Vulgar Latin - Knowledge (XXG)

525:, such as political unity, frequent travel and commerce, military service, etc.—led to Latin becoming the predominant language throughout the western Mediterranean. Latin itself was subject to the same assimilatory tendencies, such that its varieties had probably become more uniform by the time the Empire fell than they had been before it. That is not to say that the language had been static for all those years, but rather that ongoing changes tended to spread to all regions. 4802: 205: 1001: 3826: 4779:, a VSO word order gained more ground as SOV tended to be more restricted to subordinate clauses or higher registers in the language; this is seen in Old Sardinian. Eventually with the disappearance of the nominative case and the entire declension system, the order became V2 to solve ambiguity issues, eventually resulting in general SVO for most by the Middle Ages. 1496:– "for the Christian people"). Using the demonstratives as articles may have still been considered overly informal for a royal oath in the 9th century. Considerable variation exists in all of the Romance vernaculars as to their actual use: in Romanian, the articles are suffixed to the noun (or an adjective preceding it), as in other languages of the 4037:

while the conjugations merged in most other respects much as in the other languages. However, the third-conjugation third-person plural present ending survived in favour of the second conjugation version, and was even extended to the fourth conjugation. Romanian also maintained the distinction between the second and third conjugation endings.

4379:

Apart from the grammatical and phonetic developments there were many cases of verbs merging as complex subtleties in Latin were reduced to simplified verbs in Romance. A classic example of this are the verbs expressing the concept "to go". Consider three particular verbs in Classical Latin expressing

3156:

Despite increasing case mergers, nominative and accusative forms seem to have remained distinct for much longer, since they are rarely confused in inscriptions. Even though Gaulish texts from the 7th century rarely confuse both forms, it is believed that both cases began to merge in Africa by the end

3054:

There also seems to be a marked tendency to confuse different forms even when they had not become homophonous (like the generally more distinct plurals), which indicates that nominal declension was shaped not only by phonetic mergers, but also by structural factors. As a result of the untenability of

4036:

French and Catalan did the same, but tended to generalise the third conjugation infinitive instead. Catalan in particular almost eliminated the second conjugation ending over time, reducing it to a small relic class. In Italian, the two infinitive endings remained separate (but spelled identically),

398:

Research in the twentieth century has in any case shifted the view to consider the differences between written and spoken Latin in more moderate terms. Just as in modern languages, speech patterns are different from written forms, and vary with education, the same can be said of Latin. For instance,

505:

An oft-posed question is why (or when, or how) Latin “fragmented” into several different languages. Current hypotheses contrast the centralizing and homogenizing socio-economic, cultural, and political forces that characterized the Roman Empire with the centrifugal forces that prevailed afterwards.

271:

as a term is both controversial and imprecise. Spoken Latin existed for a long time and in many places. Scholars have differed in opinion as to the extent of the differences, and whether Vulgar Latin was in some sense a different language. This was developed as a theory in the nineteenth century by

4032:

These two conjugations came to be conflated in many of the Romance languages, often by merging them into a single class while taking endings from each of the original two conjugations. Which endings survived was different for each language, although most tended to favour second conjugation endings

532:

in the seventh century marked the definitive end of Roman dominance over the Mediterranean. It is from approximately that century onward that regional differences proliferate in Latin documents, indicating the fragmentation of Latin into the incipient Romance languages. Until then Latin appears to

375:

characterised Vulgar Latin as to a great extent a separate language, that was more or less distinct from the written form. To Meyer-Lübke, the spoken Vulgar form was the genuine and continuous form, while Classical Latin was a kind of artificial idealised language imposed upon it; thus Romance

284:

is itself often viewed as vague and unhelpful, and it is used in very different ways by different scholars, applying it to mean spoken Latin of differing types, or from different social classes and time periods. Nevertheless, interest in the shifts in the spoken forms remains very important to

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languages were derived from the "real" Vulgar form, which had to be reconstructed from remaining evidence. Others that followed this approach divided Vulgar from Classical Latin by education or class. Other views of "Vulgar Latin" include defining it as uneducated speech, slang, or in effect,

533:

have been remarkably homogeneous, as far as can be judged from its written records, although careful statistical analysis reveals regional differences in the treatment of the vowel /ĭ/, and in the frequency of the merger of (original) intervocalic /b/ and /w/, by about the fifth century CE.

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Carlton 1973: 237. According to Pei & Gaeng (1976: 76–81), the decisive moment came with the Islamic conquest of North Africa and Iberia, which was followed by numerous raids on land and by sea. All this had the effect of disrupting connections between the western Romance-speaking

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below). But since this meant that it was easy to confuse the singular nominative with the plural oblique, and the plural nominative with the singular oblique, this case system ultimately collapsed as well, and Middle French adopted one case (usually the oblique) for all purposes.

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marking of the grammatical function of words. However, word order in most of the modern Romance languages generally adopted a standard SVO word order. This had to develop as a result of stylistic changes in the language over time as well as the decline of the declension system.

1062:, absent in Latin but present in all Romance languages, arose, largely because the highly colloquial speech in which it arose was seldom written down until the daughter languages had strongly diverged; most surviving texts in early Romance show the articles fully developed. 1936:

For some neuter nouns of the third declension, the oblique stem was productive; for others, the nominative/accusative form, (the two were identical in Classical Latin). Evidence suggests that the neuter gender was under pressure well back into the imperial period. French

3076:, and began to be replaced by "de" + noun (which originally meant "about/concerning", weakened to "of") as early as the 2nd century BC. Exceptions of remaining genitive forms are some pronouns, certain fossilized expressions and some proper names. For example, French 403:

it is completely clear from the texts during the time that Latin was a living language, there was never an unbridgeable gap between the written and spoken, nor between the language of the social elites and that of the middle, lower, or disadvantaged groups of the same

2499:

These formations were especially common when they could be used to avoid irregular forms. In Latin, the names of trees were usually feminine, but many were declined in the second declension paradigm, which was dominated by masculine or neuter nouns. Latin

279:

The current consensus is that the written and spoken languages formed a continuity much as they do in modern languages, with speech tending to evolve faster than the written language, and the written, formalised language exerting pressure back on speech.

399:

philologist József Herman agrees that the term is problematic, and therefore limits it in his work to mean the innovations and changes that turn up in spoken or written Latin that were relatively uninfluenced by educated forms of Latin. Herman states:

348:. Observing that the Romance languages have many features in common that are not found in Latin, at least not in "proper" or Classical Latin, he concluded that the former must have all had some common ancestor (which he believed most closely resembled 4117:, literally "to love I have" (cf. English "I have to love", which has shades of a future meaning). This was contracted into a new future suffix in Western Romance forms, which can be seen in the following modern examples of "I will love": 4971:, p. 5 "Comparative scholars, especially in the nineteenth century … tended to see Vulgar Latin and literary Latin as two very different kinds of language, or even two different languages altogether … but is now out of date" 2396:

in the plural. The same alternation in gender exists in certain Romanian nouns, but is considered regular as it is more common than in Italian. Thus, a relict neuter gender can arguably be said to persist in Italian and Romanian.

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The four conjugational classes generally survived. The second and third conjugations already had identical imperfect tense forms in Latin, and also shared a common present participle. Because of the merging of short

1214:); some Catalan and Occitan dialects have articles from the same source. While most of the Romance languages put the article before the noun, Romanian has its own way, by putting the article after the noun, e.g. 390:

I wish it were possible to hope the term might fall out of use. Many scholars have stated that "Vulgar Latin" is a useless and dangerously misleading term ... To abandon it once and for all can only benefit

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Herman also makes it clear that Vulgar Latin, in this view, is a varied and unstable phenomenon, crossing many centuries of usage where any generalisations are bound to cover up variations and differences.

3870:

in most of Vulgar Latin, these two conjugations grew even closer together. Several of the most frequently-used forms became indistinguishable, while others became distinguished only by stress placement:

3500:(Luke 11.40: "ye fools, did not he, that made which is without, make that which is within also?"). In some cases, compounds were created by combining a large number of particles, such as the Romanian 3361:

and other paraphrases. These particles increased in number, and many new ones were formed by compounding old ones. The descendant Romance languages are full of grammatical particles such as Spanish

4820: 833: 4735:

would once have been semantically strange at best (?'I stay escaping'), once grammaticalization was achieved, collocation with a verb of inherent mobility was no longer contradictory, and

4353:("I come"). In French, however, all the endings are typically homophonous except the first and second person (and occasionally also third person) plural, so the pronouns are always used ( 5451: 4345:

In Spanish, Italian, Romanian and Portuguese, personal pronouns can still be omitted from verb phrases as in Latin, as the endings are still distinct enough to convey that information:

3172:

This Old French system was based largely on whether or not the Latin case ending contained an "s" or not, with the "s" being retained but all vowels in the ending being lost (as with

6959: 5708:"Vulgar Latin as an emergent concept in the Italian Renaissance (1435–1601): its ancient and medieval prehistory and its emergence and development in Renaissance linguistic thought" 321:, meaning "common speech". This could simply refer to unadorned speech without the use of rhetoric, or even plain speaking. The modern usage of the term Vulgar Latin dates to the 542: 472:

texts from the sixth century onwards, which show changes, or the absence thereof, in local Latin under the influence of new educational practices and social structures.

5031:, p. 3 He discerned in the Romance languages common features that could not all be ascribed to Latin heritage, and therefore postulated a common ancestor, 2829:

The Vulgar Latin vowel shifts caused the merger of several case endings in the nominal and adjectival declensions. Some of the causes include: the loss of final

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The neuter gender of classical Latin was in most cases identical with the masculine both syntactically and morphologically. The confusion had already started in

6846: 387:

the continued use of "Vulgar Latin" is not only no aid to thought, but is, on the contrary, a positive barrier to a clear understanding of Latin and Romance....

7388: 5035:, that he believed replaced Latin before AD 1000, and which most nearly resembled the language of the troubadors (now called Old Occitan, or Old Provençal). 4294:). The fact that the future and conditional endings were originally independent words is still evident in literary Portuguese, which in these tenses allows 2621:

Except for the Italian and Romanian heteroclitic nouns, other major Romance languages have no trace of neuter nouns, but still have neuter pronouns. French

7430: 7418: 2400:

In Portuguese, traces of the neuter plural can be found in collective formations and words meant to inform a bigger size or sturdiness. Thus, one can use

383:

The result is that the term "Vulgar Latin" is regarded by some modern philologists as an essentially meaningless, but unfortunately very persistent term:

7477: 4600:), Romanian "a sta" ("to stand"), using the original form for the noun ("stare"="state"/"starea"="the state"), while Italian retained the original form. 5445: 3593:

Unlike in the nominal and adjectival inflections, pronouns kept a great part of the case distinctions. However, many changes happened. For example, the

1268:

Another indication of the weakening of the demonstratives can be inferred from the fact that at this time, legal and similar texts begin to swarm with

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Lloyd called to replace the use of "Vulgar Latin" with a series of more precise definitions, such as the spoken Latin of a particular time and place.

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This demonstrative is used in a number of contexts in some early texts in ways that suggest that the Latin demonstrative was losing its force. The

8791: 8765: 7403: 6634: 4815: 854: 276:. At its extreme, the theory suggested that the written register formed an elite language distinct from common speech, but this is now rejected. 4364:

Contrary to the millennia-long continuity of much of the active verb system, which has now survived 6000 years of known evolution, the synthetic

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ending most frequently found in the first conjugation. This led to an unusual development; phonetically, the ending was treated as the diphthong

496:

Modern Romance languages, the comparative analysis of which can be used to validate or disprove hypotheses about earlier changes in spoken Latin.

3140:, in the 2nd century BC, already shows some instances of substitution by the construction "ad" + accusative. For example, "ad carnuficem dabo". 1291:

In the less formal speech, reconstructed forms suggest that the inherited Latin demonstratives were made more forceful by being compounded with

8710: 7398: 7132: 1492:, dictated in Old French in AD 842, no demonstrative appears even in places where one would clearly be called for in all the later languages ( 1288:("Blessed Anianus was bishop in that city.") The original Latin demonstrative adjectives were no longer felt to be strong or specific enough. 8680: 7505: 7032: 5575: 5511: 975:

between vowels; the paradigm thus changed from /ī ĭ ē ĕ ā ă ŏ ō ŭ ū/ to /i ɪ e ɛ a ɔ o ʊ u/. Concurrently, stressed vowels in open syllables

2313:. Some Romance languages still have a special form derived from the ancient neuter plural which is treated grammatically as feminine: e.g., 8770: 8645: 7798: 6522: 4709:

with the semantics of 'stand' (not unlike the auxiliary in compound tenses that once meant 'have, possess', but is now semantically empty:

4033:

over the third conjugation. Spanish, for example, mostly eliminated the third conjugation forms in favour of the second conjugation forms.

7351: 5821: 4689:(Similar in concept to the Early Modern English construction of "I am a-thinking"). The process of reanalysis that took place over time 1245:("The devil is a companion of sin"), in a context that suggests that the word meant little more than an article. The need to translate 443:

The insertion, whether intentional or not, of colloquial terms or constructions into contemporary texts. Special interest is given to:

7022: 6429: 3769:, and so meaning "with a ... mind") gave rise to a widespread rule for forming adverbs in many Romance languages: adding the suffix - 8690: 7450: 7017: 7012: 6988: 6839: 6493: 6470: 6066: 6047: 6028: 6002: 5927: 5829: 5806: 5660: 2019:. In Spanish the word became feminine, while in French, Portuguese and Italian it became masculine (in Romanian it remained neuter, 1040: 987:

Towards the end of the Roman Empire /ɪ/ merged with /e/ in most regions, although not in Africa or a few peripheral areas in Italy.

