:
3102:
3099:
3095:
3093:
3092:0-7619-1624-5
3089:
3085:
3081:
3079:
3078:0-691-00126-X
3075:
3071:
3067:
3064:
3060:
3058:
3057:0-7006-1217-3
3054:
3050:
3046:
3044:
3043:0-7425-5322-1
3040:
3036:
3032:
3029:
3026:
3022:
3020:
3019:0-300-10156-2
3016:
3012:
3008:
3005:
3001:
2998:
2994:
2991:
2987:
2985:
2984:0-697-06796-3
2981:
2977:
2973:
2971:
2970:0-300-02557-2
2967:
2963:
2959:
2956:
2952:
2950:
2949:0-02-337760-7
2946:
2942:
2938:
2935:
2931:
2928:
2924:
2922:
2921:0-312-22688-8
2918:
2914:
2910:
2907:
2903:
2901:January 1988.
2900:
2896:
2894:
2893:0-19-924082-5
2890:
2886:
2882:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2854:
2853:2027.42/45485
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2832:
2824:
2819:
2817:
2816:0-8039-0727-3
2813:
2809:
2805:
2803:
2802:0-8133-1031-8
2799:
2795:
2791:
2789:January 1994.
2788:
2784:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2770:
2768:
2767:0-8157-1405-X
2764:
2760:
2756:
2754:
2753:0-471-20926-0
2750:
2746:
2742:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2721:
2718:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2704:
2701:
2697:
2694:
2690:
2687:
2683:
2680:
2676:
2674:
2673:0-393-09397-2
2670:
2666:
2662:
2659:
2655:
2653:
2652:0-7425-2670-4
2649:
2645:
2641:
2639:October 1988.
2638:
2634:
2631:
2627:
2624:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2611:
2610:0-321-43015-8
2607:
2603:
2599:
2596:
2592:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2578:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2558:
2557:0-13-816744-3
2554:
2550:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2540:0-471-02543-7
2537:
2533:
2529:
2526:
2522:
2520:October 1990.
2519:
2515:
2512:
2508:
2506:
2505:0-226-01272-7
2502:
2498:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2485:
2484:1-933116-69-2
2481:
2477:
2473:
2470:
2466:
2463:
2459:
2456:
2452:
2451:
2446:
2439:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2404:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2386:2004; Smith,
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2346:2001; Prior,
2345:
2341:
2335:
2332:
2328:
2322:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2280:2002; Smith,
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2248:
2245:
2241:
2235:
2232:
2228:
2222:
2219:
2215:
2209:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2192:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2058:
2054:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2020:
2013:
2010:
1998:
1991:
1988:
1977:
1970:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1947:
1944:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1889:
1884:
1878:
1875:
1871:
1865:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1831:
1828:
1824:
1821:Kamieniecki,
1818:
1815:
1811:
1805:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1764:October 1988.
1763:
1759:
1755:
1749:
1746:
1742:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1727:January 1994.
1726:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1679:
1676:
1672:
1666:
1663:
1659:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1595:
1592:
1588:
1582:
1579:
1575:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1506:
1503:October 1974.
1502:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1464:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1417:
1413:
1401:
1397:
1396:
1388:
1382:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1364:
1361:
1356:
1355:Sun Chronicle
1352:
1345:
1342:
1337:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1205:
1202:
1198:
1192:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1158:
1155:
1152:January 1988.
1151:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1109:
1106:
1101:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1079:9781349001408
1075:
1071:
1070:
1062:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1001:
995:
993:
989:
985:
979:
977:
975:
973:
971:
967:
963:
957:
955:
953:
951:
947:
941:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
924:
922:
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
908:
904:
902:
898:
894:
892:
888:
882:
875:
873:
869:
867:
861:
859:
854:
850:
846:
838:
836:
832:
830:
825:
820:
817:
808:
806:
803:
797:
788:
783:
777:
768:
764:
756:
754:
751:
749:
745:
741:
733:
731:
724:
722:
717:
713:
709:
706:
704:
695:
690:
688:
684:
680:
676:
673:
669:
663:
659:
657:
653:
649:
644:
637:
632:
628:
624:
620:
617:
613:
609:
608:Massachusetts
605:
602:
598:
594:
590:
589:
588:
586:
578:
576:
574:
568:
565:
560:
558:
553:
550:
542:
540:
538:
534:
530:
526:
521:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
490:United States
487:
483:
479:
467:
462:
460:
455:
453:
448:
447:
445:
444:
441:
436:
431:
430:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
407:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
389:
383:
382:
374:
370:
367:
366:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
344:
338:
337:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
311:
305:
304:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
286:Secret ballot
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
231:Apportionment
229:
227:
224:
223:
217:
216:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
136:
130:
129:
125:
121:
120:
117:
113:
110:
106:
105:
96:
93:
85:
82:November 2020
75:
71:
67:
61:
59:
52:
43:
42:
37:
33:
19:
3754:
3740:
3733:
3719:
3705:
3698:
3694:Summer 1975.
