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256:(clear script). The script, which is based on the classical vertical Mongol script, phonetically captured the Oirat language. In the later part of the 19th and early part of the 20th centuries, todo bichig fell into disuse until the Kalmyks abandoned it in 1923 and introduced the Russian Cyrillic alphabet. But soon afterwards, around 1930, Kalmyk language scholars introduced a modified Latin alphabet, which did not last long.
299:
the
Kalmyks simply did not have. In addition, because Russian architects were required, many of the Lamaist canonical regulations governing monastery construction were suspended. Consequently, most Kalmyk temples resembled Russian Orthodox churches. For example, see the image of the Khoshotovsky Khurul below. This, however, is not an example of a typical Kalmyk Khurul found in Russian during the Tsarist period.
277:
178:. Kalmykia is located in the southeast European part of Russia, between the Volga and the Don Rivers. It has borders with the Republic of Daghestan in the south; the Stavropol Krai (territory) in the southwest; and the Rostov and the Volgograd Oblasts (regions) in the west and the northwest, respectively. Its eastern border is the Astrakhan Oblast. The southeast border is the Caspian Sea.
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tribes as they migrated. Upon completion of training, Kalmyk clergy dispensed not only spiritual guidance but also medical advice. As clergyman, the Kalmyk lamas enjoyed great political clout among the nobility and held a strong influence over the general tribal population. For many commoners, the only path to prestige was to join the Kalmyk monastic system.
549:
government also required the
Kalmyks to build permanent structures at government determined construction sites while imposing Russian architects (Pozdneev: 1914). In addition, the Tsar began appointing the Ĺ ajin Lama (title of the Supreme Lama of the Kalmyks). The success of this policy is borne out by the decrease in the number of Kalmyk monasteries in the
298:
This is an example of a mobile khurul that was used by
Tibetan Buddhists in Siberia at the start of the 20th century. The Kalmyks would have used a similar device prior to the 1840s. To discourage the monastic lifestyle, the Tsarist government required the building of permanent structures with funds
649:
By 1940 all Kalmyk
Buddhist temples were either closed or destroyed and the clergy systematically oppressed. Dr. Loewenthal writes that the policies were so thoroughly enforced the Kalmyk clergy and Buddhism were not mentioned in the work by B. Dzhimbinov, "Sovetskaia Kalmykiia," published in 1940.
337:
The
Kalmyks are Oirats, a people some of European scholars have designated as Western Mongols. In contrast, European scholars have designated the Khalkha, Tumet and Chahar as Eastern Mongols. Historically, the Eastern Mongols are descendants of Chingis Khan and have used the term "Mongols" to refer
235:
Upon return from exile in 1957, the
Kalmyks spoke and published primarily in Russian. Consequently, the younger generation of Kalmyks primarily speak Russian and not their own native language. This is a subject of popular concern. In recent years, attempts have been made by the Kalmyk government to
692:
The genetic results support the historical record in that they indicate a close relationship between
Kalmyks and Mongolians. Moreover, the genetic results indicate that the Kalmyk migration involved substantial numbers of individuals, and that Kalmyks have not experienced detectable admixture with
665:
By the 1980s, the Soviet campaign against religion was so successful that a majority of the
Kalmyks had never received any formal spiritual guidance. By the late 1980s, however, the Soviet government reversed course and implemented policies favoring the liberalization of religion. As a result, the
442:
Kalmyk (Oirat) Prince Esen Tayshi, captured the
Zhengtong Emperor of China after the Battle of Tumu Fortress. In 1439, Esen Tayshi succeeded his father, Toghon Tayshi, who had expanded Kalmyk territory substantially. Under Esen Tayisi's leadership, the Kalmyks took over control of Mongolia and the
239:
The attempt to re-establish the Kalmyk language has suffered setbacks, however. Recently, the
Russian Broadcasting Corporation cut broadcast time allocated to Kalmyk language programs on radio and television, choosing instead to purchase pre-produced programs, such as English language productions.
