395:. However, he declined to join the majority opinion's basis for using the Fourteenth Amendment, writing: "Had Virginia made a genuine effort to devote comparable public resources to a facility for women, and followed through on such a plan, it might well have avoided an equal protection violation." This rationale supported separate but equal facilities separated on the basis of sex: "t is not the 'exclusion of women' that violates the Equal Protection Clause, but the maintenance of an all-men school without providing any—much less a comparable—institution for women ... It would be a sufficient remedy, I think, if the two institutions offered the same quality of education and were of the same overall caliber."
1114:
40:
1103:
1335:
1321:
1109:
471:
VMI was the last all-male public university in the United States. Justice
Ginsburg told cadets of the Virginia Military Institute in 2018 that she knew her opinion “would make VMI a better place”. She also thought that those who were initially opposed would learn from their women classmates “how much
374:
were unconstitutional, since a newly formed black law school clearly did not provide the same benefits to its students as the state's prestigious and long-maintained white law school. In her opinion, she stated: "The VWIL program is a pale shadow of VMI in terms of the range of curricular choices and
414:
standard applied to previous cases involving equal protection based on sex. Notably, however, the opinion for the Court eschewed either standard; its language did not comport with the "important governmental interest" formula used in prior intermediate scrutiny cases. Scalia argued: "f the question
444:
was highly positive of the
Ginsburg decision: "The majority opinion in the VMI case is perhaps the best-known and most important majority opinion Justice Ginsburg has penned in her 24 years on the Supreme Court. That case, more than any other, epitomized the justices’ effort to establish true sex
431:
could have written the opinion, but in an act of generosity, demurred, saying, "This should be Ruth's." With the VMI decision, the high court effectively struck down any law which, as
Justice Ginsburg wrote, "denies to women, simply because they are women, full citizenship stature — equal
418:
Scalia made sure to provide
Ginsburg with a copy of his dissent as quickly as he could, in order for her to better respond to it in her majority opinion. Ginsburg later recalled that Scalia "absolutely ruined my weekend, but my opinion is ever so much better because of his stinging dissent".
415:
of the applicable standard of review for sex-based classifications were to be regarded as an appropriate subject for reconsideration, the stronger argument would be not for elevating the standard to strict scrutiny, but for reducing it to rational-basis review."
125:
1992), certiorari denied, 508 U.S. 946 (1993), on remand, judgment for defendants, 852 F. Supp. 471 (W.D. Va. 1994), aff'd, 44 F.3d 1229 (4th Cir. 1995), motion for rehearing en banc denied, 52 F.3d 90 (4th Cir. 1995), certiorari granted 516 U.S. 910
3646:
2890:
2858:
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1776:
3778:
1982:
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1574:
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722:
2467:
1880:
2562:
1384:
388:
261:
3808:
2626:
1768:
1040:
963:
488:
275:
81:
3457:
2522:
1848:
498:
3345:
642:
3005:
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1728:
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2319:
764:
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2730:
2602:
1896:
1683:
2127:
3678:
3029:
2786:
2634:
2427:
144:
The remedy proffered by
Virginia-maintain VMI as a male-only college and create VWIL as a separate program for women-does not cure the constitutional violation.
3788:
3481:
3393:
2020:
1281:
883:
440:, hailed Ginsburg's majority opinion as "the jewel in the crown of Ginsburg majority opinions". Professor of law at the University of Texas School of Law
3773:
2279:
567:
3505:
3037:
2052:
1375:
1033:
493:
482:
736:
3793:
3318:
2183:
1784:
1651:
468:, including VMI. However, VMI's Board of Visitors had already voted 9–8 to admit women and did not revisit the issue after the law was amended.
2690:
1864:
1675:
669:
3813:
2044:
1197:
3783:
2882:
2866:
2770:
1338:
1324:
1113:
1026:
3195:
2778:
1888:
449:
3798:
3594:
3310:
3235:
2499:
702:
457:
279:
44:
138:
Parties who seek to defend gender-based government action must demonstrate an "exceedingly persuasive justification" for that action.
3654:
1594:
931:
542:
315:
1800:
811:
646:
3473:
2343:
2746:
2223:
2068:
1582:
948:
Stockel, Eric J. (1996). "Note, United States v. Virginia: Does
Intermediate Scrutiny Still Exist?" 13 TOURO L. REV. 229 (1996)
2738:
768:
3449:
3053:
1911:
141:
Virginia's categorical exclusion of women from the educational opportunities VMI provides denies equal protection to women.
