1472:
2168:
483:
2194:
2182:
31:
1800:
112:
on leaf surfaces to control gas interchange. In many species, these structures can be controlled to be open or closed depending on environmental conditions. In conditions of high light intensity and relatively high carbonate ion concentrations, oxygen may be produced in sufficient quantities to form
107:
Although higher plants typically use carbon dioxide and excrete oxygen during photosynthesis, they also respire and, particularly during darkness, many plants excrete carbon dioxide and require oxygen to maintain normal functions. In fully submerged aquatic higher plants specialised structures such
614:
centers of the brain connect to respiratory centers in anticipation of movements, or that the major part of the respiratory changes result from the detection of muscle contraction, and that respiration is adapted as a consequence of muscular contraction and oxygen consumption. The latter view would
610:. The mechanisms by which these changes occur have been subject to debate . The views can be classified as either that the major part of the respiratory changes are pre-programmed in the brain, which would imply that neurons from
561:
through the gill. Countercurrent flow occurs when deoxygenated blood moves through the gill in one direction while oxygenated water moves through the gill in the opposite direction. This mechanism maintains the
1631:
598:
between aquatic and terrestrial species. In both aquatic and terrestrial respiration, the exact mechanisms by which neurons can generate this involuntary rhythm are still not completely understood (see
2123:
79:
In very small animals, plants and bacteria, simple diffusion of gaseous metabolites is sufficient for respiratory function and no special adaptations are found to aid respiration. Passive diffusion or
438:
and pelagic seabirds breath air using lungs like reptiles and mammals, but avian lungs are fairly rigid structures that do not expand and contract as elastically. Instead, the structures that act as
277:, the portion of the skeleton where the cartilage of the cranium converges into the cartilage of the pharynx and its associated parts. Gills are tissues which consist of threadlike structures called
301:. The muscles on the sides of the pharynx push the oxygen-depleted water out the gill openings. In bony fish, the pumping of oxygen-poor water is aided by a bone that surrounds the gills called the
1095:
Waldrop, Tony G.; Gary A. Iwamoto; Philippe Haouzi (10 November 2005). "Point:Counterpoint: Supraspinal locomotor centers do/do not contribute significantly to the hyperpnea of dynamic exercise".
830:
Kimmel, Charles B.; Aguirre, Windsor E.; Ullmann, Bonnie; Currey, Mark; Cresko, William A. (2008). "Allometric Change
Accompanies Opercular Shape Evolution in Alaskan Threespine Sticklebacks".
590:. The position of these neurons is slightly different from the centers of respiratory genesis in mammals but they are located in the same brain compartment, which has caused debates about the
618:
Many now agree that both mechanisms are probably present and complementary, or working alongside a mechanism that can detect changes in oxygen and/or carbon dioxide blood saturation.
546:. In fish, the long bony cover for the gill (the operculum) can be used for pushing water. Some fish pump water using the operculum. Without an operculum, other methods, such as ram
181:
commonly possess gills that allow exchange of respiratory gases from an aqueous environment into the circulatory system. These animals possess a heart that pumps blood which contains
297:
exists near the top of the head that pumps water into the gills when the animal is not in motion. In some fish, capillary blood flows in the opposite direction to the water, causing
1626:
554:
use this system. When they swim, water flows into the mouth and across the gills. Because these sharks rely on this technique, they must keep swimming in order to respire.
385:
and has to routinely return to the surface to breathe in new air. Therefore, all amniote animals, even those that spend more time in water than out, are susceptible to
281:. These filaments have many functions and are involved in ion and water transfer as well as oxygen, carbon dioxide, acid and ammonia exchange. Each filament contains a
1471:
1656:
458:
happens. Although bird lungs are smaller than those of mammals of comparable size, the air sacs account for 15% of the total body volume, whereas in mammals, the
816:
289:
for the exchange of gases and ions. Fish exchange gases by pulling oxygen-rich water through their mouths and pumping it over their gills. In species like the
1148:
1496:
606:
The respiratory rhythm is modulated to adapt to the oxygen consumption of the body. As observed in mammals, fish “breathe” faster and heavier when they do
462:(which act as the bellows) constitute only 7% of the total body volume. Like their reptilian cousins, birds also lack a diaphragm and thus rely on the
570:. Cartilaginous fish do not have a countercurrent flow system as they lack bones which are needed to have the opened out gill that bony fish have.