536:
Historically, Kalmyk clergy received their training either on the steppe or in Tibet. The pupils who received their religious training on the steppe joined Kalmyk monasteries, which were active centers of learning. Many of these monasteries operated out of felt tents, which accompanied the Kalmyk
548:
sought to gradually absorb and convert any subject of another creed or nationality. The Kalmyks were no exception. The Tsarist government sought to convert the Kalmyks by gradually weakening the influence of the lamas. For instance, the government severely limited Kalmyk contact with Tibet. The
204:
Other linguists, such as Nicholas N. Poppe, have classified the Kalmyk-Oirat language group as belonging to the western branch of the Mongolian language division, since the language group developed separately and is distinct. Moreover, Poppe contends that, although there is little phonetic and
220:
In contrast, some Derbets and Torghuts who migrated to the Don region took the name Buzava (or Don Kalmyks). In 1793 they officially joined the Don Cossacks and Kalmyk Sal’sk District of the Don Cossacks region was estublished. As a result of their integration into the Don Host, the Buzava
433:
Khans of Kashgar, with an army of Calmucks or Getes, invaded the Transoxian kingdom (Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter LXV). Colonel James Tod (1782-1835) (History of Rajasthan, vol. i. p. 166) would identify the Getes with the ancient race.
500:
Numerous Buddhist monasteries were erected by Kalmyks in the Great Euroasian Steppe. Most prominent of them were Ablain Kit (modern Russian city of Ust-Kamenogorsk), Dordzhiin Kit (modern Russian city of Semipalatinsk), Karkaralinsk Palace ((modern Kazakh district of Karaganda).
181:
In recent years, a large number of Kalmyks, primarily the young, have been leaving Kalmykia for larger cities in Russia, such as Moscow and St. Petersburg. The move has been precipitated by the desire of these Kalmyks to pursue better educational and economic opportunities.
307:
The Khoshotovsky Khurul was built by Prince Tyuman of the Khoshot tribe to honor the participation of Kalmyk cavalry in the War of 1812. Under Soviet rule, hundreds of temples were destroyed. Only the dilapidated foundation of the Khoshotovsky Khurul remains in existence
216:
The major dialects of Kalmyk are Derbet, Torghut, Khoshot, and Olöt. The Kalmyk dialects vary somewhat, but the differences are insignificant. Generally, the Russian Language less influenced the dialects of the pastoral nomadic Kalmyk tribes of the Volga region.
359:
Nonetheless, the Kalmyks do share some history, geography, culture, and language with the Mongols and other Central Asian nations. Moreover, the Kalmyks and the Mongols were, at least one time, united under the leadership of Esen Khan of Oirats.
367:. The alliance was comprised of four major divisions: Khoshot, Olöt, Torghut and Derbet. Minor divisions that belonged to the alliance periodically included the Khoit and Bayid. Turks, such as Telenguts, were also members of the alliance.
686:
Recent genetic studies of the Kalmyks seem to support their Mongol origins as well. The Kalmyks, unlike other Eurasian peoples from the steppes of Siberia, have not substantially mixed with Russian and other Eastern European peoples:
662:, accusing them of collaborating with the German Army. Upon rehabilitation in 1957, the Kalmyks were permitted to return home from exile, but all attempts by them to restore their religion and to build a temple failed.
645:
were destroyed and property confiscated; the clergy and many believers were harassed, killed, or sent to labor camps; religious artifacts and books were destroyed; and young men were prohibited from religious training.
703:
Thus far, genetic analysis of the Kalmyks supports their Mongol roots that also shows that entire families of Kalmyks moved to Volga region and not simply males as is generally the case with most nomadic tribal groups.
497:. This Code regulated all aspects of life of Kalmyks on their territories from the Great Wall of China to the River Don, and from the Himalaya to Siberia and was in use with certain modifications till XX century.
400:
At about the same time, Kalmyk (Oirat) expansion started. On the West, they expanded to the southern Ural, Caspian Sea shore and the lower Volga region. As a result, Kalmyk (Oirat) territories stretched from the
385:
Regarding the meaning of the name Kalmyk, since the term "Kalmyk" was in use throughout Turkic lands as early as the 1200s, some sources suggest that the name may reflect the Oirats choosing to remain in the
700:
The Kalmyks' ability to maintain a mostly homogenous existence sharply contrasts with the Russian admixture with other similar people, "as there is evidence for Russian admixture with Yakuts," for example.
236:
revive the Kalmyk language. As such, some laws have been passed regarding the usage of Kalmyk on shop signs; for example, on entrance doors, the words 'Entrance' and 'Push-Pull' appear in Kalmyk.
707:
Others doubt that result of research is credible since no data has been provided regarding if Kalmyk people of Western Mongolia or their descents were included into studied group of Mongolians.