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and Romance languages. To make matters more complicated, evidence for spoken forms can be found only through examination of written

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Leppänen, V., & Alho, T. 2018. On the mergers of Latin close-mid vowels. Transactions of the Philological Society 116. 460–483.

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word order in ordinary prose, although other word orders were employed, such as in poetry, euphony, focus, or emphasis, enabled by

8705: 7378: 7027: 6954: 4927: 3555:

Just as in the disappearing dative case, colloquial Latin sometimes replaced the disappearing genitive case with the preposition

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Private letters and documents from an ordinary context such as business records, lists and school exercises; these are rare but

6971: 6904: 6409:

Burghini, Julia, and Javier Uría. 2015. "Some neglected evidence on Vulgar Latin 'glide suppression': Consentius, 27.17.20 N."

4922: 466:

Christian texts, as many originated from marginalised communities; including early Bible translations and funeral inscriptions.

217: 4739:

could and did become the normal way to express 'I am escaping'. (Although it might be objected that in sentences like Spanish

4673:+ ablative gerund progressive tense in those Romance languages that have it seems to have been a passage from a usage such as 7725: 7650: 7408: 6802: 2368:("the fresh eggs") are usually analysed as masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural, with an irregular plural in 1022: 422: 4603:

The semantic shift that underlies this evolution is more or less as follows: A speaker of Classical Latin might have said:

8221: 3180:

Today, Romanian is generally considered the only Romance language with a surviving case system. However, some dialects of

1018: 8801: 8061: 7665: 7117: 6832: 6455: 4760: 4697:

so that when used in combination with the gerund the form became solely a grammatical marker of subject and tense (e.g.

264: 109: 8760: 457:

Technical works on medicine, agriculture and similar, where the demand for grammatical accuracy was lower, such as the

8685: 8444: 7500: 7383: 6929: 6627: 6226: 5798: 4662:'s/he is puny') and, as in Spanish, for the eminently transient quality implied in a verb's progressive form, such as 3858:

In general, the verbal system in the Romance languages changed less from Classical Latin than did the nominal system.

256: 6593: 8720: 8384: 8276: 8046: 7818: 7640: 7548: 7413: 7356: 5652: 1523:

in all cases (again, this is a common semantic development across Europe). This is anticipated in Classical Latin;

3192:("the wine is good"). This "predicative case" (as it is sometimes called) is a remnant of the Latin nominative in 3153:. Towards the end of the imperial period, the accusative came to be used more and more as a general oblique case. 1791:("treasure"). Most of these forms occur in the speech of one man: Trimalchion, an uneducated Greek (i.e. foreign) 1011: 8740: 7833: 7788: 7715: 7635: 7583: 7573: 7525: 6872: 6585: 976: 119: 77: 179: 8341: 8251: 7760: 7740: 7735: 7720: 7673: 7613: 7568: 7370: 6558: 1501: 873: 364: 227: 1280:, and so forth (all meaning, essentially, "aforesaid"), which seem to mean little more than "this" or "that". 2472:("blanket(s)"). Other times, it resulted in words whose gender may be changed more or less arbitrarily, like 8796: 8750: 8730: 8670: 8660: 8650: 8056: 7745: 7645: 7625: 7540: 7530: 7235: 7175: 6867: 5994: 4860: 1086: 561: 67: 4634:

in this case was still semantically transparent assuming that it meant "to stand", but soon the shift from

8755: 8745: 8695: 8675: 8489: 8464: 8429: 8311: 8036: 7683: 7445: 6976: 6620: 5743:

Gouvert, Xavier. 2016. Du protoitalique au protoroman: Deux problèmes de reconstruction phonologique. In:

4865: 4743:, "the cathedral is in the city" this is also unlikely to change, but all locations are expressed through 4093: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 3594: 3073: 972: 911: 372: 4565:, which originally meant (and is cognate with) "to stand", to denote a more temporary meaning. That is, * 209:

Latin-speaking or otherwise heavily Latin-influenced areas in the Later Roman Empire, highlighted in red.

8725: 8655: 8479: 8231: 8031: 8026: 7823: 7730: 7655: 7618: 7603: 7578: 7558: 7460: 6546: 6435:

Lakoff, Robin Tolmach. 2006. Vulgar Latin: Comparative Castration (and Comparative Theories of Syntax).

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inherited both Romance meanings of "being essentially" and "being temporarily of the quality of", while

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has been either preserved or reinstated in the modern languages, for example FILIUS ("son") > French

522: 518: 459: 333:

originated in a sort of "corrupted" Latin that they assumed formed an entity distinct from the literary

114: 3809:, meaning 'mind') into a suffix (although remaining in free lexical use in other contexts e.g. Italian 6579: 5680:

A linguistic analysis of a collection of Late Latin documents composed in Ravenna between A.D. 445–700

8735: 8700: 8389: 8379: 8256: 8156: 8081: 7946: 7909: 7285: 6949: 6796: 6781: 4498: 2564:

As usual, irregularities persisted longest in frequently used forms. From the fourth declension noun

1708:("this place"). The morphological confusion shows primarily in the adoption of the nominative ending 899: 623: 6536: 4441:. At the extreme French merged three Latin verbs with, for example, the present tense deriving from 1253:, which had a definite article, may have given Christian Latin an incentive to choose a substitute. 8665: 8514: 8316: 8186: 8136: 7455: 7052: 4855: 4845: 4151: 2849:(see tables). Thus, by the 5th century, the number of case contrasts had been drastically reduced. 1682: 1489: 510: 310: 4237:

The first historical attestation of this new future can be found in a 7th-century Latin lext, the

8715: 8439: 8246: 8101: 8041: 7961: 7904: 7768: 7004: 6983: 6749: 6440: 6414: 5968: 5890: 5866: 5772: 4912: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4607:, meaning "the man is in/at the marketplace". The same sentence in Vulgar Latin could have been * 4254: 3814: 3056: 1520: 1195: 1082: 529: 360: 8354: 6223:

From Latin to Modern French with Especial Consideration of Anglo-Norman Phonology and Morphology

5902:

Meyer, Paul (1906). "Beginnings and Progress of Romance Philology". In Rogers, Howard J. (ed.).

5594:(Pseudo-Frédégaire, VIIe siècle) : de la bonne interprétation d’un jalon de la romanistique 6259:

Vincent, Nigel (2006). "Languages in contact in Medieval Italy". In Lepschy, Anna Laura (ed.).

4298:

object pronouns to be incorporated between the root of the verb and its ending: "I will love" (

4092:. This suggests that in the spoken language, these changes in conjugation preceded the loss of 626:

fared poorly, with all of the following vanishing in the course of its development to Romance:

8349: 8201: 7956: 7916: 7894: 7102: 6791: 6786: 6717: 6489: 6466: 6062: 6043: 6024: 5998: 5923: 5825: 5802: 5656: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4840: 4835: 4155: 4060:

sound was simply dropped. We know this because it did not participate in the sound shift from

4041: 3853: 3831: 3158: 3060: 1497: 1231: 1107: 943: 902:(after a consonant and before another vowel) became , which palatalized preceding consonants. 850: 573: 486: 451: 345: 298: 49: 6078:

Französisches etymologisches Wörterbuch: eine Darstellung des galloromanischen Sprachschatzes

8414: 8374: 8306: 8241: 8166: 8161: 7933: 7856: 7803: 7598: 7593: 7482: 7341: 7290: 7250: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7200: 7122: 7069: 7062: 7047: 7042: 6966: 6894: 6771: 6766: 5960: 5858: 5764: 5719: 4772: 4287: 4283: 4210: 4184: 4180: 3181: 1992: 1767: 1281: 1254: 1078: 1059: 865:

Word-final /m/ was lost in polysyllabic words. In monosyllables it tended to survive as /n/.

790: 557: 330: 72: 2007:("milk"), all derive from the non-standard but attested Latin nominative/accusative neuter 8509: 8321: 8301: 8261: 8196: 8146: 8141: 8016: 7966: 7874: 7708: 7688: 7608: 7057: 6882: 6678: 5835: 5465: 4875: 4850: 4807: 4358: 4121: 4104: 3795: 3145: 482: 334: 290: 59: 20: 6452:

From Vulgar Latin to Old French: An Introduction to the Study of the Old French Language.

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From Latin to Portuguese: Historical Phonology and Morphology of the Portuguese Language

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the noun case system after these phonetic changes, Vulgar Latin shifted from a markedly

2027: 1276: 667: 615: 8564: 8206: 7941: 7889: 7861: 7808: 7793: 7773: 7588: 7563: 7520: 7510: 7336: 7310: 7240: 7225: 7190: 7150: 6911: 6704: 6444: 4830: 4492: 4373: 3825: 3502: 3417: 2586: 839: 569: 514: 490: 140: 6144:

The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages. Part 1: The Making of the Romance Languages

5906:. Vol. III. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. pp. 237–255. 3109: 3088: 1457: 1447: 1270: 954:/ae̯/ and /oe̯/ monophthongized to and respectively by around the second century AD. 804: 712: 603: 195: 8785: 8096: 8066: 7981: 7515: 7492: 7305: 7160: 7145: 7092: 6899: 6808: 6503:

Zovic, V (2015). "Vulgar Latin in Inscriptions from the Roman Province of Dalmatia".

4825: 4365: 3847: 3756: 3184:

retain a special predicative form of the masculine singular identical to the plural:

3150: 3068: 2548: 2510:

tree"), a feminine noun with a masculine-looking ending, became masculine in Italian

1265:("through the middle of the valley"), suggesting that it too was weakening in force. 1074: 968: 565: 435: 377: 286: 172: 3781: 3480: 3444:

Some of these new compounds appear in literary texts during the late empire; French

3103: 3097: 2683: 2592: 2316: 2102: 1787: 878: 776: 683: 671: 655: 597: 517:

in the conquered provinces. Over time this—along with other factors that encouraged

313:, Roman authors referred to the informal, everyday variety of their own language as 8574: 8434: 7828: 7783: 7778: 7630: 7440: 7326: 7270: 7265: 7155: 7037: 6921: 6855: 6541: 4885: 4706: 4369: 4100: 3423: 2629: 2623: 2357: 1685:

of Classical Latin were replaced by a two-gender system in most Romance languages.

1405: 1298: 1238: 964: 601:, meaning 'to speak', was replaced by a variety of alternatives such as the native 204: 147: 5881:

Lloyd, Paul M. (1979). "On the Definition of 'Vulgar Latin': The Eternal Return".

5744: 2614: 2337: 2327: 1854: 1369: 820: 810: 756: 750: 736: 695: 679: 647: 639: 635: 609: 590: 417:

Evidence for the features of non-literary Latin comes from the following sources:

359:

The first truly modern treatise on Romance linguistics and the first to apply the

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variety, though opinions differed greatly on the nature of this "vulgar" dialect.

4627:), because "standing" was what was perceived as what the man was actually doing. 4592: 4586: 4533: 3399: 2695: 2689: 2647: 2641: 2530: 2492: 2486: 2480: 2474: 2465: 2456: 2429: 2420: 2300: 2291: 1978: 1431: 8369: 7991: 7813: 7703: 7097: 6813: 6597: 6596:. Paris: Laboratoire d'Histoire des théories linguistiques. 2008. Archived from 4870: 4523: 4517: 4473: 4467: 4437: 4372:

verb forms—composed of the verb "to be" plus a passive participle—or impersonal

4246: 3730: 3358: 3166: 3132: 2557: 2521: 2346: 2282: 2232: 2059: 1737: 1421: 1359: 1349: 1250: 1246: 1000: 895: 722: 691: 675: 651: 643: 584: 349: 322: 5734: 4801: 3464: 3446: 2793: 2725: 2719: 2713: 2447: 2438: 2372:. However, it is also consistent with their historical development to say that 2021: 2000: 1848: 1477: 1467: 1437: 1415: 1329: 8594: 8534: 8499: 8291: 8226: 8216: 8111: 7996: 7884: 7467: 7435: 7180: 7107: 6939: 6934: 6691: 4932: 4880: 4797: 4764: 4479: 4455: 4388: 4109: 3748: 3742: 3498:

stulti, nonne qui fecit, quod de foris est, etiam id, quod de intus est fecit?

3455: 3381: 3363: 3162: 2756: 2539: 2309: 2269: 2263: 2202: 2161: 2143: 2120: 2031:). Other neuter forms, however, were preserved in Romance; Catalan and French 2015: 1987: 1969: 1866: 1842: 1830: 1757: 1541: 1399: 1073:(an analogous development is found in many Indo-European languages, including 927: 766: 699: 687: 663: 659: 580: 469: 294: 5847:

Johnson, Mark J. (1988). "Toward a History of Theoderic's Building Program".

4539: 3078: 2605: 2411: 2402: 2045: 1339: 1319: 8624: 8619: 8579: 8504: 8474: 8454: 8331: 8271: 8181: 8131: 8126: 8051: 8011: 7899: 7869: 7678: 7553: 7346: 7230: 7205: 7084: 6733: 6663: 4561: 4461: 4453:. Similarly the Romance distinction between the Romance verbs for "to be", 3775: 3761: 3718: 3713: 3474: 2787: 2653: 2577: 2515: 2502: 2388:) and that the characteristic ending for words agreeing with these nouns is 2374: 2254: 2184: 2039: 2009: 1960: 1951: 1860: 1836: 1824: 1777: 1747: 1728: 1601: 1309: 1303: 1102: 1070: 869: 631: 627: 553: 429: 188: 160: 124: 6390:

The Text and Language of a Vulgar Latin Chronicle (Anonymus Valesianus II).