1695:
1434:
1368:
3537:
3353:
448:
Following the ruling, VMI contemplated going private to exempt itself from the 14th
Amendment, and thus this ruling. The
3013:
2451:
2303:
2255:
1996:
1611:
3337:
2507:
1808:
1659:
1291:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1230:
1225:
1202:
1192:
1182:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1072:
1049:
384:
311:
287:
3187:
1147:
617:
2722:
2459:
383:
Chief
Justice William Rehnquist wrote a concurrence agreeing to strike down the male-only admissions policy of the
2850:
3803:
3662:
3069:
2674:
2095:
2028:
1306:
295:
3694:
3638:
2802:
2359:
2327:
1752:
1736:
1361:
695:
Sisters in Law: How Sandra Day O'Connor and Ruth Bader
Ginsburg Went to the Supreme Court and Changed the World
1958:
95:
4259; 64 U.S.L.W. 4638; 96 Cal. Daily Op. Service 4694; 96 Daily
Journal DAR 7573; 10 Fla. L. Weekly Fed. S 93
559:
3702:
3569:
3267:
3123:
2384:
2311:
1704:
1619:
465:
392:
319:
2443:
1167:
1001:
456:
programs from the school if this privatization took place. As a result of the DOD action, Congress amended
2933:
2682:
1137:
428:
177:
3513:
3163:
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1824:
3622:
3465:
3433:
3021:
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1816:
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1410:
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1220:
1152:
967:
732:
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437:
411:
73:
3489:
3401:
3259:
3251:
3147:
3045:
3630:
2794:
344:
Justice Ginsburg found, however, that the VWIL would not provide women with the same type of rigorous
3614:
3361:
3227:
3211:
3104:
2909:
2842:
2826:
2618:
2351:
2287:
2167:
2004:
1832:
1792:
1744:
1301:
1157:
1142:
1132:
445:
equality as a fundamental constitutional norm, and its effects are continuing to reverberate today."
331:
3529:
3139:
2941:
3545:
3497:
3441:
3377:
3369:
3302:
3219:
3179:
3155:
2818:
2762:
2706:
2698:
2335:
2215:
2199:
2076:
1856:
1840:
1534:
1418:
1162:
1061:
307:
205:
3606:
3425:
3417:
3243:
3203:
3088:
2957:
2949:
2917:
2834:
2658:
2610:
2586:
2554:
2475:
2419:
2411:
2263:
2159:
1974:
1643:
1558:
1487:
1398:
870:
349:
3171:
599:"United States v. Virginia :: 518 U.S. 515 (1996) :: Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center"
338:
3741:
3733:
3686:
3409:
3283:
2997:
2754:
2594:
2578:
2529:
2515:
2491:
2247:
2231:
2191:
2119:
2060:
1760:
1667:
1603:
1550:
1442:
1353:
1296:
937:
927:
899:
698:
538:
464:, to prohibit the military from withdrawing or diminishing any ROTC program at one of the six
366:
169:
161:
2989:
2965:
2546:
2295:
2271:
2135:
1542:
1510:
1458:
1102:
983:
862:
283:
888:: Why Five Justices are Pulling in the Reins on the 'Exceedingly Persuasive Justification'"
432:
opportunity to aspire, achieve, participate in and contribute to society." Nina Totenberg,
2403:
2143:
2012:
1566:
1526:
1450:
407:
291:
201:
189:
974:
812:"United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515 (1996): Justia Opinion Summary and Annotations"
17:
3553:
3385:
3131:
3096:
2973:
2483:
2239:
2151:
1920:
1426:
992:
920:
819:
531:
403:
213:
181:
3762:
3275:
2666:
2538:
2207:
2175:
2103:
1966:
1872:
1720:
1635:
1172:
441:
846:
790:
3561:
2925:
2111:
1466:
461:
335:
193:
723:"Author Interviews: Ruth Bader Ginsburg And Sandra Day O'Connor, 'Sisters In Law'"
76:
2811:
Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville
598:
406:'s lone dissent argued that the standard applied by the majority was closer to a
2435:
1712:
1627:
1499:
1122:
2981:
1018:
433:
92:
3647:
Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank
903:
941:
314:
had failed to show "exceedingly persuasive justification" for its sex-based
88:
1010:
645:. The University of Chicago Harris School of Public Policy. Archived from
330:, called the Virginia Women's Institute for Leadership (VWIL), located at
765:"Ruth Bader Ginsburg's most notable Supreme Court decisions and dissents"
345:
323:
122:
114:
110:
2891:
Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College
874:
353:
322:. In an attempt to satisfy equal protection requirements, the state of
2859:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
2715:
Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.
815:
361:
357:
866:
1777:
Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists
1108:
375:
faculty stature, funding, prestige, alumni support and influence."
791:"United States Code § 2111a. Support for senior military colleges"
371:
327:
251:
Thomas took no part in the consideration or decision of the case.
643:"How the "Notorious R.B.G." Used Persuasion to Advance Equality"
453:
370:(1950), in which the Court ruled that segregated law schools in
118:
3721:
3592:
2382:
1983:
Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York
1485:
1396:
1357:
1022:
39:
2037:
Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community
230:
Ginsburg, joined by Stevens, O'Connor, Kennedy, Souter, Breyer
670:"What made the friendship between Scalia and Ginsburg work"
3671:
Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett
1575:
O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.
3779:
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
2468:
Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma
294:, whose son was enrolled at the university at the time,
1881:
Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc.
2563:
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
2627:
United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education
1769:
City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
560:"Supreme Court Invalidates Exclusion of Women by VMI"
489:
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 518
3458:
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez
2523:
Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
1849:
Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England
922:
Women in the Barracks: The VMI Case and Equal Rights
758:
756:
754:
593:
591:
589:
587:
585:
533:
Women in the Barracks: The Vmi Case and Equal Rights
499:
Lists of United States Supreme Court cases by volume
3346:
Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.
