171:
20:
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Convention. It mandated that key articles, including those on limitation of seabed production and mandatory technology transfer, would not be applied, that the United States, if it became a member, would be guaranteed a seat on the
Council of the International Seabed Authority, and finally, that voting would be done in groups, with each group able to block decisions on substantive matters. The 1994 Agreement also established a Finance Committee that would originate the financial decisions of the Authority, to which the largest donors would automatically be members and in which decisions would be made by consensus.
365:
provisions, their relationship to the provisions of other multilateral environmental treaties, and the need to amend U.S. federal environmental, wildlife, chemicals and offshore drilling laws and/or regulations in order to implement the international legal obligations the U.S. would assume upon ratification of UNCLOS. It is arguable whether such a review would have revealed the relationship between U.S. UNCLOS accession efforts, environmental legislation previously proposed by members of the 111th
Congress and oceans policies adopted by the Obama administration.
154:
established to prepare for the eventual coming into force of the
Convention-recognized claims by applicants, sponsored by signatories of the Convention. Overlaps between the two groups were resolved, but a decline in the demand for minerals from the seabed made the seabed regime significantly less relevant. In addition, the decline of Socialism and the fall of Communism in the late 1980s had removed much of the support for some of the more contentious Part XI provisions.
329:
186:(Reagan Administration United Nations Ambassador 1981–1985), testified against United States ratification of the treaty before the Senate Armed Services Committee, in which she argued that "Viewed from the perspective of U.S. interests and Reagan Administration principles, it was a bad bargain," and that "its ratification will diminish our capacity for self-government, including, ultimately, our capacity for self-defense."
95:
170:
115:
disputes. With more than 160 nations participating, the
Conference continued until its final meeting in late 1982, at which time the final act was signed and the Convention was opened for signature. As time went on, it became clear that the United States, among other developed states, was not willing
161:
Thus, modifications to that provision were negotiated, and an amending agreement was finalized in July 1994. The U.S. signed the
Agreement in 1994 and now recognizes the Convention as general international law, but has not ratified it at this time. UNCLOS entered into force in November 1994 with the
157:
In 1990, consultations were begun between signatories and non-signatories (including the United States) over the possibility of modifying the
Convention to allow the industrialized countries to join the Convention. The resulting 1994 Agreement on Implementation was adopted as a binding international
364:
and the Senate
Foreign Relations Committee favored ratification, other U.S. congressional committees possessing oversight jurisdiction have yet to undertake an open, transparent and substantive public review of this most complex treaty's significant environmental regulatory and judicial enforcement
144:
questioned the
President's constitutional authority to extend sovereignty as Congress has the power to make laws concerning the territory belonging to the United States under the U.S. Constitution. In any event, Congress needs to pass laws defining if the extended waters, including oil and mineral
119:
The United States objected to Part XI of the
Convention on several grounds, arguing that the treaty was unfavorable to American economic and security interests. The U.S. claimed that the provisions of the treaty were not free-market friendly and were designed to favor the economic systems of the
153:
From 1983 to 1990, the United States attempted to establish an alternative regime for exploitation of the minerals of the deep seabed. An agreement was made with other seabed mining nations and licenses were granted to four international consortia. Concurrently, the
Preparatory Commission was
139:
No. 5030, claimed a 200-mile exclusive economic zone. In December 1988 President Reagan, through Proclamation No. 5928, extended U.S. territorial waters from three nautical miles to twelve nautical miles for national security purposes. However a legal opinion from the
979:
971:
102:
The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III) was convened from June to August in Caracas, Venezuela in 1974. The most significant issues which were covered were setting limits, navigation, archipelagic status and transit regimes,
72:
UNCLOS, also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea Treaty, defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world's oceans; it establishes guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine
975:
991:
65:(UNCLOS). The United States also participated in the subsequent negotiations of modifications to the treaty from 1990 to 1994. The UNCLOS came into force in 1994. Although the United States now recognizes the UNCLOS as a codification of
995:
399:
1027:"Evaluating the Impact of the Law of the Sea Treaty on Future Offshore Drilling, " Paul Kelly, Senior Vice President, Rowan Companies, Inc., Global Offshore Drilling 2005 Conference, 2005 April 19.
1033:"The Law of the Sea Convention: A National Security Success," Commander James Kraska, Symposium in Remembrance of Louis B. Sohn, The George Washington University School of Law, 2006 October 24.
955:
President Bush Supports the Law of the Sea Convention, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs letter to the Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, 2007 February 8.
585:
629:
128:
established by the Convention might become a bloated and expensive bureaucracy, due to a combination of large revenues and insufficient control over what the revenues could be used for.