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specialized into a verb denoting location or dwelling, or state of health.

2777: 2635: 2245: 1942: 1905: 1893: 1884: 421:

Explicit mention of certain constructions or pronunciation habits by Roman

5554: 4747:

in Spanish, as this usage originally conveyed the sense of "the cathedral

4503: 3793:

became a productive suffix for forming adverbs in Romance such as Italian

3736: 3724: 3437: 3375: 2659: 2618:, which preserve the feminine gender along with the masculine appearance. 2380: 1878: 1872: 1509: 1389: 1379: 1293: 1206: 1200: 1096: 1090: 933:/ks/ before or after a consonant, or at the end of a word, reduced to /s/. 8584: 8569: 8559: 8544: 8459: 8449: 8419: 8409: 8404: 8394: 8296: 8211: 8091: 8076: 8006: 7986: 7976: 7971: 7951: 7750: 7331: 7295: 7185: 7112: 6944: 5839: 4548: 3379:(which in Romanian literally means "from where"/"where from"), or French 2732:

In Spanish, a three-way contrast is also made with the definite articles

2033: 1899: 1792: 1172: 1166: 478: 326: 235: 223: 6418: 5894: 4382: 2746: 2740: 2734: 2677: 2671: 2665: 1515: 1190: 1184: 1178: 1160: 1154: 1148: 1142: 1136: 8604: 8599: 8589: 8554: 8549: 8539: 8484: 8469: 8286: 8281: 8266: 8236: 8191: 8171: 8151: 8106: 7838: 7693: 7472: 7280: 7275: 7165: 6128:

The origin of the Romance languages: Stages in the development of Latin

5870: 5524: 3157:

of the empire, and a bit later in parts of Italy and Iberia. Nowadays,

3137: 1689: 1118: 1112: 1066: 1025: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 231: 6824: 5972: 5776: 4646:

ended up only denoting natural qualities that would not change, while

3805:'clearly'. The development of an originally autonomous form (the noun 3393: 3387: 3369: 8614: 8494: 8424: 8364: 8359: 8326: 8086: 8071: 8021: 8001: 7423: 7300: 7195: 4783: 4295: 3838: 3709: 3493: 3354: 2525:; in French and Spanish it was replaced by the masculine derivations 1524: 579:

A commonly-cited example is the replacement of the highly irregular (

447: 352:) that replaced Latin some time before the year 1000. This he dubbed 6562: 5904:

Congress of Arts and Sciences: Universal Exposition, St. Louis, 1904

5862: 3559:

followed by the ablative, then eventually the accusative (oblique).

3149:

developed as a prepositional case, displacing many instances of the

509:

By the end of the first century CE the Romans had seized the entire

428:

Recurrent grammatical, syntactic, or orthographic mistakes in Latin

6153:

The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages. Volume II: Contexts

6057:

Vincent, Nigel (1990). "Latin". In Harris, M.; Vincent, N. (eds.).

5964: 5910:

Nandris, Grigore. 1951. The development and structure of Rumanian.

5768: 5755:

Hall, Robert A. Jr. (1950). "The Reconstruction of Proto-Romance".

2240:; the plural form lies at the root of the French feminine singular 8399: 8121: 7848: 7140: 6644: 6151:

Maiden, Martin; Smith, John Charles; Ledgeway, Adam, eds. (2013).

4290:) also developed in the same way (infinitive + conjugated form of 3824: 1286:

Erat autem... beatissimus Anianus in supradicta civitate episcopus

710:

Many words experienced a shift in meaning. Some notable cases are

260: 82: 552:

Over the centuries, spoken Latin lost certain words in favour of

8609: 8176: 8116: 7698: 7074: 6612: 3752:. All of these derivational suffixes were lost in Vulgar Latin. 2782: 2507: 1802:-ending has been largely abandoned, and all substantives of the 6828: 6616: 2230:; some of these were reanalysed as feminine singulars, such as 1545:

in the meaning of "a certain" or "some" by the 1st century BC.

1176:(elision of -l- is a common feature of Portuguese) and Italian 16:

Non-standard Latin variety spoken by the people of ancient Rome

7170: 6578:

Norberg, Dag (2009) . "Latin at the End of the Imperial Age".

4501:(that is, the verb signifying "to be") of Classical Latin was 4076:("I loved; he/she loved") in many areas became proto-Romance * 1554:

1st and 2nd adjectival declension paradigm in Classical Latin:

994: 556:; in favour of borrowings from neighbouring languages such as 285:

understand the transition from Latin or Late Latin through to

6486:

Orthographic traditions and the sub-elite in the Roman Empire

6392:

London: University of London, Institute of Classical Studies.

4650:

was applied to transient qualities and location. In Italian,

4559:

In Vulgar Latin a second copula developed utilizing the verb

4107:. A new future was originally formed with the auxiliary verb 3708:

Classical Latin had a number of different suffixes that made

572:. The “lost” words often continued to enjoy some currency in 6171:

Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France

6087:

Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France

5649:

Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin

2750:. The last is used with nouns denoting abstract categories: 2543:; and in Portuguese and Catalan by the feminine derivations 6478:

Outline of the historical and comparative grammar of Latin.

6411:

Glotta; Zeitschrift Für Griechische Und Lateinische Sprache

5565: 5563: 4782:

Relics of SOV word order still survive in the placement of

6136:

From Latin to Romance: Morphosyntactic Typology and Change

5501: 5499: 5497: 4821:

Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance

4511:

in Vulgar Latin by attaching the common infinitive suffix

4449:(or something like it) and the future tense deriving from 834:

Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance

234:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

6076:

von Wartburg, Walther; Chambon, Jean-Pierre (1922–1967).

4654:

is used mainly for location, transitory state of health (

3353:

The loss of a productive noun case system meant that the

6397:

The Vulgar Latin of the letters of Claudius Terentianus.

6180:

Latin and the Romance Languages in the Early Middle ages

4681:

form carries the full semantic load of 'stand, stay' to

4611:, "the man stands in/at the marketplace", replacing the 3789:(originally "with a quick mind", "quick-mindedly"), and 5537: 5535: 5533: 5484: 5482: 5480: 5478: 5476: 5474: 3357:

purposes it formerly served now had to be performed by

3198: 2947: 2851: 568:; or in favour of other Latin words that had undergone 6238:(Revised ed.). London, England: Grant and Cutler. 2065: 2049:("name") all preserve the Latin nominative/accusative 1552: 1531:("with a most immoral gladiator"). This suggests that 5793:

Harrington, K. P.; Pucci, J.; Elliott, A. G. (1997).

2277:, that originated the Catalan feminine singular noun 1198:

went its own way here also, forming its article from

543:

Lexical changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance

6261:

Rethinking Languages in Contact: The Case of Italian

4705:= subject first person singular, past), no longer a 4376:

forms—composed of a verb and a passivizing pronoun.