3329:
3294:
3115:
3080:
2901:
2395:
2087:
1907:
1694:
1593:
1498:
1280:
1211:
1181:
1121:
1071:
255:
242:
234:
226:
221:
150:
130:
105:
100:
68:
58:
51:
32:
3006:Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney
2875:Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action
1729:Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth
919:
530:
2643:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
2320:Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health
360:reputation and connections that VMI affords male
3522:City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.
2731:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
2603:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
2128:Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co.
926:. Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas.
320:Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause
3679:Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs
3030:Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County
2787:Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell
2635:Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
2428:Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education
1369:
1034:
861:(2). Duke University School of Law: 305–339.
716:
714:
452:warned the school that it would withdraw all
8:
3809:United States gender discrimination case law
1897:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
1801:Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
1684:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
3482:Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia
3394:Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections
2021:Will v. Michigan Department of State Police
472:good women could do for the institution.”
3718:
3589:
2747:Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education
2392:
2379:
2280:Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill
1495:
1482:
1393:
1376:
1362:
1354:
1041:
1027:
1019:
29:
3506:New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer
3038:Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan
2053:Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee
618:"The Ginsburg-Scalia Act Was Not a Farce"
494:List of United States Supreme Court cases
483:Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan
2739:Washington v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1
3769:United States equal protection case law
3450:Lehnhausen v. Lake Shore Auto Parts Co.
3319:Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward
2184:Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur
1785:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
1652:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
616:Senior, Jennifer (September 22, 2020).
524:
522:
520:
518:
516:
514:
510:
2691:Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver
2045:City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams
763:Ehrlich, Jamie (September 18, 2020).
721:Totenberg, Nina (September 1, 2015).
693:Hirshman, Linda (September 1, 2015).
27:1996 United States Supreme Court case
7:
2771:Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education
1912:Section 1979 of the Revised Statutes
1320:
436:and legal affairs correspondent for
326:had proposed a parallel program for
3789:Women in the United States military
3538:Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools
3354:Quaker City Cab Co. v. Commonwealth
2779:City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
1889:June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo
1865:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
1676:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
845:Bowsher, David K. (November 1998).
3311:Arlington County Board v. Richards
3236:Examining Board v. Flores de Otero
3014:Wengler v. Druggists Mut. Ins. Co.
2500:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
1385:United States Fourteenth Amendment
882:Stobaugh, Heather L. (Fall 2002).
668:Carmon, Irin (February 13, 2016).
306:Writing for the majority, Justice
280:Supreme Court of the United States
45:Supreme Court of the United States
25:
3774:United States Supreme Court cases
3655:Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents
3196:Takahashi v. Fish and Game Comm'n
970:515 (1996) is available from:
641:Brady, Terri (December 4, 2020).
570:from the original on May 27, 2016
290:(VMI) in a 7–1 decision. Justice
3474:Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas
2883:Fisher v. University of Texas II
2344:Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co.
1334:
1333:
1319:
1112:
1107:
1101:
558:Biskupic, Joan (June 27, 1996).
63:United States v. Virginia et al.
38:
3188:Ohio ex rel. Clark v. Deckebach
2867:Fisher v. University of Texas I
2224:Moore v. City of East Cleveland
2069:Los Angeles County v. Humphries
1583:West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish
356:, financial opportunities, and
3794:1996 in United States case law
3054:J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.
537:. University Press of Kansas.
282:struck down the long-standing
1:
2723:Dayton Bd. of Ed. v. Brinkman
1928:McNeese v. Board of Education
1435:United States v. Wong Kim Ark
274:, 518 U.S. 515 (1996), was a
109:Judgment for defendants, 766
3814:History of women in Virginia
2452:Hirabayashi v. United States
2304:DeShaney v. Winnebago County
2256:Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co.
1997:Owen v. City of Independence
1612:Pierce v. Society of Sisters
3784:Virginia Military Institute
3338:United States v. Cruikshank
2508:Brown v. Board of Education
1809:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
1660:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
1051:Virginia Military Institute
385:Virginia Military Institute
288:Virginia Military Institute
3830:
2460:Korematsu v. United States
1011:Oyez (oral argument audio)
364:, a decision evocative of
284:male-only admission policy
3799:Legal history of Virginia
3728:
3717:
3663:United States v. Morrison
3601:
3588:
3070:United States v. Skrmetti
3062:United States v. Virginia
2675:Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson
2391:
2378:
2096:Jacobson v. Massachusetts
2029:Gonzaga University v. Doe
1494:
1481:
1405:
1392:
1315:
1307:John Thomas Lewis Preston
1237:United States v. Virginia
1099:
1058:
960:United States v. Virginia
886:United States v. Virginia
849:United States v. Virginia
271:United States v. Virginia
260:
250:
155:
135:
37:
33:United States v. Virginia
3695:United States v. Georgia
3639:City of Boerne v. Flores
2803:United States v. Fordice
2360:Williams v. Pennsylvania
2328:Washington v. Glucksberg
918:Strum, Philippa (2002).
466:senior military colleges
18:United States v Virginia
3703:Shelby County v. Holder
3268:Cabell v. Chavez-Salido
3124:Patsone v. Pennsylvania
2385:Equal Protection Clause
2312:Michael H. v. Gerald D.
