578:
change in the expression of genes in the miR156/miR157 and their corresponding increase in their target SPL transcription factors. Specifically, they found that gradual decline in miRNA156/157 was correlated with gradual increase in length of extrafloral nectaries and an increase in the number of beltian bodies. Furthermore, stipule swelling occurred at the nodes with the lowest levels of these miRNAs. Their results highlight that these traits are controlled by the miR156/miRNA157-SPL pathway, suggesting that this syndrome is an age-dependent (temporally regulated) consequence of genetic regulation and not of passive constraints on development.
566:
inhabited by mutualistic ants, the extrafloral nectar will get secreted with a sharp diurnal peak (between 8-10am). The nectary is the site of nectar synthesis, and the components that get synthesized include sugar, amino acids, and nectarines. The metabolic machinery for the extrafloral nectar production is synthesized and active during secretion then degraded after. Invertase is an enzyme that was found by Orona-Tamayo et al. to play an important role in nectar secretion, as it collects in the nectaries right before secretion, then declines quickly after the secretion.
582:
that is in the nectar provided for the ants by the acacia. By binding to the sucrose invertase enzymes in the ants, the chitinase prevents the ants from breaking down sucrose containing sugars. The acacia tree EFN does not contain sucrose so the ants can digest the EFN provided by the acacia but no other sucrose containing nectars. Unknown to the ants, this very source (the EFN) contains the inhibiting chitinase. This manipulation of the ants physiology by acacia ensures the continuation of defense behavior of the ants.
433:
46:
213:
990:
978:
562:
Furthermore, the application of jasmonic acid to leaves resulted in an increase in extrafloral nectar production by CWIN (an invertase regulator of nectar secretion found in the cell wall). Thus, it can be understood that when damaged, the
Bullhorn acacia creates a signal to the ants to defend it while also increasing the production of the ants' food source.
33:
561:
However, the volatile release in response to damage has a secondary function. A study by Hernández-Zepeda et al. revealed that the release of volatiles corresponded with the activation of the jasmonic acid pathway in plants: a common pathway in plants that activates in response to damage.
518:
ant's chemical signalling uses the typical herbivore response signaling pathways expressed in plants. However, the bullhorn acacia extends the function of this signaling to recruit ants to help protect against herbivores. This results in the acacia having an obligate relationship with the
407:
Bullhorn acacias are often found as 10 meter (33 ft.) trees. Their bark is gray to brown in color and has small furrows. The new growth of the branches is a reddish brown color and is covered in a pubescence, or a covering of small hairs. The leaves are alternate with a pair of stipular spines
589:
ants is of a mutualistic nature for both species. This relationship has many physiological factors in both the acacia and ants. The behaviors that arise from these factors are currently known to include: Acacia defense by ants and nectar secretion by acacia resulting in partner manipulation of the
523:
ants. In this relationship, the plants provide ants with shelter, in the form of swollen stipular spines, food (in the form of protein-lipid-rich beltian bodies) and sugar-secreting extrafloral nectaries. The beltian bodies, small detachable tips on the pinnules of the bullhorn acacia, have evolved
581:
In a study by Heil et al. in 2014, the research team found that acacia hosts manipulate their ant inhabitants (pseudomyrmex) by inhibiting their sucrose invertase. This enzyme breaks down sucrose in the ants. The invertase in the ants is inhibited by an extra floral nectar (EFN) protein chitinase
577:
It has been reported that swollen thorn syndrome (production of specialized traits in the form of hollow stipular spines, beltian bodies, and extrafloral nectaries) was absent in the early development of the bullhorn acacia. Leichty and
Poethig linked the expression of swollen thorn syndrome to a
565:
The extrafloral nectaries, which are nectar secreting plant glands, are located on the acacia's petioles and are the location of the food source for the ants. The secreted nectar plays an important role as plant indirect defense through the attraction of defending ants. As long as the plants are
553:
was the main volatile used by the bullhorn acacia to signal its distress to the ants. Thus, the initial signal of the damage response pathway is the physical damage of the leaf. This leads to a flux in Ca levels in the leaf cells, generating a variation potential. The result of the variation
569:
The nectar secretion from nectaries and food bodies on leaves and shelter (hollow stipular spines at the base of a leaf) is known as swollen plant syndrome. This syndrome is vital to the acacia plant's survival because it facilitates the animal-plant mutualism with the
458:
The ants act as a defense mechanism for the tree, protecting it against harmful insects, animals or humans that may come into contact with it. The ants live in the thorns. In return, the tree supplies the ants with
Beltian bodies, or
544:
were placed on bull horn acacia to see if the ants would respond. The results of this were that a statistically significant number of ants displayed more aggravated behavior and swarmed the area with trans-2-hexenal than
531:
The communication between the bullhorn acacia and the ants is mediated by volatiles which arise from damaged vegetation. The major volatile released from crushed leaves was identified via gas chromatography to be
832:
Orona-Tamayo, Domancar; Wielsch, Natalie; Escalante-Pérez, María; Svatos, Ales; Molina-Torres, Jorge; Muck, Alexander; Ramirez-Chávez, Enrique; Ádame-Alvarez, Rosa-María; Heil, Martin (2013).