1646:
470:
to change the volume of the entire thoracoabdominal cavity. The active phase of respiration in birds is exhalation, which requires contracting of
219:. A number of insects have an aquatic juvenile phase and an adult phase on land. In these case adaptions for life in water are lost at the final
1036:
1003:
975:
948:
615:
imply that the brain possesses some kind of detection mechanisms that would trigger a respiratory response when muscular contraction occurs.
493:
Many aquatic animals have developed gills for respiration which are specifically adapted to their function. In fish, for example, they have:
1661:
164:, a sieve like structure on the upper surface but may also enter via ciliary action in the tube feet or via special cribiform organelles.
160:
but also serves to convey oxygenated sea water into the body and carry waste water out again. In many genera, the water enters through a
1759:
1621:
1052:
Russell, David F. (1986). "Respiratory pattern generation in adult lampreys (Lampetra fluviatilis): interneurons and burst resetting".
600:
1651:
800:
1286:
1141:
186:
173:
348:
2113:
965:
687:
2133:
2118:
1241:
352:
211:. Others may breathe atmospheric air while remaining submerged, via breathing tubes or trapped air bubbles, though some
2128:
1134:
734:"A Brief History of the Study of Fish Osmoregulation: The Central Role of the Mt. Desert Island Biological Laboratory"
916:
1436:
566:
thus increasing the efficiency of the respiration process as well and prevents the oxygen levels from reaching an
1744:
1638:
335:
from specialized cells. While the lungs are of primary importance to breathing control, the unique properties of
2218:
2197:
1990:
1985:
1281:
547:
413:
53:
881:
Gottlieb, G; Jackson DC (1976). "Importance of pulmonary ventilation in respiratory control in the bullfrog".
2223:
1898:
1709:
1603:
1331:
1321:
647:
298:
501:
to allow as much oxygen to enter the gills as possible because more of the gas comes into contact with the
1724:
1714:
1416:
1401:
637:
563:
294:
2143:
2070:
1870:
1845:
1820:
1704:
1451:
1231:
642:
627:
378:
336:
331:. The skin of these animals is highly vascularized and moist, with moisture maintained via secretion of
153:
2228:
1878:
1840:
1171:
632:
567:
216:
2100:
1754:
1563:
1521:
1291:
502:
471:
396:
of the lungs is less complex in reptiles than in mammals, with reptiles lacking the very extensive
240:
2020:
2015:
1883:
1825:
1719:
1568:
1486:
1371:
1351:
1261:
1204:
1077:
863:
855:
810:
652:
595:
591:
587:
463:
459:
417:
409:
405:
248:
45:
207:
generally possess some form of gills in which gas exchange takes place by diffusing through the
1028:
381:, and thus rely solely on the lungs to breathe air. When underwater, the animal is essentially
2030:
2005:
1908:
1855:
1774:
1441:
1406:
1346:
1306:
1276:
1246:
1157:
1112:
1069:
1032:
999:
971:
944:
898:
847:
796:
773:
755:
611:
524:
508:
467:
114:
99:
and similar organisms. In such cases, no specific respiratory organs or organelles are found.
2138:
1830:
1734:
1686:
1598:
1491:
1431:
1189:
1104:
1061:
1020:
890:
839:
763:
745:
302:
278:
274:
260:
80:
416:
occurs via a change in the volume of the body cavity which is controlled by contraction of
2108:
2075:
1936:
1888:
1764:
1739:
1548:
1501:
1426:
1271:
1256:
374:
30:
1972:
1926:
1921:
1893:
1860:
1729:
1588:
1516:
1506:
1356:
1301:
1219:
1214:
1209:
768:
733:
539:
397:
382:
251:. In all cases, oxygen is provided from air trapped by hairs around the animal's body.