1705:United States v. Vuitch
1620:Griswold v. Connecticut
529:Philippa Strum (2002).
427:As the senior justice,
393:Equal Protection Clause
238:Rehnquist (in judgment)
52:Argued January 17, 1996
3570:Armour v. Indianapolis
2934:Moritz v. Commissioner
1990:Procunier v. Navarette
1908:Civil rights liability
1696:Abortion jurisprudence
847:"Cracking the Code of
387:, as violative of the
348:training, facilities,
318:policy, violating the
262:U.S. Const. amend. XIV
3623:Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer
3466:Richardson v. Ramirez
3434:Boddie v. Connecticut
3022:Kirchberg v. Feenstra
2851:Johnson v. California
2571:McLaughlin v. Florida
1959:O'Connor v. Donaldson
1519:Allgeyer v. Louisiana
1411:Slaughter-House Cases
767:. CNN. Archived from
733:National Public Radio
728:National Public Radio
450:Department of Defense
438:National Public Radio
412:intermediate scrutiny
379:Rehnquist concurrence
87:116 S. Ct. 2264; 135
54:Decided June 26, 1996
3615:Katzenbach v. Morgan
3362:Breedlove v. Suttles
3212:Graham v. Richardson
3105:Obergefell v. Hodges
2910:Breedlove v. Suttles
2843:Grutter v. Bollinger
2683:Jefferson v. Hackney
2352:Obergefell v. Hodges
2288:Edwards v. Aguillard
2168:Epperson v. Arkansas
2005:Harlow v. Fitzgerald
1940:Jenkins v. McKeithen
1833:Mazurek v. Armstrong
1793:Hodgson v. Minnesota
1753:Bellotti v. Baird II
1745:Colautti v. Franklin
1500:Economic substantive
1302:Francis Henney Smith
1272:Clubs and activities
771:on February 14, 2023
649:on February 14, 2023
389:Fourteenth Amendment
332:Mary Baldwin College
3546:Gregory v. Ashcroft
3514:Mills v. Habluetzel
3498:Zablocki v. Redhail
3442:Eisenstadt v. Baird
3378:Oyama v. California
3370:Skinner v. Oklahoma
3303:Shapiro v. Thompson
3220:Sugarman v. Dougall
3164:Porterfield v. Webb
3156:Terrace v. Thompson
2819:Missouri v. Jenkins
2763:Hunter v. Underwood
2707:Milliken v. Bradley
2699:Norwood v. Harrison
2651:McDaniel v. Barresi
2336:Troxel v. Granville
2216:Mathews v. Eldridge
2200:Taylor v. Louisiana
2077:Connick v. Thompson
1857:Gonzales v. Carhart
1841:Stenberg v. Carhart
1825:Lambert v. Wicklund
1737:Bellotti v. Baird I
1535:Lochner v. New York
1419:Minor v. Happersett
1163:Cormack Field House
1063:Lexington, Virginia
1002:Library of Congress
822:on January 21, 2023
674:The Washington Post
564:The Washington Post
429:Sandra Day O'Connor
308:Ruth Bader Ginsburg
206:Ruth Bader Ginsburg
178:Sandra Day O'Connor
117:1991) vacated, 976
3607:Civil Rights Cases
3595:Enforcement Clause
3426:Oregon v. Mitchell
3418:Williams v. Rhodes
3244:Nyquist v. Mauclet
3204:Hernandez v. Texas
3089:Bowers v. Hardwick
3081:Sexual orientation
2958:Stanton v. Stanton
2950:Geduldig v. Aiello
2918:Goesaert v. Cleary
2835:Gratz v. Bollinger
2659:Palmer v. Thompson
2611:Hunter v. Erickson
2587:Loving v. Virginia
2555:Anderson v. Martin
2476:Shelley v. Kraemer
2420:Plessy v. Ferguson
2412:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
2264:Kolender v. Lawson
2160:Loving v. Virginia
1975:Imbler v. Pachtman
1952:Wood v. Strickland
1817:Leavitt v. Jane L.
