318:
insulating layer in a VFD is normally black, however it can be removed or made transparent to allow the display to be transparent. AMVFD displays that incorporate a driver IC are available for applications that require high image brightness and an increased number of pixels. Phosphors of different colors can be stacked on top of each other for achieving gradations and various color combinations. Hybrid VFDs include both fixed display segments and a graphic VFD in the same unit. VFDs may have display segments, grids and related circuitry on their front and rear glass panels, using a central cathode for both panels, allowing for increased segment density. The segments can also be placed exclusively on the front instead of on the back, improving viewing angles and brightness.
80:
73:
474:
of display technology varied through commercial decisions by the manufacturer, with companies such as Casio, Canon & Sharp dropping LED displays in preference to VFDs and early LCDs, whereas Texas
Instruments and Hewlett Packard, both manufacturers of LED displays, continued with LED technology for much longer. Later, once LCD technology was well established, it displaced LED displays and VFDs in handheld calculators, offering lower power requirements at lower cost. More recently, outside the education sector, calculator applications on mobile phones have for many replaced the pocket calculator, and there is progression from LED backlit LCDs back to full LED displays in the form of Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) displays.
269:, emitting light. Unlike the orange-glowing cathodes of traditional vacuum tubes, VFD cathodes are efficient emitters at much lower temperatures, and are therefore essentially invisible. The anode consists of a glass plate with electrically conductive traces (each trace is connected to a single indicator segment), which is coated with an insulator, which is then partially etched to create holes which are then filled with a conductor like
205:
466:
31:
20:
66:
362:). The brightness of VFDs makes them well suited for use in cars. The Renault Espace Mk4 and Scenic Mk2 used VFD panels to show all functions on the dashboard including the radio and multi message panel. They are bright enough to read in full sunlight as well as dimmable for use at night. This panel uses four colors; the usual blue/green as well as deep blue, red and yellow/orange.
339:
47:
374:. While later games had sophisticated multi-color displays, early games achieved color effects using transparent filters to change the color of the (usually light blue) light emitted by the phosphors. High power consumption and high manufacturing cost contributed to the demise of the VFD as a videogame display.
280:
The cathode wire to which the oxides are applied is made of tungsten or ruthenium-tungsten alloy. The oxides in the cathodes are not stable in air, so they are applied to the cathode as carbonates, the cathodes are assembled into the VFD, and the cathodes are heated by passing a current through them
175:
with high-brightness VFDs operating at 4,000 cd/m, and experimental units as high as 35,000 cd/m depending on the drive voltage and its timing. The choice of color (which determines the nature of the phosphor) and display brightness significantly affect the lifetime of the tubes, which can
473:
Of the three prevalent display technologies – VFD, LCD, and LED – the VFD was the first to be developed. VFD and LED displays were used in early handheld calculators. LED displays were an alternative to VFDs in this use as they had simpler power requirements, not requiring the high voltages. Choice
326:
Besides brightness, VFDs have the advantages of being rugged, inexpensive, and easily configured to display a wide variety of customized messages, and unlike LCDs, VFDs are not limited by the response time of rearranging liquid crystals and are thus able to function normally in cold, even sub-zero,
297:
driving the display enables a digit by placing a positive voltage on that digit's grid and then placing a positive voltage on the appropriate plates. Electrons flow through that digit's grid and strike those plates that are at a positive potential. The microprocessor cycles through illuminating the
195:
The first VFD was the single indication DM160 by
Philips in 1959. The first multi-segment VFD was a 1967 Japanese single-digit, seven-segment device made by Ise Electronics Corporation. The displays became common on calculators and other consumer electronics devices. In the late 1980s hundreds of
477:
The first VFD was the single indication DM160 by
Philips in 1959. It could easily be driven by transistors, so was aimed at computer applications as it was easier to drive than a neon and had longer life than a light bulb. The 1967 Japanese single digit seven segment display in terms of anode was
317:
providing a deep green or deep blue, depending on the whims of the product's designers. Phosphors used in VFDs are different from those in cathode-ray displays since they must emit acceptable brightness with only around 50 volts of electron energy, compared to several thousand volts in a CRT. The
412:
In addition to the widely used fixed character VFD, a graphic type made of an array of individually addressable pixels is also available. These more sophisticated displays offer the flexibility of displaying arbitrary images, and may still be a useful choice for some types of consumer equipment.