232:, where they were dispersed and not permitted to speak the Kalmyk language in public places. As a result, the Kalmyk language was not formally taught to the younger generation of Kalmyks.
198:
division. Gordon further classifies Kalmyk-Oirat under the Oirat-Khalkha group, since he contends that Kalmyk-Oirat is related to Khalkha Mongolian – the national language of Mongolia.
451:
According to Russian and Western European historical sources, in the first half of the 16th century, the most Western territory of the Kalmyks (Oirats) was southern Siberia, the
390:
Mountains region after their Turkic neighbors migrated westward. Some have speculated that the name may reflect the Kalmyks choosing to remain Buddhist rather than converting to
378:
origin meaning "remnant" or "to remain." This name was given to the Oirats by their Turkic-speaking Muslim neighbors. The name "Kalmucks" can be found in the "Cosmography" of
318:
The Saksyusn Sune Monastery was built by the government of the Republic of Kalmykia. It opened in October 1996 and was consecrated by the Dalai Lama in November 2004.
482:
of Khoshuuts, accused Amdo province near Kok Nor Lake in Northern Tibet. The unification of Tibet followed in 1641, with Gushi Khan of the Khoshuuds proclaimed as
633:
Like the Tsarist government, the Communist regime was aware of the influence the Kalmyk clergy held over the general population. In the 1920s and the 1930s, the
280:
This map fragment shows territories of Kalmyks as in 1706. (Map Collection of the Library of Congress: "Carte de Tartarie" of Guillaume de L'Isle (1675-1726))
529:. They embraced Buddhism in the latter part of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century. Prior to their conversion, the Kalmyks practiced
209:
are two distinct languages. The major distinction is in their lexicons. The Kalmyk language, for example, has adopted many words of Russian and
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Reconstruction of ecscavated Kalmyk Buddhist Monastery of XV-XVII centuries in the district of Karaganda, Eastern Kazakhstan.
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47:
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New Central Kalmyk Buddhist Temple was built in Elista City, the Republic of Kalmykia. It opened on December 27, 2005.
394:. But according to the official historical version, Kalmyks converted to Buddhism in the middle of 16th century.
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government implemented policies to eliminate religion through control and suppression. Towards that end, Kalmyk
830:; The history of the first Buddhist temple in Central Europe and the only functioning Kalmyk temple in Europe.
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836:
Genetic Evidence for the Mongolian Ancestry of Kalmyks, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 126 (2005)
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origin. Consequently, mainly on lexiconal grounds, Kalmyk is classified as a distinct language (Poppe 1970).
767:, External Research Paper No. 101, Offiice of Intelligence Research, Department of State, September 5, 1952.
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to themselves only. Thus, they never considered the Kalmyks (Oirats) as Mongols for the following reasons:
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Turks, Russians and Western Europeans traditionally called Oirats as Kalmyks (Calmucks, Kalmouks) The word
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Map Collection of the Library of Congress: "Carte de Tartarie" of Guillaume de L'Isle (1675-1726)
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272:(1488-1552) is one of the earliest references to Kalmyks in Western European historical sources.
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THE KALMUKS AND OF THE KALMUK ASSR: A Case in the Treatment of Minorities in the Soviet Union
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and the Kuban region. Remaining nomadic tribes would subsequently become vassals of Kalmyks.
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of Torghuts, reached the lower Volga region in 1630 and forced the native inhabitants, the
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According to Robert G. Gordon, Jr., editor of the Ethnologue: Languages of the World, the
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During World War II, all Kalmyks not fighting in the Soviet Army were forcibly exiled to
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incorporated many words of Russian origin into their lexicon. (Anon. 1914: 653-660)
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Norsk Utenrikspolitisk Institutt (NUPI)'s Centre for Russian Studies Kalmykiya page
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first Buddhist community was organized in 1988. By 1995, there were 21 Buddhist
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Hami oasis on the Silk Road between the Gobi and the Takla Makan deserts.
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In 1640, near Tarbagatai Mountains, the Great Convent of Oirats ratified
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In addition, Russian sources mentioned "Kolmak Tatars" as early as 1530.
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740:, Entsiklopedicheskii Slovar Brokgauz-Efrona, XIV, St. Petersburg, 1914.