1644:Bowers v. Hardwick
1559:Buchanan v. Warley
1488:Due Process Clause
1399:Citizenship Clause
1231:Admission of women
1168:Gray–Minor Stadium
884:"The Aftermath of
622:The New York Times
410:standard than the
166:Associate Justices
3756:
3755:
3752:
3751:
3742:Trump v. Anderson
3734:Gold Clause Cases
3713:
3712:
3687:Tennessee v. Lane
3584:
3583:
3580:
3579:
3490:Trimble v. Gordon
3410:Levy v. Louisiana
3402:Rinaldi v. Yeager
3284:Bernal v. Fainter
3260:Ambach v. Norwick
3252:Foley v. Connelie
3148:Crane v. New York
3046:Lehr v. Robertson
2998:Caban v. Mohammed
2755:Palmore v. Sidoti
2595:Lee v. Washington
2579:Reitman v. Mulkey
2530:Gebhart v. Belton
2516:Briggs v. Elliott
2492:Sweatt v. Painter
2374:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2248:Parratt v. Taylor
2232:Duren v. Missouri
2192:Arnett v. Kennedy
2120:Powell v. Alabama
2061:Ashcroft v. Iqbal
1946:Scheuer v. Rhodes
1761:H. L. v. Matheson
1668:Lawrence v. Texas
1604:Meyer v. Nebraska
1551:Coppage v. Kansas
1477:
1476:
1443:Perez v. Brownell
1351:
1350:
1297:Stonewall Jackson
1088:Academic Programs
1083:Academic Rankings
739:on March 20, 2022
367:Sweatt v. Painter
302:Majority decision
267:
266:
162:William Rehnquist
16:(Redirected from
3821:
3804:1996 in Virginia
3719:
3631:Dellmuth v. Muth
3590:
2990:Parham v. Hughes
2966:Edwards v. Healy
2795:Freeman v. Pitts
2550:(M.D. Ala. 1956)
2547:Browder v. Gayle
2393:
2380:
2296:Turner v. Safley
2272:Hudson v. Palmer
2136:NAACP v. Alabama
1595:Right to privacy
1543:Muller v. Oregon
1511:Mugler v. Kansas
1496:
1483:
1459:Rogers v. Bellei
1394:
1378:
1371:
1364:
1355:
1343:
1337:
1336:
1329:
1323:
1322:
1284:
1214:
1185:
1125:
1116:
1111:
1105:
1093:Military Service
1075:
1064:
1052:
1043:
1036:
1029:
1020:
1015:
1009:
1006:
1000:
997:
991:
988:
982:
979:
973:
945:
925:
914:
912:
910:
898:(4): 1755–1779.
878:
855:Duke Law Journal
832:
831:
829:
827:
818:. Archived from
808:
802:
801:
799:
797:
787:
781:
780:
778:
776:
760:
749:
748:
746:
744:
735:. Archived from
718:
709:
708:
690:
684:
683:
681:
680:
665:
659:
658:
656:
654:
638:
632:
631:
629:
628:
613:
607:
606:
595:
580:
579:
577:
575:
555:
549:
548:
536:
526:
151:Court membership
42:
41:
30:
21:
3829:
3828:
3824:
3823:
3822:
3820:
3819:
3818:
3759:
3758:
3757:
3748:
3724:
3709:
3597:
3576:
3325:
3290:
3228:In re Griffiths
3172:Webb v. O'Brien
3111:
3076:
2897:
2827:Texas v. Lesage
2619:Hadnott v. Amos
2404:Pace v. Alabama
2387:
2366:
2144:Hoyt v. Florida
2083:
2013:Felder v. Casey
1909:
1903:
1690:
1589:
1567:Adams v. Tanner
1527:Holden v. Hardy
1501:
1490:
1473:
1451:Afroyim v. Rusk
1401:
1388:
1382:
1352:
1347:
1339:
1325:
1311:
1282:
1276:
1212:
1207:
1183:
1177:
1123:
1117:
1106:
1097:
1073:
1067:
1062:
1054:
1050:
1047:
1013:
1007:
1004:
998:
995:
989:
986:
980:
977:
971:
955:
934:
917:
908:
906:
881:
867:10.2307/1373108
844:
841:
839:Further reading
836:
835:
825:
823:
810:
809:
805:
795:
793:
789:
788:
784:
774:
772:
762:
761:
752:
742:
740:
720:
719:
712:
705:
692:
691:
687:
678:
676:
667:
666:
662:
652:
650:
640:
639:
635:
626:
624:
615:
614:
610:
597:
596:
583:
573:
571:
557:
556:
552:
545:
528:
527:
512:
507:
478:
425:
408:strict scrutiny
401:
381:
339:women's college
304:
296:recused himself
292:Clarence Thomas
204:
202:Clarence Thomas
192:
190:Anthony Kennedy
180:
170:John P. Stevens
96:
53:
47:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3827:
3825:
3817:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3761:
3760:
3754:
3753:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3746:
3738:
3729:
3726:
3725:
3722:
3715:
3714:
3711:
3710:
3708:
3707:
3699:
3691:
3683:
3675:
3667:
3659:
3651:
3643:
3635:
3627:
3619:
3611:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3593:
3586:
3585:
3582:
3581:
3578:
3577:
3575:
3574:
3566:
3558:
3554:Vacco v. Quill
3550:
3542:
3534:
3530:Clark v. Jeter
3526:
3518:
3510:
3502:
3494:
3486:
3478:
3470:
3462:
3454:
3446:
3438:
3430:
3422:
3414:
3406:
3398:
3390:
3386:Oyler v. Boles
3382:
3374:
3366:
3358:
3350:
3342:
3333:
3331:
3327:
3326:
3324:
3323:
3315:
3307:
3298:
3296:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3288:
3280:
3272:
3264:
3256:
3248:
3240:
3232:
3224:
3216:
3208:
3200:
3192:
3184:
3176:
3168:
3160:
3152:
3144:
3140:Heim v. McCall
3136:
3132:Truax v. Raich
3128:
3119:
3117:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3109:
3101:
3097:Romer v. Evans
3093:
3084:
3082:
3078:
3077:
3075:
3074:
3066:
3058:
3050:
3042:
3034:
3026:
3018:
3010:
3002:
2994:
2986:
2978:
2974:Craig v. Boren
2970:
2962:
2954:
2946:
2942:Kahn v. Shevin
2938:
2930:
2922:
2914:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2887:
2879:
2871:
2863:
2855:
2847:
2839:
2831:
2823:
2815:
2807:
2799:
2791:
2783:
2775:
2767:
2759:
2751:
2743:
2735:
2727:
2719:
2711:
2703:
2695:
2687:
2679:
2671:
2663:
2655:
2647:
2639:
2631:
2623:
2615:
2607:
2599:
2591:
2583:
2575:
2567:
2559:
2551:
2543:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2526:
2519:
2504:
2496:
2488:
2484:Perez v. Sharp
2480:
2472:
2464:
2456:
2448:
2444:Smith v. Texas
2440:
2432:
2424:
2416:
2408:
2399:
2397:
2389:
2388:
2383:
2376:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2356:
2348:
2340:
2332:
2324:
2316:
2308:
2300:
2292:
2284:
2276:
2268:
2260:
2252:
2244:
2240:Parham v. J.R.