880:
Leichty, A. R., & Poethig, R. S. (2019). Development and evolution of age-dependent defenses in ant-acacias. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 116(31), 15596–15601.
408:
where the leaf connects to the branch. The spines can vary widely in color from brown, red, and yellow. The spines are home to ants that protect the plant from herbivory.
1631:
1434:
528:
ants cut small holes in the thorns of the acacia where they lay eggs and care for larvae. These thorns are waterproof and hold in moisture which protects the ants.
490:
and avoid these acacias day and night. Getting stung in the mouth and tongue is an effective deterrent to browsing on the tender foliage. In addition to protecting
1186:
1745:
1592:
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957:
1755:
1695:
1618:
1421:
1160:
834:"Short-term proteomic dynamics reveal metabolic factory for active extrafloral nectar secretion by Acacia cornigera ant-plants"
775:"Reduced Responsiveness to Volatile Signals Creates a Modular Reward Provisioning in an Obligate Food-for-Protection Mutualism"
502:, the ants also clear away invasive seedlings around the base of the tree that might overgrow it and block out vital sunlight.
1178:
471:. These Beltian bodies have no known function other than to provide food for the ants. The aggressive ants release an alarm
1452:
1710:
1725:
1715:
1700:
455:
usually located in the leaves that defend against ravaging insects and animals. Bullhorn acacia ants fulfill that role.
387:
1735:
1579:
1307:
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can be found at the tips of the leaves. They are full of fats and sugars that feed the ants. The tree also produces
1512:
1225:
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45:
451:
an ant that lives in its hollowed-out thorns. Unlike other acacias, bullhorn acacias are deficient in the bitter
1230:
1740:
1690:
1517:
1102:
994:
728:"Not all ants are equal: obligate acacia ants provide different levels of protection against mega-herbivores"
446:
1374:
650:
1750:
1705:
1369:
1064:
615:
the horn-shaped thorns provide the legs for small ballerina seed dolls which are worn as decorative pins.
330:
384:. The common name of "bullhorn" refers to the enlarged, hollowed-out, swollen thorns (technically called
1610:
1400:
1152:
893:
Heil, Martin; Barajas-Barron, Alejandro; Orona-Tamayo, Domancar; Wielsch, Natalie; Svatos, Ales (2014).
185:
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1343:
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906:
739:
693:
1465:
1685:
1657:
1538:
1491:
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334:
228:
40:
392:
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1199:
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814:
796:
755:
263:
1037:
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558:, which the ants sense and respond to by swarming the damaged area to drive off herbivores.
495:
360:
240:
212:
139:
1204:
399:
the locals call them "cachito" (little horn). The trees are commonly found in wet lowlands
381:
83:
1217:
1113:
1023:
910:
743:
1473:
1212:
1042:
1007:
809:
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604:
70:
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1679:
1000:
751:
574:
ants. However, this syndrome does not develop until several weeks after germination.
479:
321:
202:
1662:
1543:
1256:
1126:
628:
421:
413:
409:
391:) that occur in pairs at the base of leaves, and resemble the horns of a steer. In
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612:
152:
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into multicellular structures to provide food for protective ant colonies. The
926:
859:
800:
759:
536:. In an experiment by William F. Wood and Brenda J. Wood, solutions of
1356:
1032:
791:
499:
487:
483:
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1530:
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1051:
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977:
881:
1644:
1564:
1525:
1277:
1238:
1081:
452:
363:
129:
96:
395:(one region where the bullhorn acacia thrives) it is called "subín", in
32:
1597:
1387:
1139:
460:
303:
119:
1413:
918:
895:"Partner manipulation stabilises a horizontally transmitted mutualism"
850:
833:
773:
Hernández-Zepeda, Omar F.; Razo-Belman, Rosario; Heil, Martin (2018).