1113:
Edwin Meese, III, Baker Spring and Brett D. Schaefer, "The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: The Risks Outweigh the Benefits," The Heritage Foundation, May 16, 2007
1061:
275:; Commander of U.S. Transportation Command; Commander of U.S. Northern Command; and Commander of the U.S. Pacific Command, testified in favor of ratifying the treaty.
313:
later said that the vote to deny passage in 2012 was purely political and that the U.S. Chamber of Commerce would deliver enough Republican votes for passage in the
374:
263:
held the so-called "24 Star" hearing, featuring six four-star generals and admirals representing every branch of the U.S. Armed Forces. Each witness, including the
62:
941:"Time to Ratify the Law of the Sea" Don Kraus, Vice President of Government Relations for Citizens for Global Solutions, in Foreign Policy in Focus, June 6, 2007.
1197:
1046:
379:
673:
607:
785:
295:
264:
260:
245:
1090:
Ridenour, David A. "Ratification of the Law of the Sea Treaty: A Not-So-Innocent Passage," National Center for Public Policy Research, August 2006
1051:"How the Law of the Sea Convention Benefits the United States," Benjamin Friedman and Daniel Freidman, Bipartisan Study Group, 2004 November 20.
853:
193:, rendered after two years of international judicial proceedings, the landmark Barbados/Trinidad and Tobago Award, which resolved the maritime
429:
1192:
707:
287:
211:
On September 20, 2007, an Arbitral Tribunal constituted under UNCLOS issued its decision on a longstanding maritime boundary dispute between
1094:
361:
141:
241:
223:
1132:
Cohen, Bonner. "Law of the Sea Treaty Could Prove Dangerous to America," National Center for Public Policy Research, November 2005
1006:
19:
1057:"A U.N. Treaty We Can All Support," Captain George Galdorisi, USN(Ret.), Naval Institute Proceedings, 2003 March, pp. 74–77.
1021:"The Law of the Sea Convention: The Case for Senate Action," Senator Richard Lugar, Address at Brookings Institution, 2004 May 4.
905:
with Respect to the Convention on the Law of the Sea, in: International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 2001, 767-786; CHURCHILL R.
573:
1104:
651:
561:
61:
Conference on the Law of the Sea, which took place from 1974 through 1982 and resulted in the international treaty known as the
1047:
http://www.clgd.org/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=129&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0
530:
125:
1139:
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447:
357:
272:
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The Law of the Sea Convention (Treaty Doc. 103-39): The U.S. National Security and Strategic Imperatives for Ratification
283:
66:
837:
515:
851:"What Goes Around, Comes Around: How UNCLOS Ratification Will Herald Europe’s Precautionary Principle as U.S. Law,"
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699:
384:
268:
136:
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to agree to Part XI of the Convention concerning deep seabed portions and mining of potentially valuable metals.
928:
What Goes Around, Comes Around: How UNCLOS Ratification Will Herald Europe’s Precautionary Principle as U.S. Law
473:
340:
there has been vigorous debate over the ratification of the treaty, with criticism coming mainly from political
1016:
The Senate Should Give Immediate Advice and Consent to the Law of the Sea Convention: Why the Critics Are Wrong
891:
279:
104:
870:
301:
On July 16, 2012, 34 Republican Senators signed a letter to U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee Chairman
1187:
234:
586:"America's Defense Chief, Senior Military Advisor and Top Diplomat Call for 'Law of the Sea' Ratification"
291:
1114:
233:
On January 13, 2009, speaking at her Senate confirmation hearing as nominee for U.S. secretary of state,
208:
On May 15, 2007, U.S. President George W. Bush announced that he had urged the Senate to approve UNCLOS.
1120:
394:
341:
194:
111:, the exploitation regime, protection of the marine environment, scientific research, and settlement of
1040:
948:"Take ACTION to Help Us Ratify the Law of the Sea Treaty" Citizens for Global Solutions, June 7, 2007.
871:"'Ecosystem-Based Management': A Stealth Vehicle To Inject Euro-Style Precaution Into U.S. Regulation/"
630:"America's Leading Business Voices Testify: 'Law of Sea' Needed for U.S. Economic Growth, Job Creation"
503:
1045:"Another Side of the Sea Treaty Debate," Professor Bernard Oxman, The Washington Times, 2005 April 5.
306:
850:
1165:
426:
202:
190:
131:
The United States accepted all but Part XI as customary international law. In March 1983 President
309:
to vote for approval, the 34 signatories are enough to stop treaty ratification. However, Senator
760:
752:
389:
305:
pledging to vote against the treaty. Because treaty ratification in the U.S. requires 2/3 of the
298:
that the Law of the Sea Treaty would strengthen the U.S. economy and help create American jobs.