212:
68:
49:
482:
17:
2212:
2186:
2080:
2045:
1946:
1941:
1916:
1446:
1411:
1386:
1236:
1199:
1021:
894:
518:
290:
126:
1108:
1081:
967:
The lung air sac system of birds development, structure, and function; with 6 tables
867:
2181:
2172:
1951:
1931:
1835:
1573:
1456:
1376:
1336:
1326:
1296:
531:
498:
455:
401:
339:
supplements rapid gas exchange when amphibians are submerged in oxygen-rich water.
286:
938:
156:
which provides a number of functions including providing the hydraulic power for
2085:
2060:
2055:
2025:
1808:
1784:
1749:
1558:
1461:
1381:
1341:
1194:
970:. Berlin: Springer. pp. 3.2–3.3 "Lung", "Airway (Bronchiol) System" 66–82.
451:
435:
236:
208:
161:
130:
843:
2065:
2000:
1789:
1769:
1553:
1526:
1311:
1224:
708:
429:
425:
228:
182:
149:
851:
759:
750:
2090:
1995:
1779:
1543:
1536:
1511:
1421:
583:
558:
557:
Bony fish use countercurrent flow to maximize the intake of oxygen that can
535:
328:
314:
282:
232:
204:
157:
88:
83:
are also sufficient mechanisms for many larger aquatic animals such as many
65:
1799:
1116:
777:
1073:
446:, which are distributed throughout much of the birds' bodies and move air
2040:
1850:
1396:
1391:
1316:
607:
543:
443:
386:
244:
198:
178:
134:
96:
34:
859:
2050:
2010:
1980:
1958:
1578:
1366:
1266:
1065:
902:
439:
393:
362:
358:
270:
220:
138:
2035:
1361:
1126:
579:
424:. In turtles, contraction of specific pairs of flank muscles governs
421:
370:
224:
92:
61:
989:
987:
551:
481:
332:
109:
57:
29:
996:
Diagnostic
Imaging of Exotic Pets: Birds, Small Mammals, Reptiles
1531:
487:
366:
324:
320:
266:
113:
gaseous bubbles on the surface of leaves and may produce oxygen
84:
1684:
1168:
1130:
1593:
1583:
943:. Mineola, New York: Courier Dove Publications. p. 91.
676:(third ed.). Hutchinson University Library. p. 44.
474:, while the relaxation of these muscles causes inhalation.
27:
Process whereby an aquatic animal obtains oxygen from water
994:
Krautwald-Junghanns, Maria-Elisabeth; et al. (2010).
542:
or seven gill baskets on each side of the fish's head in
125:
All animals that practice truly aquatic respiration are
71:
and some other metabolic waste products into the water.
235:
have aquatic juvenile stages while some orders such as
215:
may remain submerged indefinitely and respire using a
141:
are air breathing despite a fully aquatic life-style.
514:
Thin membrane to allow for a short diffusion pathway
2099:
1971:
1907:
1869:
1807:
1697:
1614:
1479:
1182:
1027:. San Diego, California: Academic Press. pp.
793:Atlas and Dissection Guide for Comparative Anatomy
247:have adopted an aquatic life style including the
586:of fish are responsible for the genesis of the
538:on each side of the head, two on each side for
1432:Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems
1142:
517:Each gill arch has two rows (hemibranchs) of
511:to maintain the concentration gradient needed
8:
389:if they cannot reach the surface to breath.
1497:Freshwater environmental quality parameters
442:that ventilate the lungs are the avascular
1813:
1694:
1681:
1179:
1165:
1149:
1135:
1127:
815:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
767:
749:
223:. A number of orders of insects such as
795:. United States of America. p. 22.