468:
377:
249:
109:
1165:
1058:
1008:"Development and evolution of age-dependent defenses in ant-acacias"
1426:
1623:
1499:
1361:
464:
431:
417:
307:
277:
57:
952:. Caye Caulker, Belize: Produccicones de la Hamaca. p. 42.
367:
257:
1348:
1062:
585:
The symbiotic relationship between the bullhorn acacia and
475:
and rush out of their thorn "barracks" in great numbers.
611:, are often strung into unusual necklaces and belts. In
554:
potential is the damaged leaves releasing the volatile
420:
on its leaf stalk. This type of relationship is called
1554:
1267:
1071:
670:"Vachellia cornigera {Fabaceae} Bull-thorn Acacia"
716:Daniel Janzen, Costa Rican Natural History, 1983
1006:Leichty, Aaron R.; Poethig, R. Scott (2019).
950:Ix Hmen U Tzaco Ah Maya: Maya Herbal Medicine
8:
1059:
211:
31:
20:
1041:
1031:
849:
808:
790:
882:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1900644116
643:
342:(Schldl. & Cham.)Britton & Rose
440:Bullhorn acacia is best known for its
7:
1505:85073E0E-C380-06EA-9475-80BEE29F14DD
663:
661:
1746:Medicinal plants of Central America
510:The physiology of bullhorn acacia (
1231:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60441209-2
14:
1518:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:1112366-2
988:
976:
752:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2010.01226.x
44:
726:Martins, Dino J. (2010-11-10).
1:
948:Saqui, Aurora Garcia (2016).
627:are also used in traditional
1761:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
1777:
779:Frontiers in Plant Science
732:African Journal of Ecology
1731:Trees of Northern America
1721:Trees of Îles des Saintes
486:can apparently smell the
234:
227:
219:
210:
191:
184:
41:Scientific classification
39:
30:
23:
1756:Plants described in 1753
1696:Trees of Central America
1012:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
1033:10.1073/pnas.1900644116
792:10.3389/fpls.2018.01076
694:"Factsheet - cornigera"
447:Pseudomyrmex ferruginea
340:Tauroceras spadicigerum
205:) Seigler & Ebinger
674:florawww.eeb.uconn.edu
437:
428:Symbiotic relationship
366:), is a swollen-thorn
435:
327:Tauroceras cornigerum
1711:Trees of El Salvador
985:at Wikimedia Commons
619:Traditional medicine
590:ants by the acacia.
355:, commonly known as
1726:Trees of Martinique
1716:Trees of Guadeloupe
1701:Trees of Costa Rica
1103:Vachellia cornigera
1073:Vachellia cornigera
1024:2019PNAS..11615596L
995:Vachellia cornigera
983:Vachellia cornigera
911:2014EcolL..17..185H
744:2010AfJEc..48.1115M
512:vachellia cornigera
498:and other unwanted
352:Vachellia cornigera
222:Vachellia cornigera
195:Vachellia cornigera
25:Vachellia cornigera
1736:Trees of Nicaragua
444:relationship with
438:
416:-rich nectar from
301:Acacia spadicigera
283:Acacia hernandezii
238:Acacia campecheana
1673:
1672:
1200:Open Tree of Life
1065:Taxon identifiers
1018:(31): 15596–601.
981:Media related to
919:10.1111/ele.12215
851:10.1111/tpj.12052
838:The Plant Journal
654:(ILDIS LegumeWeb)
496:leaf-cutting ants
348:
347:
289:Acacia interjecta
177:V. cornigera
16:Species of legume
1768:
1666:
1665:
1653:
1652:
1640:
1639:
1627:
1626:
1614:
1613:
1601:
1600:
1588:
1587:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1556:Mimosa cornigera
1547:
1546:
1534:
1533:
1521:
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1508:
1507:
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1481:
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1299:Acacia cornigera
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1287:
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1269:Acacia cornigera
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1035:
993:Data related to
992:
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963:
945:
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884:
878:
872:
871:
853:
829:
823:
822:
812:
794:
770:
764:
763:
738:(4): 1115–1122.