2236:
2228:
2220:
2212:
2204:
2196:
2188:
2180:
2172:
2164:
2156:
2152:Oyler v. Boles
2148:
2140:
2132:
2124:
2116:
2108:
2100:
2091:
2089:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2073:
2065:
2057:
2049:
2041:
2033:
2025:
2017:
2009:
2001:
1993:
1987:
1979:
1971:
1963:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1934:Pierson v. Ray
1931:
1925:
1921:Monroe v. Pape
1916:
1914:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1893:
1885:
1877:
1869:
1861:
1853:
1845:
1837:
1829:
1821:
1813:
1805:
1797:
1789:
1781:
1773:
1765:
1757:
1749:
1741:
1733:
1725:
1717:
1709:
1700:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1689:
1688:
1680:
1672:
1664:
1656:
1648:
1640:
1632:
1624:
1616:
1608:
1599:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1587:
1579:
1571:
1563:
1555:
1547:
1539:
1531:
1523:
1515:
1506:
1504:
1492:
1491:
1486:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1471:
1463:
1455:
1447:
1439:
1431:
1427:Elk v. Wilkins
1423:
1415:
1406:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1390:
1389:
1383:
1381:
1380:
1373:
1366:
1358:
1349:
1348:
1346:
1345:
1331:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1310:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1288:
1286:
1278:
1277:
1275:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1242:
1241:
1240:
1228:
1223:
1217:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1189:
1187:
1179:
1178:
1176:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1129:
1127:
1119:
1118:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1079:
1077:
1069:
1068:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1048:
1046:
1045:
1038:
1031:
1023:
1017:
1016:
954:
953:External links
951:
950:
949:
946:
932:
915:
892:SMU Law Review
879:
840:
837:
834:
833:
803:
782:
750:
710:
704:978-0062238467
703:
685:
660:
633:
608:
581:
550:
543:
509:
508:
506:
503:
502:
501:
496:
491:
486:
477:
474:
458:10 U.S.C.
424:
421:
404:Justice Scalia
400:
399:Scalia dissent
397:
380:
377:
303:
300:
265:
264:
258:
257:
253:
252:
248:
247:
244:
240:
239:
236:
232:
231:
228:
224:
223:
219:
218:
217:
216:
214:Stephen Breyer
182:Antonin Scalia
167:
164:
159:
153:
152:
148:
147:
146:
145:
142:
139:
133:
132:
128:
127:
107:
103:
102:
98:
97:
86:
70:
66:
65:
60:
59:Full case name
56:
55:
49:
48:
43:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3826:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3766:
3764:
3744:
3743:
3739:
3736:
3735:
3731:
3730:
3727:
3720:
3716:
3705:
3704:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3684:
3681:
3680:
3676:
3673:
3672:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3660:
3657:
3656:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3628:
3625:
3624:
3620:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3604:
3603:
3600:
3596:
3591:
3587:
3572:
3571:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3559:
3556:
3555:
3551:
3548:
3547:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3511:
3508:
3507:
3503:
3500:
3499:
3495:
3492:
3491:
3487:
3484:
3483:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3463:
3460:
3459:
3455:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3444:
3443:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3383:
3380:
3379:
3375:
3372:
3371:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3359:
3356:
3355:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3328:
3321:
3320:
3316:
3313:
3312:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3300:
3299:
3297:
3293:
3286:
3285:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3276:Plyler v. Doe
3273:
3270:
3269:
3265:
3262:
3261:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3249:
3246:
3245:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3222:
3221:
3217:
3214:
3213:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3201:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3180:Frick v. Webb
3177:
3174:
3173:
3169:
3166:
3165:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3145:
3142:
3141:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3114:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3094:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3071:
3067:
3064:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3051:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3035:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3024:
3023:
3019:
3016:
3015:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2955:
2952:
2951:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2939:
2936:
2935:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2915:
2912:
2911:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2900:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2872:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2832:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2789:
2788:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2717:
2716:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2704:
2701:
2700:
2696:
2693:
2692:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2672:
2669:
2668:
2667:Coit v. Green
2664:
2661:
2660:
2656:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2616:
2613:
2612:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2600:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2539:Lucy v. Adams
2536:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2525:
2524:
2520:
2518:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2481:
2478:
2477:
2473:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2441:
2438:
2437:
2433:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2406:
2405:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2381:
2377:
2362:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2353:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2285:
2282:
2281:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2208:Goss v. Lopez
2205:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2189:
2186:
2185:
2181:
2178:
2177:
2176:In re Winship
2173:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2104:Zucht v. King
2101:
2098:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2086:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2062:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2050:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1991:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1967:Paul v. Davis
1964:
1961:
1960:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1906:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1883:
1882:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1873:Azar v. Garza
1870:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1835:
1834:
1830:
1827:
1826:
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1721:Doe v. Bolton
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544:0-7006-1164-9
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442:Steve Vladeck
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3637:
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3568:
3562:Bush v. Gore
3560:
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3012:
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2948:
2940:
2932:
2926:Reed v. Reed
2924:
2916:
2908:
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2881:
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2633:
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2474:
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2198:
2190:
2182:
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2150:
2142:
2134:
2126:
2118:
2112:Buck v. Bell
2110:
2102:
2094:
2075:
2067:
2059:
2051:
2043:
2035:
2027:
2019:
2011:
2003:
1995:
1989:
1981:
1973:
1965:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1927:
1919:
1895:
1887:
1879:
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1863:
1855:
1847:
1839:
1831:
1823:
1815:
1807:
1799:
1791:
1783:
1775:
1767:
1759:
1751:
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1735:
1727:
1719:
1711:
1703:
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1634:
1626:
1618:
1610:
1602:
1581:
1573:
1565:
1557:
1549:
1541:
1533:
1525:
1517:
1509:
1467:Saenz v. Roe
1465:
1457:
1449:
1441:
1433:
1425:
1417:
1409:
1340:
1326:
1252:Student life
1244:
1236:
1235:
1158:Cameron Hall
1148:Men's Soccer
1060:
959:
921:
907:. Retrieved
895:
891:
885:
858:
854:
848:
824:. Retrieved
820:the original
806:
794:. Retrieved
785:
775:February 14,
773:. Retrieved
769:the original
741:. Retrieved
737:the original
726:
694:
688:
677:. Retrieved
673:
663:
653:February 14,
651:. Retrieved
647:the original
636:
625:. Retrieved
621:
611:
602:
572:. Retrieved
563:
553:
532:
481:
470:
462:§ 2111a
447:
426:
417:
402:
382:
365:
343:
336:liberal arts
334:, a private
305:
270:
269:
268:
256:Laws applied
209:
197:
194:David Souter
185:
173:
101:Case history
80:
62:
2487:(Cal. 1948)
2436:Lum v. Rice
1713:Roe v. Wade
1628:Roe v. Wade
1502:due process
909:23 December
826:January 21,
310:found that
235:Concurrence
3763:Categories
2982:Orr v. Orr
1267:Honor code
1262:Traditions
1193:VMI Campus
1138:Basketball
697:. Harper.
679:2020-09-22
627:2020-09-22
603:Justia Law
505:References
434:journalist
316:admissions
93:U.S. LEXIS
91:735; 1996
3295:Residency
1246:The Cadet
1153:Wrestling
1124:Athletics
1074:Academics
904:1066-1271
796:13 August
743:March 20,
423:Aftermath
89:L. Ed. 2d
69:Citations
3116:Alienage
1387:case law
1341:Category
1226:Students
1198:Barracks
1143:Baseball
1133:Football
958:Text of
942:47849408
574:July 12,
568:Archived
476:See also
346:military
324:Virginia
227:Majority
123:4th Cir.
115:W.D. Va.
111:F. Supp.
2511:(1954)
1327:Commons
1257:Ratline
1203:History
984:Findlaw
975:Cornell
875:1373108
354:faculty
350:courses
286:of the
243:Dissent
131:Holding
126:(1995).