8633: 8527: 8340: 7932: 7925: 7847: 7759: 7664: 7539: 7491: 7369: 7319: 7258: 7249: 7131: 7083: 7003: 6920: 6881: 6360:. New York: Modern Language Association of America. 6207:. New York: Modern Language Association of America. 5951:Pulgram, Ernst (1950). "Spoken and Written Latin". 4515:to the classical infinitive; this produced Italian 4465:, was lost in French as these merged into the verb 186: 170: 158: 153: 137: 102: 56: 44: 30: 6163:The Transition from Latin to the Romance Languages 5984:. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. 6344:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 6292:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 6155:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 4685:of the construction as expression of progressive 4642:became more widespread. In the Iberian peninsula 4368:was utterly lost in Romance, being replaced with 3072:died out around the 3rd century AD, according to 5820:. Translated by Wright, Roger. University Park: 4677:'I stand/stay (here) in thinking', in which the 3609:Reconstructed pronominal system of Vulgar Latin 2568:("hand"), another feminine noun with the ending 1058:It is difficult to place the point in which the 589:, meaning 'to carry', with the entirely regular 6308:A History of the Spanish Language Through Texts 6283:. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. 5598:Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris 4420:was maintained as a separate verb derived from 6333:Latim e Romance na segunda metade do século XI 6196:A History of the French Language through Texts 3397:, while the equivalent Spanish and Portuguese 6840: 6628: 6505:Vjesnik Za Arheologiju I Povijest Dalmatinsku 6159:Latin and the Making of the Romance Languages 6142:Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin, eds. (2016). 5674:. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press. 5430: 5428: 3605:appears in manuscripts from the 6th century. 3136:lasted longer than the genitive, even though 2729:("all of him" / "all of her" / "all of it"). 2222:Most neuter nouns had plural forms ending in 1065:Definite articles evolved from demonstrative 8: 6013:A history of the Byzantine state and society 5945:The story of Latin and the Romance languages 5640:Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction 5574:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGrandgent1991 ( 5510:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGrandgent1991 ( 2805:, in the conservative orthography of French 2797:, and particularly in proper names: Spanish 1798:In modern Romance languages, the nominative 6301:. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 6146:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 5692:(in German) (5th ed.). Bonn: E. Weber. 4408:, which derives some conjugated forms from 1533: 967:collapsed by the fifth century AD, leaving 36: 7929: 7255: 6887: 6847: 6833: 6825: 6653: 6635: 6621: 6613: 5991:New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin 5418: 5416: 5414: 4701:= subject first person singular, present; 3854:Romance languages § Verbal morphology 3773:to the feminine form of the adjective. So 2267:is a borrowing from French); the same for 344:is often regarded as the father of modern 203: 27: 6488:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5723: 5569: 5505: 4759:Classical Latin in most cases adopted an 4099:Another major systemic change was to the 3755:An alternative formation with a feminine 2675:("to him" /"to her" / "to it"), Catalan: 1301:: "behold!"), which also spawned Italian 1230:), possibly a result of being within the 1041:Learn how and when to remove this message 914:/b/ merge as the bilabial fricative /β/. 19:For obscene or "vulgar" Latin words, see 6584:. Translated by Johnson, R.H. New York: 6404:Social Variation and the Latin Language. 5633:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3873: 3607: 1806:-declension have an ending derived from 6399:Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press. 6299:A Brief History of the Spanish Language 6096:A Sociophilological Study of Late Latin 6080:(in German and French). Bonn: F. Klopp. 5642:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 5631:Social variation and the Latin language 5624:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 5363:Grandgent 1907: §226; Pope 1934: §187.b 5354:Grandgent 1907: §267; Pope 1934: §156.3 5016: 4949: 4816:Palatalization in the Romance languages 3601:was lost by the end of the empire, and 3584:"Marcus is giving me book of father." 3169:had a two-case subject-oblique system. 2771:In a few isolated masculine nouns, the 2764: 2754:, literally "that which is good", from 855:Palatalization in the Romance languages 340:The early 19th-century French linguist 305:History of the Vulgar Latin controversy 228:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 6406:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5943:Pei, Mario & Gaeng, Paul A. 1976. 5940:. New York: Columbia University Press. 5541: 5488: 5454:from the original on 21 November 2022. 5249: 5200: 5188: 5176: 5164: 5152: 5140: 5128: 5116: 5104: 5056: 5044: 5028: 5004: 4980: 4968: 4956: 4253:) used as future is characteristic of 3813:'come to mind') is a textbook case of 6463:Saggi linguistici sul latino volgare. 6236:The French language: present and past 5912:The Slavonic and East European Review 5672:From Latin to Romance in Sound Charts 5622:The Regional Diversification of Latin 5261: 5092: 5080: 5068: 4992: 4892:History of specific Romance languages 4249:of the form 'to have to' (late Latin 2057:(which nevertheless produced Spanish 2053:, rather than the oblique stem form * 1649: 1643: 1243:Est tamen ille daemon sodalis peccati 7: 6042:(3rd ed.). Paris: Klincksieck. 5747:& Schweickard, Wolfgang (eds.), 5651:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: 5221:Wright 2002: 27–28; Pei 1941: 16, 23 3571:"Marcus is giving me father's book. 3551:"Marcus is giving book to father." 2351:ipsa animalia aliquas mortas fuerant 2249:, as well as of Catalan and Occitan 1023:adding citations to reliable sources 918:Simplification of consonant clusters 6426:From Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal. 5822:Pennsylvania State University Press 4052:rather than containing a semivowel 3208:(definite article in parentheses). 3161:maintains a two-case system, while 2949:Evolution of a 2nd declension noun: 2853:Evolution of a 1st declension noun: 1317:. This is the origin of Old French 851:Romance languages § Consonants 481:into neighboring languages such as 438:, as a special kind of inscription. 6430:University of North Carolina Press 6324:Introdução à História do Português 6138:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5689:Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen 5464:Menéndez Pidal 1968, p. 208; 4669:The historical development of the 4584:evolved to Spanish and Portuguese 4537:as well as Spanish and Portuguese 4103:, remodelled in Vulgar Latin with 4084:, yielding for example Portuguese 2418:("roe", "collection(s) of eggs"), 2037:, Leonese, Portuguese and Italian 14: 6581:Manuel pratique de latin médiéval 6374:Storia linguistica della Sardegna 6306:Pountain, Christopher J. (2000). 6290:A History of the Spanish Language 5553:Romanian Explanatory Dictionary ( 5345:Pope 1934: §155; Gouvert 2016: 48 4044:, many languages generalized the 3538:"Marcus is giving father book." 2378:is simply a regular neuter noun ( 1917:in the accusative in both words: 1834:("sky") have evolved to: Italian 1085:); compare the fate of the Latin 6594:"Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum" 6465:Mantova: Universitas Studiorum. 6376:. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. 6214:French: From Dialect to Standard 6105:Transitions to Romance languages 6021:Etymological Dictionary of Latin 5678:Carlton, Charles Merritt. 1973. 4928:History of the Romanian language 4800: 4771:In Late Latin works, such as in 1909:. However, Old French still had 999: 926:/kw/ delabialized to /k/ before 774:('send' → 'put', competing with 369:Grammar of the Romance Languages 329:thinkers began to theorize that 301:, depending on the time period. 6372:Blasco Ferrer, Eduardo (1984). 6252:A Linguistic History of Italian 5749:Dictionnaire étymologique roman 5736:An Introduction to Vulgar Latin 5390:Leppänen & Alho 2018: 21–22 4923:History of the Spanish language 3915:Second conjugation (Classical) 1488:On the other hand, even in the 1010:needs additional citations for 944:Romance languages § Vowels 477:The pronunciation of Roman-era 8792:Latin language in ancient Rome 6803:Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 6358:An Introduction to Old Occitan 6335:. Lisbon: Fundação Gulbenkian. 6040:Introduction au latin vulgaire 5784:Hall, Robert Anderson (1976). 4786:object pronouns (e.g. Spanish 3973:Third conjugation (Classical) 3842:) is the earliest Spanish text 3569:Marcus mihi librum patris dat. 3101:("it is necessary") < "est 2954:("wall") (masculine singular) 2858:("onion") (feminine singular) 2572:, Italian and Spanish derived 2427:("section(s) of an edge") and 983:Loss of near-close front vowel 923:The cluster /nkt/ reduced to . 1: 6310:. London, England: Routledge. 6216:. London/New York: Routledge. 6205:An Introduction to Old French 6198:. London/New York: Routledge. 6194:Ayres-Bennett, Wendy (1995). 6182:. London/New York: Routledge. 5947:. New York: Harker & Row. 5883:Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 5751:2, 27–51. Berlin: De Gruyter. 4741:la catedral está en la ciudad 4527:through Proto-Gallo-Romance * 3582:*Marcos mi da libru de patre. 3200:Evolution of a masculine noun 3082:("Thursday") < Old French 1529:cum uno gladiatore nequissimo 876:of the preceding vowel (e.g. 818:'all, every', competing with 342:François-Just-Marie Raynouard 255:, is the range of non-formal 7419:Frontiers and fortifications 6547:Resources in other libraries 6456:Wayne State University Press 6267:(Routledge). pp. 12–27. 6173:. Liverpool: Francis Cairns. 6119:Du latin aux langues romanes 6089:. Liverpool: Francis Cairns. 6015:. Stanford University Press. 5712:Journal of Latin Linguistics 5701:. London: Faber & Faber. 5300:Harrington et al. 1997: 7–10 5273:Alkire & Rosen 2010: 287 4556:, which means "to become"). 4396:. In Spanish and Portuguese 3944:Second conjugation (Vulgar) 3765:(originally the ablative of 3680: 3660: 3641: 3625: 3612: 3340: 3332: 3324: 3306: 3285: 3280: 3272: 3264: 3246: 3225: 3036: 3031: 3016: 2996: 2976: 2940: 2920: 2910: 2900: 2880: 2178: 2137: 2096: 2080: 1661: 1653: 1639: 1622: 1595: 868:/n/ was usually lost before 513:and established hundreds of 450:from Egypt and tablets from 356:or "the Romance language". 7478:Decorations and punishments 6340:Williams, Edwin B. (1968). 6227:Manchester University Press 6203:Kibler, William W. (1984). 6178:Wright, Roger, ed. (1991). 6126:Bonfante, Giuliano (1999). 6061:. Oxford University Press. 5799:University of Chicago Press 5670:Boyd-Bowman, Peter (1980). 4666:to express 'I am writing'. 4002:Third conjugation (Vulgar) 2077:Adjectives and determiners 910:/w/ (except after /k/) and 8818: 8385:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 6960:historiography of the fall 6557:Batzarov, Zdravko (2000). 6480:Ann Arbor, MI: Beechstave. 6461:Scarpanti, Edoardo. 2012. 6356:Paden, William D. (1998). 6331:Emiliano, António (2003). 6326:. Lisbon: Edições Colibri. 6297:Pharies, David A. (2007). 6212:Lodge, R. Anthony (1993). 6130:. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. 5922:. University of Oklahoma. 5653:Cambridge University Press 5629:Adams, James Noel (2013). 5291:Harrington et al. 1997: 11 4490: 3851: 3845: 3468:("outside") all represent 1781:("wine"), and conversely, 1539:was beginning to supplant 1367:) and (now mainly Tuscan) 941: 848: 837: 831: 540: 18: 8766:External wars and battles 6890: 6863: 6762: 6651: 6586:Columbia University Press 6542:Resources in your library 6402:Adams, James Noel. 2013. 6395:Adams, James Noel. 1977. 6388:Adams, James Noel. 1976. 6234:Price, Glanville (1998). 6221:Pope, Mildred K. (1934). 6117:Banniard, Michel (1997). 6038:Väänänen, Veikko (1981). 6011:Treadgold, Warren. 1997. 5733:Grandgent, C. H. (1907). 5647:Allen, W. Sidney (1965). 5434:Harrington et al. (1997). 4247:periphrastic construction 4056:, and in other cases the 3909: 3906: 3899: 3878: 3876: 3621: 3618: 3615: 3549:*Marcos da libru a patre. 3349:Wider use of prepositions 3336: 3317: 3286: 3276: 3257: 3226: 3212: 3114: 3102: 3087: 3025: 3020: 3010: 2934: 2929: 2924: 2894: 2889: 2315: 2076: 2073: 1671: 1665: 1626: 1615: 1600: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1485:), and many other forms. 1241:Bible contains a passage 214: 202: 35: 5980:Posner, Rebecca (1996). 5686:Diez, Friedrich (1882). 5466:Survivances du cas sujet 4306:, but "I will love you" 3536:Marcus patrī librum dat. 3119:" as well as names like 2356:Alternations in Italian 2067:Typical Italian endings 2013:or accusative masculine 1502:North Germanic languages 1249:that were originally in 1210:an intensive adjective ( 874:compensatory lengthening 828:Phonological development 788:'drown', competing with 764:'thing', competing with 463:, a veterinary treatise. 