723:
717:
714:
708:
707:
705:
704:
690:
684:
683:
681:
680:
668:Morse, Clinton.
665:
656:
652:Acacia cornigera
648:
319:Mimosa cornigera
255:Acacia cornigera
246:Acacia cornigera
215:
197:
140:Caesalpinioideae
49:
48:
35:
21:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1741:Trees of Panama
1691:Trees of Belize
1676:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1661:
1656:
1648:
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1242:
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1216:
1211:
1203:
1198:
1190:
1185:
1177:
1172:
1164:
1159:
1151:
1146:
1138:
1133:
1125:
1120:
1112:
1110:
1101:
1100:
1095:
1086:
1085:
1080:
1067:
1005:
1001:Backyard Nature
973:
968:
967:
960:
947:
946:
942:
899:Ecology Letters
892:
891:
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875:
831:
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826:
772:
771:
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715:
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702:
700:
698:www.anbg.gov.au
692:
691:
687:
678:
676:
667:
666:
659:
649:
645:
640:
621:
601:
599:Decorative uses
596:
551:trans-2-hexenal
547:dichloromethane
542:dichloromethane
538:trans-2-hexenal
534:trans-2-hexenal
508:
430:
405:
382:Central America
357:bullhorn acacia
295:Acacia rossiana
275:Acacia furcella
269:Acacia cubensis
206:
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180:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1774:
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1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
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1678:
1677:
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1670:
1668:
1667:
1663:wfo-0000182714
1654:
1641:
1628:
1615:
1602:
1589:
1576:
1560:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1549:
1548:
1544:wfo-0000182190
1535:
1522:
1509:
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1483:
1470:
1457:
1444:
1431:
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1405:
1392:
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1327:
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1304:
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1262:
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1257:wfo-0001277425
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997:at Wikispecies
986:
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971:External links
969:
966:
965:
959:978-9768142863
958:
940:
905:(2): 185–192.
885:
873:
844:(4): 546–554.
824:
765:
718:
709:
685:
657:
642:
641:
639:
636:
623:The thorns of
620:
617:
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597:
595:
592:
587:P. ferrugineus
572:P. ferrugineus
556:trans-2-hexena
526:P. ferrugineus
521:P. ferrugineus
516:P. ferrugineus
507:
504:
429:
426:
410:Beltian bodies
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313:Acacia turgida
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153:Mimosoid clade
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1751:Myrmecophytes
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1706:Trees of Cuba
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1409:iNaturalist
1293:Wikispecies
1097:Wikispecies
632:acupuncture
613:El Salvador
492:V. conigera
436:Acacia ants
136:Subfamily:
84:Angiosperms
1680:Categories
1474:Plant List
1213:Plant List
1166:60441209-2
703:2020-04-24
679:2020-04-24
638:References
549:, proving
506:Physiology
500:herbivores
403:Morphology
376:native to
1686:Vachellia
1571:Q21976850
1479:ild-28283
1427:1112366-2
1375:242412006
1088:Q50880311
927:1461-0248
860:1365-313X
801:1664-462X
760:0141-6707
488:pheromone
484:livestock
473:pheromone
453:alkaloids
442:symbiotic
386:stipular
261:americana
220:Range of
171:Species:
164:Vachellia
54:Kingdom:
1650:13016229
1645:Tropicos
1637:11137589
1624:161605-2
1565:Wikidata
1531:13023804
1526:Tropicos
1466:2.130436
1440:11229106
1320:BioLib:
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1278:Wikidata
1244:50294107
1239:Tropicos
1082:Wikidata
1052:31308222
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868:23075038
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364:Fabaceae
229:Synonyms
130:Fabaceae
126:Family:
97:Eudicots
1598:2980019
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1043:6681755
1020:Bibcode
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461:protein
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331:Britton
304:Schldl.
297:Schenck
291:Schenck
271:Schenck
241:Schenck
159:Genus:
120:Fabales
116:Order:
58:Plantae
1611:313815
1585:215891
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1401:101061
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388:spines
378:Mexico
361:family
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278:Saff.
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629:Maya
603:The
594:Uses
540:and
380:and
370:and
368:tree
335:Rose
329:(L.)
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