664:
808:
185:as its oxygen-capturing molecule. The
75:Unicellular and simple small organisms
709:"Introduction to the skeletal system"
37:respire through a gill (or ctenidium)
7:
189:can include either gills or a lung.
1760:Oceanic physical-biological process
1622:List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)
1054:Journal of Comparative Physiology A
343:Aquatic reptiles, birds and mammals
315:Amphibian § Respiratory system
64:from oxygen dissolved in water and
601:Involuntary control of respiration
25:
486:Posterior view of the gills of a
239:have just a few examples such as
2193:
2192:
2180:
2166:
1798:
1470:
1287:Colored dissolved organic matter
940:Size, Function, and Life History
895:10.1152/ajplegacy.1976.230.3.608
550:, are required. Some species of
408:, but reptiles do not possess a
187:respiratory system of gastropods
174:Respiratory system of gastropods
1632:Latin America and the Caribbean
1109:10.1152/japplphysiol.01528.2005
349:Physiology of underwater diving
327:serve as respiratory organs in
265:Most fish exchange gases using
117:in the surrounding water body.
2114:Ecological values of mangroves
1657:North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
998:. Germany: Manson Publishing.
732:Evans, David H. (2010-06-18).
285:network that provides a large
1:
1097:Journal of Applied Physiology
697:. united kingdom. April 2016.
373:) have thick and impermeable
293:and other sharks and rays, a
2134:Marine conservation activism
2119:Fisheries and climate change
523:Each gill filament has many
404:in reptiles still occurs in
353:Cetacean surfacing behaviour
133:animals and birds including
2129:Human impact on marine life
2006:Davidson Seamount § Ecology
1242:Aquatic population dynamics
1019:Whittow, G. Causey (2000).
937:Calder, William A. (1996).
2245:
1023:Sturkie's Avian Physiology
844:10.1163/156853908792451395
791:Wischnitzer, Saul (1967).
695:British Ecological Society
400:found in mammalian lungs.
346:
312:
258:
196:
171:
2160:
1816:
1796:
1745:Marine primary production
1693:
1680:
1639:List of marine ecoregions
1468:
1178:
1164:
1991:Coastal biogeomorphology
1986:Marine coastal ecosystem
751:10.3389/fphys.2010.00013
1899:Paradox of the plankton
1710:Diel vertical migration
1604:Freshwater swamp forest
1322:GIS and aquatic science
1170:General components and
964:Maina, John N. (2005).
738:Frontiers in Physiology
648:Maintenance respiration
420:in all reptiles except
299:countercurrent exchange
1725:Large marine ecosystem
1417:Shoaling and schooling
672:Nichols, Davd (1967).
638:Control of respiration
574:Control of respiration
564:concentration gradient
534:, the gills contain 4
490:
273:(throat), forming the
269:on either side of the
38:
18:Underwater respiration
2144:Marine protected area
2071:Salt pannes and pools
1846:Marine larval ecology
1821:Census of Marine Life
1705:Deep scattering layer
1662:San Francisco Estuary
1627:Africa and Madagascar
1452:Underwater camouflage
1232:Aquatic biomonitoring
1172:freshwater ecosystems
643:Ecosystem respiration
628:Anaerobic respiration
485:
379:cutaneous respiration
337:cutaneous respiration
154:water vascular system
33:
1879:Marine bacteriophage
1841:Marine invertebrates
633:Cellular respiration
394:anatomical structure
152:have a specialised
1755:Ocean fertilization
1564:Trophic state index
1522:Lake stratification
1252:Aquatic respiration
596:respiratory centers
472:respiratory muscles
418:intercostal muscles
52:organism exchanges
42:Aquatic respiration
2021:Intertidal wetland
2016:Intertidal ecology
1884:Marine prokaryotes
1826:Deep-sea community
1720:Iron fertilization
1643:Specific examples
1569:Upland and lowland
1487:Freshwater biology
1352:Microbial food web
1262:Aquatic toxicology
1205:Aquatic adaptation
1158:Aquatic ecosystems
1066:10.1007/BF00614523
917:"reptile - animal"
653:Respiratory system
588:respiratory rhythm
491:
383:holding its breath
249:diving bell spider
39:
2206:
2205:
2187:Oceans portal
2156:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2031:Hydrothermal vent
1967:
1966:
1856:Seashore wildlife
1687:Marine ecosystems
1676:
1675:
1672:
1671:
1442:Thermal pollution
1407:Ramsar Convention
1347:Microbial ecology
1307:Fisheries science
1247:Aquatic predation
1038:978-0-12-747605-6
1005:978-3-89993-049-8
977:978-3-540-25595-6
950:978-0-486-69191-6
608:physical exercise
468:abdominal muscles
16:(Redirected from
2236:
2196:
2195:
2189:
2185:
2184:
2175:
2173:Lakes portal
2171:
2170:
2169:
2139:Marine pollution
1831:Deep-water coral
1814:
1802:
1735:Marine chemistry
1695:
1682:
1599:Freshwater marsh
1492:Freshwater biome
1474:
1190:Acoustic ecology
1180:
1166:
1151:
1144:
1137:
1128:
1121:
1120:
1103:(3): 1077–1083.
1092:
1086:
1085:
1049:
1043:
1042:
1026:
1016:
1010:
1009:
991:
982:
981:
961:
955:
954:
934:
928:
927:
925:
923:
913:
907:
906:
878:
872:
871:
838:(4/5): 669–691.
827:
821:
820:
814:
806:
788:
782:
781:
771:
753:
729:
723:
722:
720:
719:
705:
699:
698:
692:
688:"Getting Oxygen"
684:
678:
677:
669:
448:unidirectionally
275:splanchnocranium
261:Fish respiration
241:China mark moths
115:super-saturation
81:active transport
21:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2219:Aquatic ecology
2209:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2179:
2178:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2148:
2109:Coral bleaching
2095:
2076:Seagrass meadow
1973:Marine habitats
1963:
1937:Coral reef fish
1903:
1889:Marine protists
1865:
1803:
1794:
1765:Ocean turbidity
1740:Marine food web
1689:
1668:
1610:
1549:River ecosystem
1502:Freshwater fish
1475:
1466:
1272:Bioluminescence
1257:Aquatic science
1174:
1160:
1155:
1125:
1124:
1094:
1093:
1089:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1039:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1006:
993:
992:
985:
978:
963:
962:
958:
951:
936:
935:
931:
921:
919:
915:
914:
910:
880:
879:
875:
829:
828:
824:
807:
803:
790:
789:
785:
731:
730:
726:
717:
715:
707:
706:
702:
690:
686:
685:
681:
671:
670:
666:
661:
624:
582:located in the
576:
480:
355:
345:
317:
311:
263:
257:
213:aquatic insects
201:
195:
176:
170:
147:
123:
105:
77:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2242:
2240:
2232:
2231:
2226:
2224:Marine biology
2221:
2211:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2200:
2190:
2176:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2105:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1977:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1955:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1927:Saltwater fish
1924:
1922:Marine reptile
1919:
1913:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1896:
1894:Marine viruses
1891:
1886:
1881:
1875:
1873:
1871:Microorganisms
1867:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1861:Wild fisheries
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1817:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1775:Thorson's rule
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1730:Marine biology
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1701:
1699:
1691:
1690:
1685:
1678:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1667:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1641:
1636:
1635:
1634:
1629:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1589:Brackish marsh
1586:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1517:Lake ecosystem
1514:
1509:
1507:Hyporheic zone
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1483:
1481:
1477:
1476:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1357:Microbial loop
1354:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1302:Eutrophication
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1282:Cascade effect
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1210:Aquatic animal
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1186:
1184:
1176:
1175:
1169:
1162:
1161:
1156:
1154:
1153:
1146:
1139:
1131:
1123:
1122:
1087:
1044:
1037:
1011:
1004:
983:
976:
956:
949:
929:
908:
873:
822:
801:
783:
724:
700:
679:
663:
662:
660:
657:
656:
655:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
623:
620:
575:
572:
540:chondrichthyes
528:
527:
521:
519:gill filaments
515:
512:
505:
479:
476:
398:bronchial tree
377:that preclude
344:
341:
310:
307:
256:
253:
243:. A very few
194:
191:
169:
166:
146:
143:
129:. All aquatic
127:poikilothermic
122:
119:
104:
101:
76:
73:
69:carbon dioxide
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2241:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2199:
2191:
2188:
2183:
2177:
2174:
2163:
2162:
2159:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2081:Sponge ground
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2046:Marine biomes
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1947:Demersal fish
1945:
1943:
1942:Deep-sea fish
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1929:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1917:Marine mammal
1915:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1906:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1473:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1447:Trophic level
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1412:Sediment trap
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1387:Phytoplankton
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1237:Aquatic plant
1235:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1200:Anoxic waters
1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1152:
1147:
1145:
1140:
1138:
1133:
1132:
1129:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1091:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1060:(1): 91–102.