365:Friedrich Christian Diez 8761:Roman–Iranian relations 7236:Optimates and populares 6484:Zair, Nicholas (2023). 6450:Rohlfs, Gerhard. 1970. 6445:10.5325/style.40.1-2.56 6279:Lloyd, Paul M. (1987). 6263:. Oxford and New York: 6250:Maiden, Martin (1996). 6157:(esp. parts 1 & 2, 6134:Ledgeway, Adam (2012). 6019:Tucker, T. G. (1985) . 5995:Oxford University Press 5918:Palmer, L. R. (1988) . 5816:Herman, József (2000). 5786:Proto-Romance Phonology 5706:Eskhult, Josef (2018). 5450:. Speech 2, chapter 3. 5444:Marcus Tullius Cicero. 5230:Treadgold 1997: 371–372 4826:Proto-Romance languages 4591: 4532: 4471:. In Italian, the verb 4427:Italian instead merged 3506:("just recently") from 2273:("wood stick"), plural 1397:); Spanish and Occitan 1338: 1328: 1318: 1313:, a contracted form of 1263:per mediam vallem ipsam 1134:), Catalan and Spanish 1087:demonstrative adjective 613:or the Greek borrowing 48:Developed into various 8771:Civil wars and revolts 8037:Sextus Pompeius Festus 7684:Conflict of the Orders 7043:Legislative assemblies 6476:Weiss, Michael. 2009. 6169:Wright, Roger (1982). 6094:Wright, Roger (2002). 6085:Wright, Roger (1982). 5989:Sihler, A. L. (1995). 5725:10.1515/joll-2018-0006 5697:Elcock, W. D. (1960). 4585: 4560: 4547: 4538: 4522: 4516: 4502: 4478: 4472: 4466: 4460: 4454: 4436: 4387: 4381: 4214: 4188: 4159: 4125: 4108: 3843: 3800: 3794: 3780: 3774: 3760: 3747: 3741: 3735: 3729: 3723: 3717: 3501: 3479: 3473: 3463: 3454: 3445: 3436: 3422: 3416: 3398: 3392: 3386: 3380: 3374: 3368: 3367:, "where", from Latin 3362: 3188:("the good wine") vs. 3108: 3096: 3077: 2792: 2786: 2776: 2755: 2745: 2739: 2733: 2724: 2718: 2712: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2676: 2670: 2664: 2658: 2652: 2646: 2640: 2634: 2628: 2622: 2613: 2604: 2591: 2585: 2576: 2556: 2547: 2538: 2529: 2520: 2514: 2501: 2491: 2485: 2479: 2473: 2464: 2455: 2446: 2437: 2428: 2419: 2410: 2401: 2379: 2373: 2336: 2326: 2308: 2299: 2290: 2281: 2268: 2262: 2253: 2244: 2231: 2201: 2183: 2160: 2142: 2119: 2101: 2058: 2044: 2038: 2032: 2026: 2020: 2014: 2008: 1999: 1986: 1977: 1968: 1959: 1950: 1941: 1913:in the nominative and 1904: 1898: 1892: 1883: 1877: 1871: 1865: 1859: 1853: 1847: 1841: 1835: 1829: 1823: 1786: 1776: 1766: 1756: 1746: 1736: 1731:'s work, one can find 1540: 1534: 1514: 1508: 1476: 1466: 1456: 1446: 1436: 1430: 1420: 1414: 1404: 1398: 1388: 1378: 1368: 1358: 1348: 1308: 1302: 1292: 1275: 1269: 1205: 1199: 1189: 1183: 1177: 1171: 1165: 1159: 1153: 1147: 1141: 1135: 1117: 1111: 1101: 1095: 1089: 959:Loss of vowel quantity 802:'pay', competing with 595:. Similarly, the verb 406: 393: 371:. Researchers such as 216:This article contains 37: 8480:Simplicius of Cilicia 8232:Quintus Curtius Rufus 7461:Siege in Ancient Rome 7070:Executive magistrates 6439:40, nos. 1–2: 56–61. 6424:Jensen, Frede. 1972. 6288:Penny, Ralph (2002). 6281:From Latin to Spanish 6111:To Romance in general 6059:The Romance Languages 5982:The Romance Languages 5850:Dumbarton Oaks Papers 5788:. New York: Elsevier. 5739:. Boston: D.C. Heath. 5699:The Romance Languages 5620:Adams, J. N. (2007). 4918:History of Portuguese 4404:merged into the verb 4380:concepts of "going": 4240:Chronicle of Fredegar 3828: 3779:("quick") instead of 3427:, "after", represent 3113:("earthquake") < " 2825:Loss of oblique cases 2785:("god") > Spanish 1828:("wall"), and neuter 1549:Loss of neuter gender 973:distinguishing factor 965:phonemic vowel length 460:Mulomedicina Chironis 401: 385: 120:Proto-Latino-Faliscan 8490:Stephanus Byzantinus 8395:Eusebius of Caesaria 8257:Sidonius Apollinaris 7947:Ammianus Marcellinus 7286:Tribune of the plebs 6797:Latino sine flexione 6782:Ecclesiastical Latin 6322:Castro, Ivo (2004). 6254:. New York: Longman. 5938:The Italian language 5682:. The Hague: Mouton. 5600:, 112/1, p. 123-130. 5399:Adams 2013: 60–1, 67 5372:Grandgent 1907: §255 2841:, and the merger of 2392:in the singular and 2364:("the fresh egg") / 1218:("the wolf" – from * 1019:improve this article 530:first Arab caliphate 8802:Gallo-Roman culture 8666:Distinguished women 8317:Velleius Paterculus 8157:Nicolaus Damascenus 8137:Marcellus Empiricus 7526:Republican currency 6565:on 25 December 2018 6098:. Utrecht: Brepols. 6023:. Ares Publishers. 5638:Alkire, Ti (2010). 5588:Peter Nahon (2017). 5212:Grandgent 1907: 2–3 4856:Glosas Emilianenses 4846:Oaths of Strasbourg 4755:Word order typology 4609:(h)omo stat in foro 4507:. This evolved to * 4286:(distinct from the 3734:, "fiercely", from 3610: 3209: 3086:< Vulgar Latin " 2955: 2859: 2657:("this"), Italian: 2322:"arm(s)" → Italian 2068: 1982:, Italian language 1700:("dead body"), and 1683:grammatical genders 1563: 1562:Excludes vocative. 1519:(one) supplies the 1494:pro christian poblo 1490:Oaths of Strasbourg 971:differences as the 511:Mediterranean Basin 373:Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke 265:Late Roman Republic 110:Proto-Indo-European 8440:Phlegon of Tralles 8247:Seneca the Younger 7721:Naming conventions 7451:Personal equipment 6984:Later Roman Empire 6750:Contemporary Latin 5936:Pei, Mario. 1941. 5920:The Latin Language 5264:, pp. 660–670 5071:, pp. 110–122 4913:History of Italian 4683:grammaticalization 4658:'s/he is ill' but 3844: 3815:grammaticalization 3608: 3199: 3057:synthetic language 2948: 2852: 2639:("this"), Spanish 2066: 1822:. E.g., masculine 1771:("amphitheatre"), 1553: 1521:indefinite article 1110:, becoming French 949:Monophthongization 760:('subject matter' 734:'fire', replacing 720:'city', replacing 479:lexical borrowings 361:comparative method 331:their own language 52:by the 9th century 8779: 8778: 8741:Pontifices maximi 8523: 8522: 8380:Diogenes Laërtius 8202:Pliny the Younger 7957:Asconius Pedianus 7917:Romance languages 7789:Civil engineering 7531:Imperial currency 7404:Political control 7365: 7364: 6999: 6998: 6822: 6821: 6792:Romance languages 6787:Neo-Latin studies 6757: 6756: 6718:Renaissance Latin 6600:on 7 January 2013 6523:Library resources 6266: 5408:Adams 2007: 626–9 5327:Allen 1965: 27–29 5309:Pope 1934: §156.2 4908:History of French 4903:Catalan phonology 4841:Reichenau Glosses 4836:Romance languages 4731:, etc.). Whereas 4693:the semantics of 4445:and another verb 4030: 4029: 3832:Cantar de Mio Cid 3785:("quickly") gave 3722:, "dear", formed 3701: 3700: 3346: 3345: 3052: 3051: 2946: 2945: 2867:(c. 1st century) 2609:, and Portuguese 2463:("cloak(s)") and 2321: 2229: 2225: 2220: 2219: 1679: 1678: 1498:Balkan sprachbund 1232:Balkan sprachbund 1108:Romance languages 1051: 1050: 1043: 748:'eat', replacing 346:Romance philology 242: 241: 224:rendering support 220:phonetic symbols. 50:Romance languages 8809: 8731:Magistri equitum 8646:Cities and towns 8639: 8565:Constantinopolis 8375:Diodorus Siculus 8307:Valerius Maximus 8242:Seneca the Elder 8162:Nonius Marcellus 7930: 7483:Hippika gymnasia 7446:Infantry tactics 7352:Consular tribune 7342:Magister equitum 7291:Military tribune 7256: 7216:Pontifex maximus 7211:Princeps senatus 7201:Magister militum 6967:Byzantine Empire 6888: 6849: 6842: 6835: 6826: 6772:Latin literature 6767:History of Latin 6746: 6730: 6676: 6654: 6637: 6630: 6623: 6614: 6609: 6607: 6605: 6589: 6588:, Orbis Latinus. 6574: 6572: 6570: 6561:. Archived from 6512: 6499: 6377: 6361: 6345: 6336: 6327: 6311: 6302: 6293: 6284: 6268: 6264: 6255: 6239: 6230: 6217: 6208: 6199: 6183: 6174: 6156: 6147: 6131: 6122: 6121:. Paris: Nathan. 6099: 6090: 6081: 6072: 6053: 6034: 6008: 5985: 5976: 5933: 5907: 5898: 5874: 5843: 5812: 5797:(2nd ed.). 5789: 5780: 5740: 5729: 5727: 5702: 5693: 5675: 5666: 5643: 5634: 5625: 5601: 5586: 5580: 5579: 5567: 5558: 5551: 5545: 5539: 5528: 5522: 5516: 5515: 5503: 5492: 5486: 5469: 5462: 5456: 5455: 5441: 5435: 5432: 5423: 5420: 5409: 5406: 5400: 5397: 5391: 5388: 5382: 5381:Palmer 1988: 157 5379: 5373: 5370: 5364: 5361: 5355: 5352: 5346: 5343: 5337: 5336:Gouvert 2015: 83 5334: 5328: 5325: 5319: 5316: 5310: 5307: 5301: 5298: 5292: 5289: 5283: 5280: 5274: 5271: 5265: 5259: 5253: 5247: 5241: 5237: 5231: 5228: 5222: 5219: 5213: 5210: 5204: 5198: 5192: 5186: 5180: 5179:, pp. 23–25 5174: 5168: 5167:, pp. 23–25 5162: 5156: 5155:, pp. 22–23 5150: 5144: 5143:, pp. 20–22 5138: 5132: 5131:, pp. 20–21 5126: 5120: 5114: 5108: 5102: 5096: 5090: 5084: 5078: 5072: 5066: 5060: 5054: 5048: 5042: 5036: 5033:la langue romane 5026: 5020: 5014: 5008: 5002: 4996: 4990: 4984: 4978: 4972: 4966: 4960: 4954: 4810: 4805: 4804: 4357:) except in the 4095: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 3874: 3746:, "often", from 3611: 3596: 3563:Classical Latin: 3530:Classical Latin: 3385:, "since", from 3210: 3118: 3106: 3091: 2973:(c. 11th cent.) 2956: 2860: 2833:, the merger of 2818: 2769: 2496:("broth"), etc. 2320: : BRACCHIA 2319: 2314: 2236:("joy"), plural 2227: 2223: 2069: 1604: 1564: 1537: 1375:eccum tibi istum 1282:Gregory of Tours 1060:definite article 1054:Romance articles 1046: 1039: 1035: 1032: 1026: 1003: 995: 622:Classical Latin 576:Latin, however. 548:Lexical turnover 528:The rise of the 454:have been found. 354:la langue romane 311:Classical period 263:spoken from the 253:Colloquial Latin 247:, also known as 207: 198: 182: 163: 143: 62: 40: 28: 8817: 8816: 8812: 8811: 8810: 8808: 8807: 8806: 8782: 8781: 8780: 8775: 8637: 8635: 8629: 8519: 8355:Aëtius of Amida 8336: 8322:Verrius Flaccus 8302:Valerius Antias 8262:Silius Italicus 8197:Pliny the Elder 8142:Marcus Aurelius 8017:Cornelius Nepos 7967:Aurelius Victor 7921: 7843: 7755: 7689:Secessio plebis 7660: 7535: 7487: 7361: 7315: 7245: 7127: 7079: 6995: 6916: 6877: 6859: 6853: 6823: 6818: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6744: 6737: 6732: 6728: 6721: 6716: 6708: 6703: 6695: 6690: 6682: 6679:Classical Latin 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6647: 6641: 6603: 6601: 6592: 6577: 6568: 6566: 6559:"Orbis Latinus" 6556: 6553: 6552: 6551: 6531: 6530: 6526: 6519: 6502: 6496: 6483: 6385: 6383:Further reading 6380: 6371: 6355: 6339: 6330: 6321: 6305: 6296: 6287: 6278: 6258: 6249: 6233: 6220: 6211: 6202: 6193: 6177: 6168: 6150: 6141: 6125: 6116: 6107: 6102: 6093: 6084: 6075: 6069: 6056: 6050: 6037: 6031: 6018: 6005: 5988: 5979: 5950: 5930: 5917: 5901: 5880: 5863:10.2307/1291590 5846: 5832: 5815: 5809: 5792: 5783: 5754: 5732: 5705: 5696: 5685: 5669: 5663: 5646: 5637: 5628: 5619: 5610: 5608:Works consulted 5605: 5604: 5587: 5583: 5573: 5568: 5561: 5552: 5548: 5540: 5531: 5523: 5519: 5509: 5504: 5495: 5487: 5472: 5463: 5459: 5443: 5442: 5438: 5433: 5426: 5422:Vincent (1990). 5421: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5398: 5394: 5389: 5385: 5380: 5376: 5371: 5367: 5362: 5358: 5353: 5349: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5331: 5326: 5322: 5317: 5313: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5295: 5290: 5286: 5281: 5277: 5272: 5268: 5260: 5256: 5248: 5244: 5238: 5234: 5229: 5225: 5220: 5216: 5211: 5207: 5199: 5195: 5187: 5183: 5175: 5171: 5163: 5159: 5151: 5147: 5139: 5135: 5127: 5123: 5115: 5111: 5103: 5099: 5091: 5087: 5079: 5075: 5067: 5063: 5055: 5051: 5043: 5039: 5027: 5023: 5015: 5011: 5003: 4999: 4991: 4987: 4979: 4975: 4967: 4963: 4955: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4894: 4876:Common Romanian 4851:Veronese Riddle 4808:Language portal 4806: 4799: 4796: 4790:"I love you"). 4757: 4751:in the city"). 4605:vir est in foro 4596:(both through * 4590:and Old French 4531:and Old French 4495: 4489: 4105:auxiliary verbs 3901: 3856: 3850: 3823: 3811:venire in mente 3759:form modifying 3706: 3591: 3492:), and we find 3459:and Portuguese 3421:and Portuguese 3351: 3221: 3216: 3215:Classical Latin 3207: 3202:in Old French: 3201: 3146:accusative case 3107:"; and Italian 2972: 2968:(c. 5th cent.) 2967: 2963:(c. 1st cent.) 2962: 2950: 2876: 2872:(c. 5th cent.) 2871: 2866: 2854: 2827: 2822: 2821: 2791:and Portuguese 2770: 2766: 2711:); Portuguese: 2709:that over there 2454:) ("sack(s)"), 2445:("bag(s)") and 2436:) ("edge(s)"), 2409:("egg(s)") and 2366:le uova fresche 1698:cadaver mortuum 1694:cadaver mortuus 1692:graffiti, e.g. 1561: 1555: 1551: 1435:and Portuguese 1419:and Portuguese 1403:and Portuguese 1297:(originally an 1106:"that", in the 1056: 1047: 1036: 1030: 1027: 1016: 1004: 993: 985: 961: 951: 946: 940: 920: 908: 906:Fricativization 893: 882:'fiancée' > 872:, resulting in 862: 857: 847: 842: 836: 830: 708: 550: 545: 539: 503: 415: 389: 388: 307: 291:Classical Latin 222:Without proper 210: 194: 178: 175: 159: 144: 139: 133: 105: 98: 78:Latino-Faliscan 63: 60:Language family 58: 24: 21:Latin obscenity 17: 12: 11: 5: 8815: 8813: 8805: 8804: 8799: 8797:Forms of Latin 8794: 8784: 8783: 8777: 8776: 8774: 8773: 8768: 8763: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8713: 8708: 8703: 8698: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8663: 8658: 8653: 8648: 8642: 8640: 8631: 8630: 8628: 8627: 8622: 8617: 8612: 8607: 8602: 8597: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8567: 8562: 8557: 8552: 8547: 8542: 8537: 8531: 8529: 8525: 8524: 8521: 8520: 8518: 8517: 8512: 8507: 8502: 8497: 8492: 8487: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8437: 8432: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8412: 8407: 8402: 8397: 8392: 8387: 8382: 8377: 8372: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8352: 8346: 8344: 8338: 8337: 8335: 8334: 8329: 8324: 