189:
On April 11, 2006, the 5-Member UNCLOS Annex VII Arbitral Tribunal, presided over by H.E. Judge
328:
713:
703:
422:
314:
183:
175:
112:
1091:
1028:
911:, in: The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 1998, n°2, 263-273; LARSON D. e.a.
548:
248:
and argued for the ratification of the treaty. During the same hearing, Secretary of Defense
744:
695:
The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy
74:
178:
U.S Army at the Forum on the Law of the Sea Convention held in Washington D.C., May 9, 2012
1098:
1085:
1065:
1010:
857:
786:"Republicans Are Blocking Ratification of Even the Most Reasonable International Treaties"
534:
433:
121:
108:
1140:
http://www.townhall.com/columnists/PhyllisSchlafly/2007/05/21/deep-six_the_law_of_the_sea
1059:
http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA457971&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf
474:"U.S. Territorial Sea Extension: Jurisdiction and International Environmental Protection"
1018:
MOORE J. and SCHACHTE W., in Columbia Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 59 Issue 1.
1003:
352:
blocked American ratification of the Convention, claiming that it would impinge on U.S.
1034:
310:
253:
78:
58:
34:
1052:
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197:(in the East, Central and West sectors) to satisfaction of both Parties and committed
1181:
1022:
921:
Legal Implications of the Entry Into Force of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
764:
689:
337:
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to resolve their fisheries dispute by means of concluding a new Fisheries Agreement.
132:
54:
1133:
1119:
Donovan, Carrie E. "The Law of the Sea Treaty," Heritage Foundation, April 2, 2004
249:
966:
958:
527:
219:, which contained a ruling blaming both nations for violating treaty obligations.
1154:
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said that ratification of the Law of the Sea Treaty would be a priority for her.
917:, in: Ocean Development & International Law, 1995, n°3, 287-303; ANDERSON D.
353:
227:
1039:"Ocean Treaty Good for US," David Sandalow, The Washington Times, 2004 May 16.
931:, Working Paper and Abstract available online, Social Science Research Network
897:
Legal comments on ratifications of UNCLOS III convention on the law of the sea
717:
345:
302:
1138:
Schlafly, Phyllis. "Deep-Six the Law of the Sea," Townhall.com, May 21, 2007
608:""24 Star" Military Witnesses Voice Strong Support for Law of the Sea Treaty"
427:
Statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, October 21, 2003
983:
748:
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1151:'Gaffney, Frank. 'Protect U.S. Sovereignty: Sink the Law of the Sea Treaty
949:
915:
An Analysis of the Ratification of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
349:
216:
198:
756:
732:
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President's Statement on Advancing U.S. Interests in the World's Oceans
1115:
http://www.heritage.org/Research/InternationalOrganizations/wm1459.cfm
94:
1121:
http://www.heritage.org/Research/InternationalOrganizations/wm470.cfm
1103:
Rabkin, Jeremy. "The Law of the Sea Treaty: A Bad Deal for America,"
1078:
212:
1041:
http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2004/05/16energy-sandalow
926:
909:
United Kingdom: Accession to the UN Convention on the Law of the sea
873:
Washington Legal Foundation Backgrounder Vol. 24 No. 23 (July 2009).
610:. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations press release. June 14, 2012
1108:
327:
169:
93:
18:
923:, in: International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 1995, 313-326.
1166:
http://www.theamericancause.org/a-pjb-050228-lordoftheoceans.htm
674:"Republican senator says sea treaty might pass after election."
962:
400:
U.S. ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child
987:
256:
also urged swift ratification of the Law of the Sea Treaty.
1092:
http://www.nationalcenter.org/NPA542LawoftheSeaTreaty.html
1029:
http://www.oceanlaw.org/downloads/unclos/GlobOffDrlg05.pdf
838:"As Polar Ice Turns to Water, Dreams of Treasure Abound."
320:
As of 2023, the United States has not ratified UNCLOS.
903:
Declarations, Statements and 'Disguised Reservations'
57:
was among the nations that participated in the third
16:
American involvement in drafting but non-ratification
1035:
http://www.clgd.org/downloads/Kraska_LOS_24Oct06.pdf
562:
Transcript of Hillary Clinton's Confirmation Hearing
504:
Testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee
1053:
http://www.gsinstitute.org/docs/11-20-04_UNCLOS.pdf
943:
https://fpif.org/time_to_ratify_the_law_of_the_sea/
356:. Other commentators have argued that although the
1023:http://www.brook.edu/comm/events/20040504lugar.htm
743:(2). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 135–146.
1134:http://www.nationalcenter.org/NPA534LawofSea.html
564:. Council on Foreign Relations. January 13, 2009.