3691:
3677:
3663:
3649:
3635:
3621:
3614:
3607:
3600:
3579:
3565:
3551:
3544:
3530:
3516:
3502:
3488:
3484:August 1967.
3481:
3477:Summer 1974.
3474:
3460:
3453:
3446:
3439:
3432:
3425:
3418:
3411:
3404:
3390:
3386:Summer 1995.
3383:
3369:
3355:
3341:
3334:
3327:
3313:
3299:
3285:
3281:Spring 1973.
3278:
3274:Spring 1995.
3271:
3257:
3247:
3233:
3226:
3219:
3212:
3198:
3184:
3177:
3170:
3166:August 1988.
3163:
3156:
3146:
3139:
3125:
3118:
3104:
3097:
3083:
3069:
3062:
3048:
3034:
3027:August 1988.
3024:
3010:
3003:
2996:
2989:
2975:
2961:
2954:
2940:
2933:
2926:
2912:
2905:
2898:
2884:
2877:
2835:
2829:
2807:
2793:
2786:
2779:
2772:
2758:
2744:
2740:August 1993.
2737:
2730:
2713:
2706:
2699:
2692:
2688:Summer 2002.
2685:
2678:
2664:
2657:
2643:
2636:
2629:
2622:
2615:
2601:
2594:
2590:August 1991.
2587:
2576:
2562:
2548:
2531:
2524:
2517:
2510:
2496:
2489:
2475:
2468:
2461:
2457:August 1998.
2454:
2437:
2432:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2403:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2374:2004; Hart,
2371:
2367:
2363:
2362:1998; King,
2359:
2358:1995; Hart,
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2334:
2326:
2321:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2260:
2252:
2247:
2239:
2234:
2226:
2221:
2213:
2208:
2200:
2196:
2191:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2138:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2052:
2047:
2039:
2034:
2023:. Retrieved
2021:. Al-Monitor
2012:
2001:. Retrieved
1999:. Al-Monitor
1990:
1979:. Retrieved
1969:
1960:
1956:
1946:
1935:. Retrieved
1931:
1921:
1913:
1908:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1877:
1869:
1853:
1838:August 1988.
1835:
1830:
1822:
1817:
1809:
1793:
1787:
1779:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1740:
1724:
1704:
1699:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1670:
1665:
1657:
1637:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1586:
1581:
1573:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1539:Summer 2002.
1536:
1518:
1500:
1484:
1468:
1452:
1448:
1435:August 1991.
1432:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1411:
1404:. Retrieved
1393:
1381:
1363:
1354:
1344:
1329:
1321:
1315:
1310:August 1988.
1307:
1302:
1297:Summer 1995.
1294:
1290:
1284:
1276:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1223:
1217:
1209:
1204:
1196:
1191:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1165:Spring 1973.
1162:
1157:
1149:
1131:
1116:Summer 1974.
1113:
1108:
1099:
1072:. Springer.
1068:
1050:
1030:
1025:
1017:
999:
983:
961:
899:
895:
883:
879:
870:
862:
842:
833:
821:
812:
760:
752:
737:
728:
719:
715:
710:
707:
699:
685:
681:
677:
664:
660:
645:
641:
630:
626:
615:
600:
596:
584:
582:
569:
561:
554:
546:
522:
510:partisanship
485:
481:
477:
475:
261:Election law
188:Proportional
107:Part of the
88:
79:
55:
3610:March 1999.
3603:March 1997.
3421:March 1995.
3159:March 2001.
3006:March 1969.
2880:April 2001.
2782:March 1992.
2733:April 2006.
2716:March 1981.
2255:March 1999.
2229:March 1981.
2158:April 2001.
1856:, May 1989.
1812:April 2006.
1406:October 17,
791:رأی خاکستری
579:Terminology
537:swing votes
357:Most recent
241:Competition
220:Terminology
139:By-election
133:Basic types
3793:Categories
3701:July 1998.
3435:June 2007.
3407:June 1991.
3330:July 1989.
3149:July 1999.
3100:June 1992.
3065:June 1999.
2999:June 1994.
2957:June 2002.
2936:June 1985.
2695:Fall 2006.
2632:June 1972.
2579:June 1977.
2492:June 2002.
2471:June 1976.
2447:References
2440:June 2002.
2338:Lilleker,
2125:Fall 2006.
2042:June 1991.
2025:2017-03-07
2003:2017-03-07
1981:2016-01-07
1937:2017-01-07
1872:June 1977.