1059:
1055:
1048:
1045:
1040:
1034:
1030:
1025:
1024:
1015:
1012:
1007:
1001:
997:
990:
988:
984:
979:
973:
969:
968:
960:
957:
952:
946:
942:
941:
933:
930:
918:
912:
909:
904:
900:
896:
892:
889:(3): 608–13.
888:
884:
877:
874:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
826:
823:
818:
812:
804:
802:0-7167-0691-1
798:
794:
787:
784:
779:
775:
770:
765:
761:
757:
752:
747:
743:
739:
735:
728:
725:
714:
710:
704:
701:
696:
689:
683:
680:
675:
668:
665:
658:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
625:
621:
619:
616:
613:
609:
604:
602:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
573:
571:
569:
565:
560:
555:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
526:
522:
520:
516:
513:
510:
506:
504:
500:
496:
495:
494:
489:
484:
477:
475:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
390:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
354:
350:
342:
340:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
316:
308:
306:
304:
300:
296:
292:
291:spiny dogfish
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
262:
254:
252:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
200:
192:
190:
188:
184:
180:
175:
167:
165:
163:
159:
155:
151:
144:
142:
140:
136:
132:
128:
120:
118:
116:
111:
103:Higher plants
102:
100:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
74:
72:
70:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
36:
32:
19:
2101:Conservation
1952:Pelagic fish
1932:Coastal fish
1836:Marine fungi
1574:Water garden
1457:Water column
1402:Productivity
1377:Pelagic zone
1337:Macrobenthos
1327:Hydrobiology
1297:Ecohydrology
1251:
1100:
1096:
1090:
1057:
1053:
1047:
1022:
1014:
995:
966:
959:
939:
932:
920:. Retrieved
911:
886:
883:Am J Physiol
882:
876:
835:
831:
825:
792:
786:
741:
737:
727:
716:. Retrieved
713:www.shsu.edu
712:
703:
694:
682:
674:Echinodermms
673:
667:
617:
605:
577:
556:
532:osteichthyes
529:
509:blood supply
499:surface area
492:
456:gas exchange
450:through the
447:
436:Diving birds
434:
412:, therefore
402:Gas exchange
391:
357:All aquatic
356:
318:
287:surface area
264:
229:caddis flies
202:
177:
148:
131:homeothermic
124:
106:
78:
60:, obtaining
41:
40:
2229:Respiration
2086:Sponge reef
2061:Rocky shore
2056:Oyster reef
2026:Kelp forest
1909:Vertebrates
1809:Marine life
1785:Viral shunt
1750:Marine snow
1652:Maharashtra
1559:Stream pool
1462:Zooplankton
1382:Photic zone
1342:Meiobenthos
1195:Algal bloom
922:8 September
568:equilibrium
548:ventilation
536:gill arches
464:intercostal
452:parabronchi
426:inspiration
414:ventilation
237:Lepidoptera
233:stone flies
209:exoskeleton
162:madreporite
150:Echinoderms
145:Echinoderms