8319: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8254: 8249: 8244: 8239: 8234: 8229: 8224: 8219: 8214: 8209: 8207:Pomponius Mela 8204: 8199: 8194: 8189: 8184: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8164: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8144: 8139: 8134: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8054: 8049: 8044: 8039: 8034: 8029: 8024: 8019: 8014: 8009: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7942:Aelius Donatus 7938: 7936: 7927: 7923: 7922: 7920: 7919: 7914: 7913: 7912: 7910:Ecclesiastical 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7864: 7859: 7853: 7851: 7845: 7844: 7842: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7765: 7763: 7757: 7756: 7754: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7712: 7711: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7670: 7668: 7662: 7661: 7659: 7658: 7653: 7651:Toys and games 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7622: 7621: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7545: 7543: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7497: 7495: 7489: 7488: 7486: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7465: 7464: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7443: 7433: 7428: 7427: 7426: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7381: 7375: 7373: 7367: 7366: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7323: 7321: 7317: 7316: 7314: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7262: 7260: 7253: 7247: 7246: 7244: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7191:Vigintisexviri 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7151:Cursus honorum 7148: 7143: 7137: 7135: 7129: 7128: 7126: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7089: 7087: 7081: 7080: 7078: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7066: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7009: 7007: 7001: 7000: 6997: 6996: 6994: 6993: 6992: 6991: 6981: 6980: 6979: 6974: 6964: 6963: 6962: 6957: 6950:Western Empire 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6926: 6924: 6918: 6917: 6915: 6914: 6909: 6908: 6907: 6897: 6891: 6885: 6879: 6878: 6876: 6875: 6870: 6864: 6861: 6860: 6854: 6852: 6851: 6844: 6837: 6829: 6820: 6819: 6817: 6816: 6811: 6806: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6763: 6760: 6759: 6755: 6754: 6740: 6738: 6724: 6722: 6711: 6709: 6705:Medieval Latin 6698: 6696: 6685: 6683: 6674:75 BC – 200 AD 6670: 6668: 6657: 6652: 6649: 6648: 6642: 6640: 6639: 6632: 6625: 6617: 6611: 6610: 6590: 6575: 6550: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6533: 6532: 6521: 6520: 6518: 6517:External links 6515: 6514: 6513: 6500: 6494: 6481: 6474: 6459: 6448: 6433: 6422: 6407: 6400: 6393: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6378: 6368: 6367: 6363: 6362: 6352: 6351: 6347: 6346: 6337: 6328: 6318: 6317: 6313: 6312: 6303: 6294: 6285: 6275: 6274: 6270: 6269: 6256: 6246: 6245: 6241: 6240: 6231: 6225:. Manchester: 6218: 6209: 6200: 6190: 6189: 6185: 6184: 6175: 6166: 6148: 6139: 6132: 6123: 6113: 6112: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6100: 6091: 6082: 6073: 6067: 6054: 6048: 6035: 6029: 6016: 6009: 6003: 5986: 5977: 5965:10.2307/410397 5959:(4): 458–466. 5948: 5941: 5934: 5928: 5915: 5908: 5899: 5889:(2): 110–122. 5878: 5875: 5844: 5830: 5813: 5807: 5795:Medieval Latin 5790: 5781: 5769:10.2307/410406 5752: 5741: 5730: 5718:(2): 191–230. 5703: 5694: 5683: 5676: 5667: 5661: 5644: 5635: 5626: 5616: 5615: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5603: 5602: 5581: 5572:, p. 238. 5570:Grandgent 1991 5559: 5546: 5529: 5517: 5506:Grandgent 1991 5493: 5470: 5457: 5436: 5424: 5410: 5401: 5392: 5383: 5374: 5365: 5356: 5347: 5338: 5329: 5320: 5318:Hall 1976: 180 5311: 5302: 5293: 5284: 5282:Herman 2000: 2 5275: 5266: 5254: 5242: 5232: 5223: 5214: 5205: 5193: 5181: 5169: 5157: 5145: 5133: 5121: 5109: 5097: 5085: 5073: 5061: 5049: 5037: 5021: 5009: 4997: 4985: 4983:, pp. 5–7 4973: 4961: 4948: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4893: 4890: 4889: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4831:Romance copula 4828: 4823: 4818: 4812: 4811: 4795: 4792: 4756: 4753: 4577:signified the 4569:signified the 4493:Romance copula 4491:Main article: 4488: 4485: 4435:into the verb 4412:and some from 4282:An innovative 4280: 4279: 4269: 4235: 4234: 4208: 4178: 4149: 4068:. Thus Latin 4028: 4027: 4024: 4021: 4018: 4015: 4012: 4009: 4006: 4003: 3999: 3998: 3995: 3992: 3989: 3986: 3983: 3980: 3977: 3974: 3970: 3969: 3966: 3963: 3960: 3957: 3954: 3951: 3948: 3945: 3941: 3940: 3937: 3934: 3931: 3928: 3925: 3922: 3919: 3916: 3912: 3911: 3908: 3904: 3903: 3898: 3895: 3892: 3889: 3886: 3883: 3880: 3877: 3846:Main article: 3822: 3819: 3705: 3702: 3699: 3698: 3695: 3692: 3689: 3686: 3683: 3679: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3669: 3666: 3663: 3659: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3650: 3647: 3644: 3640: 3639: 3636: 3633: 3630: 3627: 3624: 3623: 3620: 3617: 3614: 3590: 3587: 3586: 3585: 3573: 3572: 3553: 3552: 3540: 3539: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3343: 3339: 3338: 3335: 3331: 3330: 3327: 3323: 3322: 3316: 3309: 3305: 3304: 3298: 3291: 3288: 3284: 3283: 3279: 3278: 3275: 3271: 3270: 3267: 3263: 3262: 3256: 3249: 3245: 3244: 3238: 3231: 3228: 3224: 3223: 3218: 3213: 3190:il vin ei buns 3050: 3049: 3044: 3039: 3035: 3034: 3030: 3029: 3024: 3019: 3015: 3014: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2995: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2975: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2944: 2943: 2939: 2938: 2933: 2928: 2923: 2919: 2918: 2913: 2909: 2908: 2903: 2899: 2898: 2893: 2888: 2883: 2879: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2826: 2823: 2820: 2819: 2763: 2762: 2360:nouns such as 2218: 2217: 2209: 2199: 2191: 2181: 2177: 2176: 2168: 2158: 2150: 2140: 2136: 2135: 2127: 2117: 2109: 2099: 2095: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2085: 2082: 2079: 2078: 2075: 2072: 1677: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1667: 1664: 1660: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1642: 1638: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1621: 1620: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1598: 1594: 1593: 1590: 1587: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1574: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1550: 1547: 1445:); Portuguese 1377:), as well as 1055: 1052: 1049: 1048: 1007: 1005: 998: 992: 989: 984: 981: 963:The system of 960: 957: 956: 955: 950: 947: 939: 936: 935: 934: 931: 924: 919: 916: 907: 904: 892: 891:Palatalization 889: 888: 887: 866: 861: 860:Loss of nasals 858: 846: 843: 840:Appendix Probi 832:Main article: 829: 826: 707: 706:Semantic drift 704: 570:semantic shift 549: 546: 541:Main article: 538: 535: 502: 499: 498: 497: 494: 475: 474: 473: 467: 464: 455: 452:Hadrian's Wall 441: 440: 439: 426: 414: 411: 319:sermo vulgaris 315:sermo plebeius 306: 303: 240: 239: 226:, you may see 212: 211: 208: 200: 199: 192: 184: 183: 176: 171: 168: 167: 164: 156: 155: 154:Language codes 151: 150: 145: 141:Writing system 138: 135: 134: 132: 131: 130: 129: 128: 127: 108: 106: 103: 100: 99: 97: 96: 95: 94: 93: 92: 91: 90: 66: 64: 57: 54: 53: 46: 42: 41: 38:sermo vulgaris 33: 32: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8814: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8789: 8787: 8772: 8769: 8767: 8764: 8762: 8759: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8643: 8641: 8632: 8626: 8623: 8621: 8618: 8616: 8613: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8598: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8533: 8532: 8530: 8526: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8403: 8401: 8398: 8396: 8393: 8391: 8388: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8348: 8347: 8345: 8343: 8339: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8263: 8260: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8238: 8235: 8233: 8230: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8213: 8210: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8097:Julius Paulus 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8033: 8032:Fabius Pictor 8030: 8028: 8025: 8023: 8020: 8018: 8015: 8013: 8010: 8008: 8005: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7939: 7937: 7935: 7931: 7928: 7924: 7918: 7915: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7867: 7865: 7863: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7854: 7852: 7850: 7846: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7769:Amphitheatres 7767: 7766: 7764: 7762: 7758: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7710: 7707: 7706: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7671: 7669: 7667: 7663: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7620: 7617: 7616: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7546: 7544: 7542: 7538: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7506:Deforestation 7504: 7502: 7499: 7498: 7496: 7494: 7490: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7456:Siege engines 7454: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7425: 7422: 7421: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7389:Establishment 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7376: 7374: 7372: 7368: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7324: 7322: 7320:Extraordinary 7318: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7306:Promagistrate 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7263: 7261: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7248: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7138: 7136: 7134: 7130: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7093:Twelve Tables 7091: 7090: 7088: 7086: 7082: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7045: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7010: 7008: 7006: 7002: 6990: 6987: 6986: 6985: 6982: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6969: 6968: 6965: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6952: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6927: 6925: 6923: 6919: 6913: 6910: 6906: 6903: 6902: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6892: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6880: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6865: 6862: 6857: 6850: 6845: 6843: 6838: 6836: 6831: 6830: 6827: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6809:Hiberno-Latin 6807: 6805: 6804: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6764: 6761: 6752: 6751: 6747: 6739: 6736: 6735: 6731: 6723: 6720: 6719: 6715: 6710: 6707: 6706: 6702: 6697: 6694: 6693: 6689: 6684: 6681: 6680: 6675: 6669: 6666: 6665: 6661: 6656: 6655: 6650: 6646: 6638: 6633: 6631: 6626: 6624: 6619: 6618: 6615: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6582: 6576: 6564: 6560: 6555: 6554: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6516: 6510: 6506: 6501: 6497: 6495:9781009327664 6491: 6487: 6482: 6479: 6475: 6472: 6471:9788833690087 6468: 6464: 6460: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6431: 6428:Chapel Hill: 6427: 6423: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6405: 6401: 6398: 6394: 6391: 6387: 6386: 6382: 6375: 6370: 6369: 6365: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6353: 6349: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6334: 6329: 6325: 6320: 6319: 6316:To Portuguese 6315: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6300: 6295: 6291: 6286: 6282: 6277: 6276: 6272: 6271: 6262: 6257: 6253: 6248: 6247: 6243: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6219: 6215: 6210: 6206: 6201: 6197: 6192: 6191: 6187: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6172: 6167: 6164: 6160: 6154: 6149: 6145: 6140: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6124: 6120: 6115: 6114: 6110: 6109: 6104: 6097: 6092: 6088: 6083: 6079: 6074: 6070: 6068:0-19-520829-3 6064: 6060: 6055: 6051: 6049:2-252-02360-0 6045: 6041: 6036: 6032: 6030:0-89005-172-0 6026: 6022: 6017: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6004:0-19-508345-8 6000: 5996: 5992: 5987: 5983: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5949: 5946: 5942: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5929:0-8061-2136-X 5925: 5921: 5916: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5879: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5851: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5831:0-271-02001-6 5827: 5823: 5819: 5814: 5810: 5808:0-226-31712-9 5804: 5800: 5796: 5791: 5787: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5753: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5737: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5704: 5700: 5695: 5691: 5690: 5684: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5668: 5664: 5662:0-521-37936-9 5658: 5654: 5650: 5645: 5641: 5636: 5632: 5627: 5623: 5618: 5617: 5613: 5612: 5607: 5599: 5595: 5593: 5585: 5582: 5577: 5571: 5566: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5550: 5547: 5544:, p. 53. 5543: 5538: 5536: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5521: 5518: 5513: 5508:, p. 82. 5507: 5502: 5500: 5498: 5494: 5491:, p. 52. 