1673:June 1976.
1585:Converse,
1560:June 1999.
1521:June 1994.
1487:June 2002.
1324:July 1999.
936:Swing vote
782:Ḥezb-e Bād
744:referendum
703:Deep South
616:unenrolled
614:is termed
543:Definition
406:by country
402:Referendum
281:Psephology
276:Initiative
158:Fixed-term
3449:May 1989.
3222:May 1959.
3180:May 1992.
2929:May 1991.
2709:May 1987.
2625:May 1978.
2064:Burnham,
1782:May 1987.
1703:Fiorina,
1576:May 1991.
1447:Bandura,
1400:Salem, OR
1279:May 1992.
1130:Hershey,
796:romanized
776:romanized
734:In Europe
668:Civil War
308:Subseries
203:Sortition
178:Plurality
144:Corporate
116:Elections
70:talk page
2870:53341805
2195:Mayhew,
911:Centrism
905:See also
518:election
369:National
291:Suffrage
173:Mid-term
153:Indirect
64:You may
3692:Polity.
2186:, 2001.
2094:Polity,
1932:Reuters
798::
787:Persian
778::
771:حزب باد
767:Persian
757:In Iran
725:Reasons
593:Florida
492:, is a
488:in the
386:Related
183:Primary
163:General
3747:
3726:
3712:
3684:
3670:
3656:
3642:
3628:
3586:
3572:
3558:
3537:
3523:
3509:
3495:
3467:
3397:
3376:
3362:
3348:
3320:
3306:
3292:
3264:
3240:
3205:
3191:
3132:
3111:
3090:
3076:
3055:
3041:
3017:
2982:
2968:
2947:
2919:
2891:
2868:
2862:586229
2860:
2814:
2800:
2765:
2751:
2671:
2650:
2608:
2569:
2555:
2538:
2503:
2482:
1963:(1–2).
1076:
809:Impact
748:Brexit
670:, the
623:Oregon
549:voting
324:Voting
236:Audits
193:Recall
149:Direct
2866:S2CID
2858:JSTOR
2826:(PDF)
2775:1981.
2427:2006.
2398:1999.
2329:2001.
2316:1988.
2203:1991.
2104:1983.
1825:1985.
1707:1981.
1589:1976.
1455:1973.
1390:(PDF)
1263:1999.
1226:1998.
1199:1981.
1134:2007.
1053:1960.
1033:1972.
1020:1966.
1016:Key,
1002:1995.
986:1988.
964:1988.
942:Notes
494:voter
373:local
341:Lists
168:Local
72:, or
3745:ISBN
3724:ISBN
3710:ISBN
3682:ISBN
3668:ISBN
3654:ISBN
3640:ISBN
3626:ISBN
3595:and
3584:ISBN
3570:ISBN
3556:ISBN
3535:ISBN
3521:ISBN
3507:ISBN
3493:ISBN
3465:ISBN
3395:ISBN
3374:ISBN
3360:ISBN
3346:ISBN
3318:ISBN
3304:ISBN
3290:ISBN
3262:ISBN
3238:ISBN
3203:ISBN
3189:ISBN
3130:ISBN
3109:ISBN
3088:ISBN
3074:ISBN
3053:ISBN
3039:ISBN
3015:ISBN
2980:ISBN
2966:ISBN
2945:ISBN
2917:ISBN
2889:ISBN
2812:ISBN
2798:ISBN
2763:ISBN
2749:ISBN
2722:and
2669:ISBN
2648:ISBN
2606:ISBN
2567:ISBN
2553:ISBN
2536:ISBN
2501:ISBN
2480:ISBN
1408:2021
1074:ISBN
763:Iran
650:and
496:who
371:and
198:Snap
2848:hdl
2840:doi
2729:."
750:".
631:NAV
601:NPA
508:or
484:or
476:An
34:or
3795::
2864:.
2856:.
2846:.
2836:14
2834:.
2828:.
2547:.
2163:^
2130:^
1959:.
1955:.
1930:.
1861:^
1843:^
1801:^
1769:^
1732:^
1712:^
1645:^
1627:^
1565:^
1526:^
1508:^
1492:^
1476:^
1460:^
1440:^
1410:.
1398:.
1392:.
1371:.
1353:.
1268:^
1139:^
1121:^
1088:^
1058:^
1038:^
1007:^
991:^
969:^
949:^
793:,
789::
773:,
769::
633:).
603:).
587::
151:/
2872:.
2850::
2842::
2028:.
2006:.
1984:.
1961:8
1940:.
1375:.
1357:.
1102:.
1082:.
629:(
618:.
599:(
465:e
458:t
451:v
408:)
404:(
95:)
89:(
84:)
80:(
62:.
38:.
20:)
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