56:gases with
54:respiratory
48:whereby an
2213:Categories
2066:Salt marsh
2001:Coral reef
1790:Whale fall
1770:Photophore
1647:Everglades
1615:Ecoregions
1554:Stream bed
1527:Macrophyte
1480:Freshwater
1312:Food chain
1225:Water bird
718:2019-06-07
612:locomotion
430:expiration
347:See also:
329:amphibians
313:See also:
309:Amphibians
259:See also:
205:arthropods
197:See also:
193:Arthropods
183:hemocyanin
172:See also:
2091:Tide pool
1996:Cold seep
1780:Upwelling
1544:Rheotaxis
1537:Fish pond
1512:Limnology
1437:Substrate
1422:Siltation
1292:Dead zone
852:0005-7959
832:Behaviour
811:cite book
760:1664-042X
584:brainstem
410:diaphragm
319:Both the
303:operculum
283:capillary
279:filaments
245:arachnids
158:tube feet
135:cetaceans
97:bryozoans
89:jellyfish
66:excreting
35:Sea slugs
2198:Category
2124:HERMIONE
2041:Mangrove
1851:Seagrass
1397:Pleuston
1392:Plankton
1372:Particle
1317:Food web
1117:16467394
1082:19436421
868:53466588
860:40295944
778:21423356
622:See also
592:homology
578:In fish
544:lampreys
525:lamellae
503:membrane
497:A large
454:, where
444:air sacs
387:drowning
363:reptiles
359:amniotes
323:and the
295:spiracle
225:mayflies
217:plastron
203:Aquatic
199:Plastron
179:Molluscs
168:Molluscs
139:penguins
2051:Mudflat
2011:Estuary
1981:Bay mud
1959:Seabird
1715:f-ratio
1698:General
1579:Wetland
1367:Neuston
1332:Hypoxia
1277:Biomass
1267:Benthos
1183:General
1074:3723432
769:3059943
580:neurons
559:diffuse
460:alveoli
440:bellows
422:turtles
406:alveoli
371:mammals
271:pharynx
221:ecdysis
121:Animals
93:sponges
50:aquatic
46:process
44:is the
2036:Lagoon
1362:Nekton
1220:Mammal
1215:Insect
1115:
1080:
1072:
1035:
1031:–241.
1002:
974:
947:
901:
866:
858:
850:
799:
776:
766:
758:
744:: 13.
552:sharks
62:oxygen
1427:Spawn
1078:S2CID
864:S2CID
856:JSTOR
691:(PDF)
659:Notes
507:Good
478:Gills
375:cutes
367:birds
333:mucus
321:lungs
267:gills
110:stoma
85:worms
58:water
1532:Pond
1113:PMID
1070:PMID
1033:ISBN
1000:ISBN
972:ISBN
945:ISBN
924:2016
903:4976
899:PMID
848:ISSN
817:link
797:ISBN
774:PMID
756:ISSN
488:tuna
466:and
392:The
369:and
351:and
325:skin
255:Fish
231:and
137:and
1594:Fen
1584:Bog
1105:doi
1101:100
1062:doi
1058:158
1029:233
891:doi
887:230
840:doi
836:145
764:PMC
746:doi
603:).
594:of
530:In
428:or
108:as
2215::
1111:.
1099:.
1076:.
1068:.
1056:.
986:^
897:.
885:.
862:.
854:.
846:.
834:.
813:}}
809:{{
772:.
762:.
754:.
740:.
736:.
711:.
693:.
432:.
365:,
305:.
227:,
95:,
91:,
87:,
1150:e
1143:t
1136:v
1119:.
1107::
1084:.
1064::
1041:.
1008:.
980:.
953:.
926:.
905:.
893::
870:.
842::
819:)
805:.
780:.
748::
742:1
721:.
361:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