812:"Curious manoeuvrings on the UN Law of the Sea"
549:"U.S. Senate panel backs Law of the Sea treaty"
537:Permanent Court of Arbitration. September 2007.
448:"Reagan Extends Territorial Waters to 12 Miles"
375:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
63:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
1155:http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=6431
518:. Office of the Press Secretary. May 15, 2007.
395:United States "Freedom of Navigation" program
380:International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
107:(EEZs), continental shelf jurisdiction, deep
8:
145:rights, are under State or Federal control.
98:Sea areas in international rights (Top view)
252:and Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman General
174:Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen.
296:U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations
265:Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
261:U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations
246:U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations
226:voted 17–4 to send the treaty to the full
1077:Law of the Sea Treaty Information Center
33: Parties, dually represented by the
1153:] Human Events Online, January 28, 2005
737:The SAIS Review of International Affairs
652:"DeMint: Law of the Sea Treaty now dead"
344:. A group of Republican senators led by
950:http://www.globalsolutions.org/node/728
632:. RatifyTheTreatyNow.Org. June 24, 2012
411:
1162:Should the U.N. Be Lord of the Oceans?
588:. RatifyTheTreatyNow.Org. May 23, 2012
446:Andrew Rosenthal (December 29, 1988).
417:
415:
972:Barbados/Trinidad and Tobago Analysis
860:7 SANTA CLARA INT’L L. 23-176 (2009).
547:Drawbaugh, Kevin (October 31, 2007).
288:National Association of Manufacturers
7:
1198:United States and the United Nations
654:. WashingtonTimes.Com. July 16, 2012
1129:Washington Times, February 24, 2004
1079:http://www.unlawoftheseatreaty.org
733:"Neo-Isolationists Scuttle UNCLOS"
242:Secretary of State Hillary Clinton
224:Senate Foreign Relations Committee
14:
478:Fordham International Law Journal
77:. To date, 168 countries and the
1105:Competitive Enterprise Institute
124:. The U.S. also argued that the
1174:Washington Times, April 3, 2005
1109:http://www.cei.org/pdf/5352.pdf
162:requisite sixty ratifications.
126:International Seabed Authority
1:
1148:Washington Times, May 4, 2004
1000:39 GWILR pp.573-620 2007 No.3
472:Carol Elizabeth Remy (1992).
421:Roger Rufe, President of the
358:George W. Bush administration
273:Commandant of the Coast Guard
1193:United States foreign policy
959:Barbados/Trinidad and Tobago
284:American Petroleum Institute
81:have joined the Convention.
1097:September 27, 2007, at the
731:Bonner, Patrick J. (2013).
67:customary international law
1214:
1084:September 9, 2018, at the
1064:September 5, 2012, at the
1009:December 23, 2010, at the
69:, it has not ratified it.
700:Stanford University Press
533:February 8, 2013, at the
385:Maritime Security Regimes
269:Chief of Naval Operations
222:On October 31, 2007, the
698:. Stanford, California:
280:U.S. Chamber of Commerce
105:exclusive economic zones
432:August 5, 2009, at the
235:Senator Hillary Clinton
856:July 26, 2011, at the
749:10.1353/sais.2013.0026
502:Jeane J. Kirkpatrick.
333:
292:Verizon Communications
278:On June 28, 2012, the
259:On June 14, 2012, The
179:
149:Revision of the UNCLOS
99:
50:
1160:Buchanan, Patrick J.
1072:Anti-treaty resources
840:NY Times. 10-10-2005,
331:
294:testified before the
244:testified before the
195:boundary delimitation
173:
97:
22:
1172:Trojan Horse Sea Law
1127:Deep-Six this Treaty
936:Pro-treaty resources
307:United States Senate
992:NILOS Online Papers
980:Coalter Lathrop Map
869:Lawrence A. Kogan,
849:Lawrence A. Kogan,
792:. December 26, 2014
203:Trinidad and Tobago
191:Stephen M. Schwebel
166:Latest developments
1164:February 28, 2005
984:22 IJMCL 7-60 2007
892:Text of the treaty
836:Andrew C. Revkin,
818:. October 20, 2007
528:"Guyana/Suriname."
390:Territorial waters
334:
182:On April 24, 2004
180:
142:Justice Department
100:
51:
996:NILOS New Website
886:General resources
709:978-1-5036-3088-8
679:, 17 August 2012.
423:Ocean Conservancy
315:lame-duck session
240:On May 23, 2012,
184:Jeane Kirkpatrick
176:Martin E. Dempsey
113:maritime boundary
75:natural resources
48: Non-parties
42: Signatories
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1144:Gaffney, Frank.
1125:Gaffney, Frank.
963:XXVII UNRIAA 147
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