5490: 5485: 5483: 5481: 5479: 5477: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5461: 5458: 5453: 5449: 5448: 5440: 5437: 5431: 5429: 5425: 5419: 5417: 5415: 5411: 5405: 5402: 5396: 5393: 5387: 5384: 5378: 5375: 5369: 5366: 5360: 5357: 5351: 5348: 5342: 5339: 5333: 5330: 5324: 5321: 5315: 5312: 5306: 5303: 5297: 5294: 5288: 5285: 5279: 5276: 5270: 5267: 5263: 5258: 5255: 5252:, p. 117 5251: 5246: 5243: 5236: 5233: 5227: 5224: 5218: 5215: 5209: 5206: 5202: 5197: 5194: 5190: 5185: 5182: 5178: 5173: 5170: 5166: 5161: 5158: 5154: 5149: 5146: 5142: 5137: 5134: 5130: 5125: 5122: 5118: 5113: 5110: 5106: 5101: 5098: 5095:, p. 122 5094: 5089: 5086: 5083:, p. 120 5082: 5077: 5074: 5070: 5065: 5062: 5058: 5053: 5050: 5046: 5041: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5025: 5022: 5018: 5013: 5010: 5006: 5001: 4998: 4995:, p. 120 4994: 4989: 4986: 4982: 4977: 4974: 4970: 4965: 4962: 4958: 4953: 4950: 4943: 4938: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4861:Gallo-Romance 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4813: 4809: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4791: 4789: 4785: 4780: 4778: 4774: 4769: 4766: 4762: 4754: 4752: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4737:sto scappando 4734: 4733:sto scappando 4730: 4728: 4723: 4721: 4716: 4714: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4667: 4665: 4664:sto scrivendo 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4628: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4601: 4599: 4595: 4594: 4589: 4588: 4583: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4563: 4557: 4555: 4552:derives from 4551: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4541: 4536: 4535: 4530: 4526: 4525: 4520: 4519: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4505: 4500: 4494: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4481: 4476: 4475: 4470: 4469: 4464: 4463: 4458: 4457: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4425: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4390: 4385: 4384: 4377: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4366:passive voice 4362: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4343: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4277: 4273: 4270: 4268:'I will stay' 4267: 4263: 4260: 4259: 4258: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4209: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4150: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4120: 4119: 4118: 4116: 4112: 4111: 4106: 4102: 4097: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4047: 4043: 4038: 4034: 4025: 4022: 4019: 4016: 4013: 4010: 4007: 4004: 4001: 4000: 3996: 3993: 3990: 3987: 3984: 3981: 3978: 3975: 3972: 3971: 3967: 3964: 3961: 3958: 3955: 3952: 3949: 3946: 3943: 3942: 3938: 3935: 3932: 3929: 3926: 3923: 3920: 3917: 3914: 3913: 3905: 3896: 3893: 3890: 3887: 3884: 3881: 3875: 3872: 3869: 3865: 3859: 3855: 3849: 3848:Romance verbs 3841: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3827: 3820: 3818: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3803: 3798: 3797: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3783: 3778: 3777: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3751: 3750: 3745: 3744: 3739: 3738: 3733: 3732: 3727: 3726: 3721: 3720: 3715: 3711: 3703: 3696: 3693: 3690: 3687: 3684: 3681: 3676: 3673: 3670: 3667: 3664: 3661: 3657: 3654: 3651: 3648: 3645: 3642: 3637: 3634: 3631: 3628: 3626: 3613: 3606: 3604: 3600: 3588: 3583: 3580: 3579: 3578: 3577: 3576:Vulgar Latin: 3570: 3567: 3566: 3565: 3564: 3560: 3558: 3550: 3547: 3546: 3545: 3544: 3543:Vulgar Latin: 3537: 3534: 3533: 3532: 3531: 3527: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3504: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3482: 3477: 3476: 3471: 3467: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3448: 3442: 3440: 3439: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3425: 3420: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3401: 3396: 3395: 3390: 3389: 3384: 3383: 3378: 3377: 3372: 3371: 3366: 3365: 3360: 3356: 3348: 3341: 3333: 3328: 3325: 3321: 3314: 3310: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3296: 3292: 3289: 3281: 3273: 3268: 3265: 3261: 3254: 3250: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3236: 3232: 3229: 3222:(11th cent.) 3219: 3214: 3211: 3206:("neighbor"). 3205: 3197: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3178: 3175: 3170: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3154: 3152: 3148: 3147: 3141: 3139: 3135: 3134: 3128: 3126: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3111: 3105: 3100: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3070: 3069:genitive case 3064: 3062: 3058: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3040: 3037: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3017: 3013: 3008: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2997: 2993: 2990: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2977: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2958: 2957: 2953: 2941: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2926:caepae, cēpae 2921: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2907: 2906:caepam, cēpam 2904: 2901: 2897: 2892: 2887: 2884: 2881: 2874: 2869: 2864: 2862: 2861: 2857: 2850: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2824: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2795: 2790: 2789: 2784: 2780: 2779: 2774: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2759: 2758: 2753: 2749: 2748: 2743: 2742: 2737: 2736: 2730: 2728: 2727: 2722: 2721: 2716: 2715: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2697: 2692: 2691: 2686: 2685: 2680: 2679: 2674: 2673: 2668: 2667: 2662: 2661: 2656: 2655: 2650: 2649: 2644: 2643: 2638: 2637: 2632: 2631: 2626: 2625: 2619: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2594: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2560: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2523: 2519:and Romanian 2518: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2504: 2497: 2495: 2494: 2489: 2488: 2483: 2482: 2477: 2476: 2471: 2468: 2467: 2462: 2459: 2458: 2453: 2450: 2449: 2444: 2441: 2440: 2435: 2432: 2431: 2426: 2423: 2422: 2417: 2414: 2413: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2398: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2382: 2377: 2376: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2362:l'uovo fresco 2359: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2339: 2334: 2330: 2329: 2325: 2318: 2312: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2293: 2289: 2286:, Portuguese 2285: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2271: 2266: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2234: 2216: 2215: 2210: 2208: 2207: 2206: 2200: 2198: 2197: 2192: 2190: 2189: 2188: 2182: 2179: 2175: 2174: 2169: 2167: 2166: 2165: 2159: 2157: 2156: 2151: 2149: 2148: 2147: 2141: 2138: 2134: 2133: 2128: 2126: 2125: 2124: 2118: 2116: 2115: 2110: 2108: 2107: 2106: 2100: 2097: 2092: 2089: 2086: 2083: 2081: 2071: 2070: 2064: 2062: 2061: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2047: 2042: 2041: 2036: 2035: 2030: 2029: 2024: 2023: 2018: 2017: 2012: 2011: 2006: 2003: 2002: 1998:and Romanian 1997: 1994: 1990: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1980: 1976: 1973:, Portuguese 1972: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1944: 1940: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1907: 1902: 1901: 1896: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1886: 1881: 1880: 1875: 1874: 1869: 1868: 1863: 1862: 1857: 1856: 1851: 1850: 1846:; Portuguese 1845: 1844: 1839: 1838: 1833: 1832: 1827: 1826: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1796: 1794: 1790: 1789: 1784: 1780: 1779: 1774: 1770: 1769: 1768:amphitheatrum 1764: 1760: 1759: 1754: 1750: 1749: 1744: 1740: 1739: 1734: 1730: 1725: 1724:-declension. 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1686: 1684: 1674: 1668: 1662: 1657: 1654: 1646: 1640: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1623: 1618: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1599: 1596: 1591: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1575: 1565: 1559: 1548: 1546: 1544: 1543: 1538: 1536: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1517: 1512: 1511: 1505: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1479: 1474: 1470: 1469: 1464: 1460: 1459: 1454: 1450: 1449: 1444: 1440: 1439: 1434: 1433: 1428: 1424: 1423: 1418: 1417: 1412: 1408: 1407: 1402: 1401: 1396: 1392: 1391: 1386: 1382: 1381: 1376: 1372: 1371: 1366: 1362: 1361: 1356: 1352: 1351: 1346: 1342: 1341: 1336: 1332: 1331: 1326: 1322: 1321: 1316: 1312: 1311: 1306: 1305: 1300: 1296: 1295: 1289: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1278: 1273: 1272: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1235: 1233: 1229: 1226:("the man" – 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1208: 1203: 1202: 1197: 1193: 1192: 1187: 1186: 1181: 1180: 1175: 1174: 1169: 1168: 1164:, Portuguese 1163: 1162: 1157: 1156: 1151: 1150: 1145: 1144: 1139: 1138: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1120: 1115: 1114: 1109: 1105: 1104: 1099: 1098: 1093: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1063: 1061: 1053: 1045: 1042: 1034: 1024: 1020: 1014: 1013: 1008:This section 1006: 1002: 997: 996: 990: 988: 982: 980: 978: 974: 970: 966: 958: 953: 952: 948: 945: 937: 932: 929: 925: 922: 921: 917: 915: 913: 905: 903: 901: 897: 890: 885: 881: 880: 875: 871: 867: 864: 863: 859: 856: 852: 844: 841: 835: 827: 825: 823: 822: 817: 813: 812: 807: 806: 801: 797: 793: 792: 787: 783: 779: 778: 773: 769: 768: 763: 759: 758: 753: 752: 747: 743: 739: 738: 733: 729: 725: 724: 719: 716:('citizenry' 715: 714: 705: 703: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 629: 625: 620: 618: 617: 612: 611: 606: 605: 600: 599: 594: 593: 588: 587: 582: 577: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 547: 544: 536: 534: 531: 526: 524: 521:and cultural 520: 516: 512: 507: 501:Fragmentation 500: 495: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 471: 468: 465: 462: 461: 456: 453: 449: 445: 444: 442: 437: 436:Curse tablets 434: 433: 431: 427: 424: 420: 419: 418: 412: 410: 405: 400: 396: 392: 384: 381: 379: 378:Proto-Romance 374: 370: 366: 362: 357: 355: 351: 347: 343: 338: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 304: 302: 300: 296: 292: 288: 287:Proto-Romance 283: 277: 275: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 219: 213: 206: 201: 197: 193: 191: 190: 185: 181: 177: 174: 173:Linguist List 169: 165: 162: 157: 152: 149: 146: 142: 136: 126: 123: 122: 121: 118: 117: 116: 113: 112: 111: 107: 101: 89: 86: 85: 84: 81: 80: 79: 76: 75: 74: 71: 70: 69: 68:Indo-European 65: 61: 55: 51: 47: 43: 39: 34: 29: 26: 22: 8711:Institutions 8575:Leptis Magna 8528:Major cities 8435:Philostratus 8222:Quadrigarius 8042:Rufus Festus 7905:Contemporary 7879: 7626:Romanization 7549:Architecture 7156:Collegiality 7005:Constitution 6856:Ancient Rome 6801: 6777:Vulgar Latin 6776: 6742: 6741: 6726: 6725: 6713: 6712: 6700: 6699: 6687: 6686: 6673: 6671: 6659: 6658: 6604:19 September 6602:. Retrieved 6598:the original 6580: 6569:19 September 6567:. Retrieved 6563:the original 6537:Online books 6528:Vulgar Latin 6527: 6508: 6504: 6485: 6477: 6462: 6451: 6436: 6425: 6410: 6403: 6396: 6389: 6373: 6366:To Sardinian 6357: 6341: 6332: 6323: 6307: 6298: 6289: 6280: 6260: 6251: 6235: 6222: 6213: 6204: 6195: 6179: 6170: 6162: 6158: 6152: 6143: 6135: 6127: 6118: 6095: 6086: 6077: 6058: 6039: 6020: 6012: 5990: 5981: 5956: 5952: 5944: 5937: 5919: 5911: 5903: 5886: 5882: 5854: 5848: 5818:Vulgar Latin 5817: 5794: 5785: 5760: 5756: 5748: 5735: 5715: 5711: 5698: 5688: 5679: 5671: 5648: 5639: 5630: 5621: 5597: 5591: 5584: 5555:DEXOnline.ro 5549: 5520: 5460: 5446: 5439: 5404: 5395: 5386: 5377: 5368: 5359: 5350: 5341: 5332: 5323: 5314: 5305: 5296: 5287: 5278: 5269: 5257: 5245: 5235: 5226: 5217: 5208: 5203:, p. 26 5196: 5191:, p. 21 5184: 5172: 5160: 5148: 5136: 5124: 5119:, p. 21 5112: 5100: 5088: 5076: 5064: 5052: 5040: 5032: 5024: 5017:Eskhult 2018 5012: 5007:, p. 20 5000: 4988: 4976: 4964: 4952: 4886:Thraco-Roman 4866:Gallo-Italic 4787: 4781: 4776: 4770: 4765:inflectional 4758: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4726: 4725: 4719: 4718: 4712: 4710: 4707:lexical verb 4702: 4698: 4694: 4678: 4675:sto pensando 4674: 4670: 4668: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4629: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4602: 4597: 4581: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4558: 4553: 4544: 4528: 4512: 4508: 4496: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4432: 4428: 4426: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4378: 4370:periphrastic 4363: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4344: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4291: 4281: 4278:'I will say' 4276:apo a nàrrer 4275: 4272:Ap'a nàrrere 4271: 4266:apo a istàre 4265: 4261: 4250: 4244: 4238: 4236: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4114: 4101:future tense 4098: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4045: 4039: 4035: 4031: 3867: 3863: 3860: 3857: 3836: 3830: 3810: 3806: 3790: 3787:veloci mente 3786: 3770: 3766: 3754: 3728:, "dearly"; 3707: 3677:*si, *sẹ́be 3602: 3598: 3592: 3581: 3575: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3556: 