3745:(2024)
3737:(1935)
3706:(2013)
3698:(2006)
3690:(2004)
3682:(2003)
3674:(2001)
3666:(2000)
3658:(2000)
3650:(1999)
3642:(1997)
3634:(1989)
3626:(1976)
3618:(1966)
3610:(1883)
3573:(2012)
3565:(2000)
3557:(1997)
3549:(1991)
3541:(1988)
3533:(1988)
3525:(1985)
3517:(1982)
3509:(1979)
3501:(1978)
3493:(1977)
3485:(1976)
3477:(1974)
3469:(1974)
3461:(1973)
3453:(1973)
3445:(1972)
3437:(1971)
3429:(1970)
3421:(1968)
3413:(1968)
3405:(1966)
3397:(1966)
3389:(1962)
3381:(1948)
3373:(1942)
3365:(1937)
3357:(1928)
3349:(1886)
3341:(1876)
3322:(1985)
3314:(1977)
3306:(1969)
3287:(1984)
3279:(1982)
3271:(1982)
3263:(1979)
3255:(1978)
3247:(1977)
3239:(1976)
3231:(1973)
3223:(1973)
3215:(1971)
3207:(1954)
3199:(1948)
3191:(1927)
3183:(1923)
3175:(1923)
3167:(1923)
3159:(1923)
3151:(1915)
3143:(1915)
3135:(1915)
3127:(1914)
3108:(2015)
3100:(1996)
3092:(1986)
3073:(2024)
3065:(1996)
3057:(1994)
3049:(1983)
3041:(1982)
3033:(1981)
3025:(1981)
3017:(1980)
3009:(1979)
3001:(1979)
2993:(1979)
2985:(1979)
2977:(1976)
2969:(1975)
2961:(1975)
2953:(1974)
2945:(1974)
2937:(1972)
2929:(1971)
2921:(1948)
2913:(1937)
2894:(2023)
2886:(2016)
2878:(2014)
2870:(2013)
2862:(2007)
2854:(2005)
2846:(2003)
2838:(2003)
2830:(1999)
2822:(1995)
2814:(1993)
2806:(1992)
2798:(1992)
2790:(1991)
2782:(1989)
2774:(1986)
2766:(1985)
2758:(1984)
2750:(1982)
2742:(1982)
2734:(1978)
2726:(1977)
2718:(1977)
2710:(1974)
2702:(1973)
2694:(1973)
2686:(1972)
2678:(1971)
2670:(1971)
2662:(1971)
2654:(1971)
2646:(1971)
2638:(1969)
2630:(1969)
2622:(1969)
2614:(1969)
2606:(1968)
2598:(1968)
2590:(1967)
2582:(1967)
2574:(1964)
2566:(1964)
2558:(1964)
2542:(1955)
2503:(1950)
2495:(1950)
2479:(1948)
2471:(1948)
2463:(1944)
2455:(1943)
2447:(1940)
2439:(1927)
2431:(1899)
2423:(1896)
2415:(1886)
2407:(1883)
2363:(2016)
2355:(2015)
2347:(2009)
2339:(2000)
2331:(1997)
2323:(1990)
2315:(1989)
2307:(1989)
2299:(1987)
2291:(1987)
2283:(1985)
2275:(1984)
2267:(1983)
2259:(1982)
2251:(1981)
2243:(1979)
2235:(1979)
2227:(1977)
2219:(1976)
2211:(1975)
2203:(1975)
2195:(1974)
2187:(1974)
2179:(1971)
2171:(1968)
2163:(1967)
2155:(1962)
2147:(1961)
2139:(1958)
2131:(1950)
2123:(1932)
2115:(1927)
2107:(1922)
2099:(1905)
2080:(2011)
2072:(2010)
2064:(2009)
2056:(2009)
2048:(2005)
2040:(2003)
2032:(2002)
2024:(1989)
2016:(1988)
2008:(1982)
2000:(1980)
1992:(1978)
1986:(1978)
1978:(1976)
1970:(1976)
1962:(1975)
1954:(1975)
1948:(1974)
1942:(1969)
1936:(1967)
1930:(1963)
1924:(1961)
1910:under
1900:(2022)
1892:(2020)
1884:(2019)
1876:(2018)
1868:(2016)
1860:(2007)
1852:(2006)
1844:(2000)
1836:(1997)
1828:(1997)
1820:(1996)
1812:(1992)
1804:(1990)
1796:(1990)
1788:(1989)
1780:(1986)
1772:(1983)
1764:(1981)
1756:(1979)
1748:(1979)
1740:(1976)
1732:(1976)
1724:(1973)
1716:(1973)
1708:(1971)
1687:(2022)
1679:(2016)
1671:(2003)
1663:(1992)
1655:(1989)
1647:(1986)
1639:(1973)
1631:(1973)
1623:(1965)
1615:(1925)
1607:(1923)
1586:(1937)
1578:(1931)
1570:(1917)
1562:(1917)
1554:(1915)
1546:(1908)
1538:(1905)
1530:(1898)
1522:(1897)
1514:(1887)
1470:(1999)
1462:(1971)
1454:(1967)
1446:(1958)
1438:(1898)
1430:(1884)
1422:(1875)
1414:(1873)
1292:Alumni
1283:People
1221:Triads
1184:Campus
1014:
1008:
1005:
999:
996:
993:Justia
990:
987:
981:
978:
972:
940:
930:
902:
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816:Justia
701:
541:
460:
362:cadets
358:alumni
246:Scalia
212:
210:·
208:
200:
198:·
196:
188:
186:·
184:
176:
174:·
172:
113:1407 (
3723:Other
3330:Other
2088:Other
966:
871:JSTOR
372:Texas
328:women
121:890 (
106:Prior
2396:Race
1213:Life
968:U.S.
938:OCLC
928:ISBN
911:2012
900:ISSN
828:2023
798:2011
777:2023
745:2022
699:ISBN
655:2023
576:2016
539:ISBN
454:ROTC
119:F.2d
82:more
74:U.S.
72:518
2902:Sex
964:518
863:doi
391:'s
312:VMI
77:515
3765::
962:,
936:.
896:55
894:.
890:.
869:.
859:48
857:.
853:.
814:.
753:^
731:.
725:.
713:^
672:.
620:.
601:.
584:^
566:.
562:.
513:^
352:,
341:.
298:.
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1363:v
1042:e
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1028:v
944:.
913:.
877:.
865::
851:"
830:.
800:.
779:.
747:.
707:.
682:.
657:.
630:.
605:.
578:.
547:.
85:)
79:(
20:)
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