252:, a Lamist monk belonging to the Khoshot tribe, devised a script called
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In 1944, the Soviet government exiled all Kalmyks not fighting in the
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There is no historical evidence that Oirats have called themselves as
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Through immigration, Kalmyk communities have been established in the
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794:, European Center or Minority Issues, ECMI Working Paper #10, 2000.
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US Library of Congress Country Studies: Russia, The North Caucasus
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Their degree of ethnic kinship with the Mongols has been disputed.
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Official Republic of Kalmykia page about the history of Kalmykia
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Customary Law of the Mongol Tribes (Mongols, Buriats, Kalmucks)
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Donskaia Oblast, Donskoi Pervyi Okrug, Donskoi Vtoroi Okrug
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branch of Buddhism, which is also commonly referred to as
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Table – Number of Kalmyk Monasteries in the Volga Region
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Their geographical and historic background was different.
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This measure was undertaken to reduce production costs.
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The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
807:; features photographs of Kalmyks in traditional dress
521:“Yellow Hat” or Gelugpa (Virtuous Way) sect of the
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731:, Novyi Entsliklopedicheskii Solvar, XVI (1914),
553:region during the 19th century (Loewenthal 1952
828:Kalmyk Buddhist Temple in Belgrade (1929-1944)
125:, "Kalmucks," "Calmucks," "Калмыки") live in
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16:
363:Historically, the Oirats called themselves
843:BBC News Regions and territories: Kalmykia
822:; shows territories of Kalmyks as in 1706.
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382:(1488-1552), which was published in 1544.
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857:Khoshuut Monastery Reconstruction Project
678:in the Republic of Kalmykia (Grin 2000).
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509:The Kalmyks are the only inhabitants of
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293:
776:, Center for Applied Linguistics, 1970.
720:, Chapter LXV, London, 1776, 1781, 1788
478:Kalmyks (Oirats), led by Gushi Khan,
463:Kalmyks (Oirats), led by Kho Ourluk,
314:File:Saksyusn Sune Monastery 1996.jpg
205:morphological difference, Kalmyk and
194:belongs to the eastern branch of the
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792:Kalmykia: From Oblivion to Assertion
168:, the Kalmyks live primarily in the
22:Regions with significant populations
670:, 17 places of worship for various
14:
455:along the Ob' and Irtysh rivers.
785:, Moscow - Ust-Kamenogorsk, 1991
268:This map from "Cosmographia" of
774:The Mongolian Language Handbook
682:Genetic analysis of the Kalmyks
365:Dörvn Öörd ("The Allied Four")
1:
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783:Russians, Kazakhs and Altay
540:As a matter of policy, the
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486:by the Fifth Dalai Lama.
135:People's Republic of China
48:People's Republic of China
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517:. They belong to the
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248:In the 17th century,
192:Kalmyk-Oirat language
100:Related ethnic groups
41: 205,000
763:Loewenthal, Rudolf.
756:Sovetskaia Kalmykiia
495:Great Code of Nomads
491:Iki Tsaadzhin Bichig
423:Great Nomads of Asia
170:Republic of Kalmykia
31: 173,000
772:Poppe, Nicholas N.
584:early 19th century
557:Riasanovsky 1929).
544:government and the
403:Great Wall of China
286:File:Kyzyl Kent.jpg
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745:Riasanovsky, V.A.
429:XIII-XIV centuries
417:. It was the last
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380:Sebastian Munster
270:Sebastian Munster
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133:, and the
693:Russians.
672:Christian
531:shamanism
407:River Don
106:Mongolian
60:Languages
523:Mahayana
515:Buddhism
505:Religion
411:Himalaya
186:Language
160:Location
152:and the
131:Mongolia
76:Religion
37:Mongolia
668:temples
660:Siberia
639:khuruls
579:Number
542:Tsarist
527:Lamaism
519:Tibetan
453:steppes
421:of the
415:Siberia
405:to the
352:Mongols
260:History
226:Siberia
150:Germany
119:Kalmyks
90:Atheism
70:Russian
17:Kalmyks
676:mosque
635:Soviet
555:citing
511:Europe
480:Tayshi
473:Crimea
465:Tayshi
419:Empire
376:Turkic
372:Kalmyk
308:today.
174:Russia
166:Russia
146:France
127:Russia
123:Oirats
110:Buryat
66:Kalmyk
28:Russia
600:1847
592:1834
551:Volga
392:Islam
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211:Tatar
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