3554: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3535: 3529: 3528: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3497: 3489: 3485: 3469: 3460: 3451: 3443: 3432: 3428: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3359:prepositions 3352: 3329:"vīcīnōrum" 3319: 3312: 3301: 3294: 3259: 3252: 3241: 3234: 3203: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3179: 3173: 3171: 3155: 3144: 3142: 3131: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3093: 3083: 3067: 3065: 3061:analytic one 3053: 3046: 3041: 3026: 3021: 3011: 3006: 3001: 2991: 2986: 2981: 2951: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2915: 2905: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2855: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2828: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2772: 2767: 2751: 2731: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2620: 2610: 2601: 2597: 2582: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2563: 2553: 2544: 2535: 2526: 2511: 2498: 2469: 2460: 2451: 2442: 2433: 2424: 2415: 2406: 2399: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2358:heteroclitic 2355: 2350: 2342: 2333:(le) braccia 2332: 2323: 2305: 2304:and Italian 2296: 2287: 2278: 2274: 2259: 2250: 2241: 2237: 2221: 2213: 2211: 2204: 2195: 2193: 2186: 2172: 2170: 2163: 2154: 2152: 2145: 2131: 2129: 2122: 2113: 2111: 2104: 2054: 2050: 2004: 1995: 1983: 1974: 1965: 1956: 1947: 1938: 1935: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1889: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1797: 1782: 1772: 1763:amphitheater 1762: 1761:("heaven"), 1752: 1742: 1732: 1726: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1687: 1680: 1557: 1532: 1528: 1507:The numeral 1506: 1493: 1487: 1482: 1472: 1465:); Romanian 1462: 1452: 1442: 1426: 1410: 1394: 1384: 1374: 1364: 1354: 1344: 1334: 1324: 1314: 1299:interjection 1290: 1285: 1267: 1262: 1258: 1247:sacred texts 1242: 1239:Vetus Latina 1236: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1122:(Old French 1064: 1057: 1037: 1028: 1017:Please help 1012:verification 1009: 986: 962: 912:intervocalic 909: 896:Front vowels 894: 883: 877: 845:Consonantism 819: 815: 809: 803: 799: 795: 789: 785: 781: 775: 771: 765: 761: 755: 749: 745: 741: 735: 731: 727: 721: 717: 711: 709: 621: 614: 608: 602: 596: 591: 585: 578: 551: 527: 523:assimilation 508: 504: 458: 416: 407: 402: 397: 394: 391:scholarship. 386: 382: 368: 358: 353: 339: 318: 314: 308: 282:Vulgar Latin 281: 278: 269:Vulgar Latin 268: 252: 248: 245:Vulgar Latin 244: 243: 215: 187: 115:Proto-Italic 88:Vulgar Latin 87: 31:Vulgar Latin 25: 8706:Geographers 8390:Dioscorides 8370:Cassius Dio 7992:Cassiodorus 7895:Renaissance 7501:Agriculture 7473:Auxiliaries 7414:Engineering 7251:Magistrates 7103:Citizenship 7098:Mos maiorum 7033:Late Empire 6814:Judeo-Latin 6660:until 75 BC 6413:91: 15–26. 5914:, 30. 7–39. 5763:(1): 6–27. 5590:Paléoroman 5542:Herman 2000 5489:Herman 2000 5250:Herman 2000 5201:Herman 2000 5189:Elcock 1960 5177:Herman 2000 5165:Herman 2000 5153:Herman 2000 5141:Herman 2000 5129:Herman 2000 5117:Elcock 1960 5107:, p. 5 5105:Herman 2000 5059:, p. 5 5057:Herman 2000 5047:, p. 1 5045:Herman 2000 5029:Posner 1996 5005:Elcock 1960 4981:Herman 2000 4969:Herman 2000 4959:, p. 7 4957:Herman 2000 4871:Ibero-Roman 4630:The use of 4573:nce, while 4521:and French 4288:subjunctive 4284:conditional 4262:Ap'a istàre 4115:amare habeo 3879:Infinitive 3837:Song of my 3796:chiaramente 3682:Accusative 3671:*ti, *tẹ́be 3643:Nominative 3622:3rd person 3308:accusative 3290:nominative 3248:accusative 3230:nominative 3217:(1st cent.) 3186:il bien vin 3167:Old Occitan 3133:dative case 3116:terrae motu 3092:"; Spanish 3074:Meyer-Lübke 2998:accusative 2978:nominative 2971:Old French 2916:caepā, cēpā 2902:accusative 2886:caepa, cēpa 2882:nominative 2581:, Romanian 2484:("fruit"), 2347:Merovingian 2345:. Cf. also 2335:, Romanian 2043:, Romanian 1996:(el) lleche 1882:; Romanian 1624:accusative 1597:nominative 1453:eccum illac 1429:); Spanish 1413:); Spanish 1365:eccum illum 1355:eccum istum 1347:); Italian 1277:supradictus 1261:similarly: 1251:Koine Greek 1228:*homo illum 1220:lupum illum 928:back vowels 798:('placate' 423:grammarians 367:'s seminal 350:Old Occitan 323:Renaissance 309:During the 297:, or early 230:instead of 104:Early forms 8786:Categories 8595:Mediolanum 8535:Alexandria 8500:Themistius 8465:Porphyrius 8292:Tertullian 8227:Quintilian 8217:Propertius 8112:Lactantius 8062:Fulgentius 7997:Censorinus 7819:Sanitation 7804:Metallurgy 7761:Technology 7726:Demography 7674:Patricians 7641:Spectacles 7599:Literature 7594:Hairstyles 7431:Technology 7181:Praefectus 7133:Government 7123:Litigation 7108:Auctoritas 7053:Centuriate 6940:Principate 6935:Pax Romana 6895:Foundation 6692:Late Latin 6511:: 157–222. 6350:To Occitan 6273:To Spanish 6244:To Italian 5993:. Oxford: 5745:Buchi, Éva 5447:Philippics 5262:Adams 2007 5093:Lloyd 1979 5081:Lloyd 1979 5069:Lloyd 1979 4993:Lloyd 1979 4939:References 4933:Old French 4881:Daco-Roman 4543:(Romanian 4359:imperative 4340:amar-te-ei 4308:amar-te-ei 4152:Portuguese 3900:Imperative 3866:with long 3852:See also: 3802:claramente 3799:, Spanish 3714:adjectives 3619:2nd person 3616:1st person 3478:(Romanian 3450:, Spanish 3415:. Spanish 3337:"vīcīnīs" 3220:Old French 3163:Old French 3089:jovis diēs 3059:to a more 2961:Classical 2865:Classical 2856:caepa/cēpa 2600:, Catalan 2295:, Spanish 2098:masculine 1964:, Spanish 1955:, Occitan 1946:, Catalan 1870:, Catalan 1858:; Spanish 1751:("fate"), 1741:("bath"), 1706:hunc locum 1681:The three 1463:eccum inde 1411:eccum ille 1271:praedictus 1152:, Occitan 1071:adjectives 1031:March 2023 977:lengthened 942:See also: 870:fricatives 849:See also: 838:See also: 791:submergere 784:('murder' 730:('hearth' 616:parabolare 581:suppletive 537:Vocabulary 519:linguistic 470:Late Latin 295:Late Latin 8751:Quaestors 8681:Empresses 8671:Dynasties 8661:Dictators 8636:and other 8625:Volubilis 8620:Vindobona 8580:Londinium 8505:Theodoret 8475:Procopius 8455:Polyaenus 8430:Pausanias 8332:Vitruvius 8277:Symmachus 8272:Suetonius 8182:Petronius 8167:Obsequens 8132:Macrobius 8127:Lucretius 8052:Frontinus 8027:Eutropius 8012:Columella 7962:Augustine 7952:Appuleius 7900:Neo-Latin 7875:Classical 7866:Versions 7774:Aqueducts 7716:Patronage 7636:Sexuality 7609:Mythology 7584:Education 7574:Cosmetics 7399:Campaigns 7394:Structure 7347:Decemviri 7206:Imperator 6905:overthrow 6734:Neo-Latin 6714:1300–1500 6664:Old Latin 6454:Detroit: 6188:To French 5857:: 73–96. 4944:Citations 4788:yo te amo 4777:Itinerary 4660:è gracile 4374:reflexive 4255:Sardinian 4251:habere ad 4126:j'aimerai 3907:singular 3902:singular 3782:vēlōciter 3674:*vọ́be(s) 3668:*nọ́be(s) 3503:adineauri 3355:syntactic 3342:ablative 3326:genitive 3282:ablative 3277:"vīcīnō" 3269:"vīcīnī" 3266:genitive 3227:singular 3110:terremoto 3104:ministeri 3038:genitive 3018:ablative 2942:genitive 2912:ablative 2877:Romanian 2705:this-that 2596:/ (reg.) 2384:, plural 2343:brațe(le) 2317:BRACCHIUM 2258:(Italian 2139:feminine 1897:; French 1890:cieru> 1788:thesaurus 1783:thesaurum 1729:Petronius 1720:) in the 1702:hoc locum 1663:genitive 1655:ablative 1592:feminine 1586:masculine 1577:masculine 1483:ecce ille 1473:ecce iste 1443:eccum hic 1427:eccum hac 1395:eccum hac 1335:ecce iste 1325:ecce ille 1196:Sardinian 814:('whole' 742:manducare 624:particles 430:epigraphy 335:Classical 274:Raynouard 257:registers 189:Glottolog 161:ISO 639-3 125:Old Latin 8756:Tribunes 8746:Praetors 8696:Generals 8676:Emperors 8585:Lugdunum 8570:Eboracum 8560:Carthage 8545:Aquileia 8460:Polybius 8450:Plutarch 8420:Libanius 8410:Josephus 8405:Herodian 8297:Tibullus 8212:Priscian 8187:Phaedrus 8147:Manilius 8092:Jordanes 8077:Hydatius 8007:Claudian 7987:Catullus 7977:Boëthius 7972:Ausonius 7890:Medieval 7862:Alphabet 7834:Theatres 7809:Numerals 7794:Concrete 7784:Circuses 7751:Bagaudae 7741:Adoption 7736:Marriage 7709:Assembly 7614:Religion 7589:Folklore 7569:Clothing 7564:Calendar 7521:Currency 7511:Commerce 7409:Strategy 7371:Military 7357:Triumvir 7337:Dictator 7332:Interrex 7311:Governor 7296:Quaestor 7259:Ordinary 7241:Province 7231:Tetrarch 7221:Augustus 7186:Vicarius 7176:Officium 7113:Imperium 7063:Plebeian 7023:Republic 6945:Dominate 6912:Republic 6873:Timeline 6701:700–1500 6643:Ages of 6419:24368205 5953:Language 5895:43343254 5757:Language 5452:Archived 5240:regions. 4898:Sicilian 4794:See also 4691:bleached 4656:sta male 4447:ambulare 4433:ambitare 4422:ambitare 4394:ambitare 4355:je viens 4349:> Sp 4156:Galician 4023:*-on(t) 3965:*-en(t) 3962:*-ẹ́tes 3959:*-ẹ́mos 3757:ablative 3635:singular 3629:singular 3589:Pronouns 3496:writing 3159:Romanian 3151:ablative 3098:menester 2760:: good. 2752:lo bueno 2699:("it" / 2630:celle-ci 2624:celui-ci 2583:mânu> 2341: : 2338:braț(ul) 2331: : 2090:singular 2084:singular 1793:freedman 1690:Pompeian 1675:altārum 1583:feminine 1569:singular 1560:("tall") 1500:and the 1385:eccu hic 1345:ecce hic 1315:ecce eum 1307:through 1284:writes, 1255:Aetheria 1083:Germanic 1067:pronouns 938:Vocalism 744:('chew' 668:postquam 604:fabulari 574:literary 562:Germanic 554:coinages 515:colonies 487:Albanian 404:society. 267:onward. 236:Help:IPA 196:vulg1234 8726:Legions 8686:Fiction 8656:Consuls 8651:Climate 8605:Ravenna 8600:Pompeii 8590:Lutetia 8555:Bononia 8550:Berytus 8540:Antioch 8515:Zosimus 8510:Zonaras 8485:Sozomen 8470:Priscus 8445:Photius 8287:Terence 8282:Tacitus 8267:Statius 8252:Servius 8237:Sallust 8192:Plautus 8172:Orosius 8152:Martial 8107:Juvenal 8082:Hyginus 8067:Gellius 7926:Writers 7857:History 7839:Thermae 7829:Temples 7779:Bridges 7746:Slavery 7694:Equites 7666:Society 7646:Theatre 7619:Deities 7579:Cuisine 7559:Bathing 7541:Culture 7516:Finance 7493:Economy 7384:Borders 7379:History 7281:Tribune 7276:Praetor 7166:Legatus 7161:Emperor 7048:Curiate 7018:Kingdom 7013:History 6989:History 6972:decline 6930:History 6900:Kingdom 6883:History 6868:Outline 6745:present 6729:present 6688:200–700 6265:LEGENDA 5871:1291590 5614:General 5527:, 1019. 5525:Captivi 4729:escrito 4722:scritto 4619:) with 4392:, and * 4310:, from 4211:Italian 4185:Catalan 4181:Spanish 4042:perfect 4040:In the 4020:*-etes 4017:*-emos 4014:*-e(t) 3956:*-e(t) 3950:*-(j)o 3947:*-ẹ́re 3910:plural 3771:ment(e) 3731:ācriter 3710:adverbs 3704:Adverbs 3662:Dative 3638:plural 3418:después 3334:dative 3320:veisins 3313:vīcīnōs 3287:plural 3274:dative 3253:vīcīnum 3242:veisins 3235:vīcīnus 3182:Romansh 3138:Plautus 3033:dative 2922:dative 2811:Charles 2807:Jacques 2549:pereira 2531:poirier 2522:păr(ul) 2328:braccio 2233:gaudium 2180:neuter 2112:giardin 2103:giardin 2093:plural 2028:lăpturi 1993:Leonese 1738:balneum 1733:balneus 1672:altōrum 1641:dative 1572:plural 1527:writes 1370:codesto 991:Grammar 969:quality 808:), and 805:solvere 772:mittere 713:civitas 610:narrare 592:portare 583:) verb 558:Gaulish 413:Sources 327:Italian 325:, when 299:Romance 249:Popular 232:Unicode 180:lat-vul 8736:Nomina 8721:Legacy 8701:Gentes 8638:topics 8634:Lists 8615:Smyrna 8495:Strabo 8425:Lucian 8415:Julian 8365:Arrian 8360:Appian 8350:Aelian 8327:Vergil 8102:Justin 8087:Jerome 8072:Horace 8057:Fronto 8047:Florus 8022:Ennius 8002:Cicero 7982:Caesar 7880:Vulgar 7704:Tribes 7631:Romans 7441:Legion 7424:castra 7301:Aedile 7271:Censor 7266:Consul 7226:Caesar 7196:Lictor 7118:Status 7058:Tribal 7038:Senate 7028:Empire 6922:Empire 6858:topics 6525:about 6492: 6469: 6443: 6417: 6065: 6046: 6027: 6001: 5973:410397 5971: 5926: 5893: 5869: 5840:42565M 5838: 5828: 5805: 5777:410406 5775: 5659: 4784:clitic 4773:Egeria 4749:stands 4687:aspect 4623:(from 4615:(from 4598:estare 4579:state. 4567:essere 4518:essere 4509:essere 4499:copula 4487:Copula 4474:essere 4456:essere 4443:vadere 4438:andare 4429:vadere 4414:vadere 4402:vadere 4389:vadere 4304:amarei 4296:clitic 4292:habere 4160:amarei 4122:French 4110:habere 4074:amauit 4005:*-ere 3991:-itis 3988:-imus 3933:-ētis 3930:-ēmus 3791:-mente 3749:crēber 3743:crēbrō 3632:plural 3494:Jerome 3447:dehors 3424:depois 3318:(les) 3302:veisin 3295:vīcīnī 3260:veisin 3204:veisin 3174:veisin 3084:juesdi 2987:*múros 2966:Vulgar 2875:Modern 2870:Vulgar 2817:, etc. 2803:Marcos 2799:Carlos 2744:, and 2590:, pl. 2558:perera 2349:Latin 2283:llenya 2270:lignum 2238:gaudia 2087:plural 2074:Nouns 2060:nombre 2055:nomin- 2016:lactem 1831:caelum 1758:caelum 1753:caelus 1716:after 1650:altīs 1636:altās 1619:altae 1589:neuter 1580:neuter 1542:quidam 1525:Cicero 1475:) and 1455:) and 1406:aquele 1360:quello 1350:questo 1337:) and 1222:) and 1212:su, sa 1079:Celtic 900:hiatus 879:sponsa 853:, and 796:pacare 782:necare 777:ponere 684:quoque 672:quidem 656:igitur 483:Basque 448:papyri 73:Italic 8400:Galen 8342:Greek 8312:Varro 8122:Lucan 7934:Latin 7849:Latin 7824:Ships 7814:Roads 7799:Domes 7731:Women 7679:Plebs 7604:Music 7146:Forum 7141:Curia 6743:1900– 6727:1300– 6645:Latin 6441:JSTOR 6437:Style 6415:JSTOR 5969:JSTOR 5891:JSTOR 5867:JSTOR 5773:JSTOR 5592:Daras 4745:estar 4715:écrit 4703:stavo 4695:stare 4679:stare 4671:stare 4652:stare 4648:stare 4640:stare 4632:stare 4625:stare 4593:ester 4587:estar 4582:Stare 4575:stare 4562:stare 4554:fieri 4534:estre 4529:essre 4480:stare 4462:stare 4418:andar 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