378:
could be manufactured for a fraction of the price, did not require frequent changes of batteries (or AC adapters) and were much more portable. Since the late 1990s, backlit color active-matrix LCD displays have been able to cheaply reproduce arbitrary images in any color, a marked advantage over
452:
Fading is sometimes a problem with VFDs. Light output drops over time due to falling emission and reduction of phosphor efficiency. How quickly and how far this falls depends on the construction and operation of the VFD. In some equipment, loss of VFD output can render the equipment inoperable.
292:
where the multiple grids and plates form a matrix, minimizing the number of signal pins required. In the example of the VCR display shown to the right, the grids are arranged so that only one digit is illuminated at a time. All of the similar plates in all of the digits (for example, all of the
456:
Emission may usually be restored by raising filament voltage. Thirty-three percent voltage boost can rectify moderate fade, and 66% boost severe fade. This can make the filaments visible in use, though the usual green-blue VFD filter helps reduce any such red or orange light from the filament.
305:
The extra indicators (in our example, "VCR", "Hi-Fi", "STEREO", "SAP", etc.) are arranged as if they were segments of an additional digit or two or extra segments of existing digits and are scanned using the same multiplexed strategy as the real digits. Some of these extra indicators may use a
191:
numerals, multi-segment alpha-numeric characters or can be made in a dot-matrix to display different alphanumeric characters and symbols. In practice, there is little limit to the shape of the image that can be displayed: it depends solely on the shape of phosphor on the anode(s).
453:
Fading can be slowed by using a display driver chip to lower the voltages necessary to drive a VFD. Fading can also occur due to evaporation and contamination of the cathode. Phosphors that contain sulfur are more susceptible to fading.
349:
During the 1980s, this display began to be used in automobiles, especially where car makers were experimenting with digital displays for vehicle instruments such as speedometers and odometers. A good example of these were the high-end
273:, which in turn is coated with phosphor. This transfers energy from the trace to the segment. The shape of the phosphor will determine the shape of the VFD's segments. The most widely used phosphor is Zinc-doped copper-activated
184:-compliant VFDs have eliminated this metal from their construction, using instead phosphors consisting of a matrix of alkaline earth and very small amounts of group III metals, doped with very small amounts of rare earth metals.
478:
more like the
Philips DM70 / DM71 Magic Eye as the DM160 has a spiral wire anode. The Japanese seven segment VFD meant that no patent royalties needed to be paid on desk calculator displays as would have been the case using
369:
units. These games featured bright, clear displays but the size of the largest vacuum tubes that could be manufactured inexpensively kept the size of the displays quite small, often requiring the use of magnifying
288:. Electrons can only reach (and "illuminate") a given plate element if both the grid and the plate are at a positive potential with respect to the cathode. This allows the displays to be organized as
379:
fixed-color, fixed-character VFDs. This is one of the main reasons for the decline in popularity of VFDs, although they continue to be made. Many low-cost DVD players still feature VFDs.
765:
482:
or
Panaplex neon digits or for LED displays on pocket calculators. In the UK the Philips designs were made and marketed by Mullard (almost wholly owned by Philips even before WWII).
79:
72:
331:) than a simple LCD. This was considered a significant drawback for battery-operated equipment like calculators, so VFDs ended up being used mainly in equipment powered by an
1658:
1951:
382:
From the mid-1980s onwards, VFDs were used for applications requiring smaller displays with high brightness specifications, though now the adoption of high-brightness
327:
temperatures, making them ideal for outdoor devices in cold climates. Early on, the main disadvantage of such displays was their use of significantly more power (0.2
1152:
664:
171:(LCDs), a VFD emits very bright light with high contrast and can support display elements of various colors. Standard illumination figures for VFDs are around 640
677:
Kiyozumi, K., & Nakamura, T. (1983). Vacuum fluorescent displays: from single digits to colour TV. Displays, 4(4), 213–220. doi:10.1016/0141-9382(83)90116-6
1394:
1605:
1122:
761:
1578:
593:
539:
1309:
569:
Chen, J., Cranton, W., & Fihn, M. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of Visual
Display Technology. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-14346-0 page 1610 onwards
1877:
1652:
1726:
920:
1925:
1069:
972:
1039:
890:
1640:
1599:
1099:
950:
839:
794:
716:
695:
860:
440:, an analogue audio amplifier component based on VFD technology. The Nutube is used in applications such as guitar amplifiers from
485:
The
Russian IV-15 VFD tube is very similar to the DM160. The DM160, DM70/DM71 and Russian IV-15 can (like a VFD panel) be used as
1962:
1645:
1387:
613:
265:), which are made up of thin (50 micron thick) stainless steel. If electrons impinge on the phosphor-coated anode plates, they
1009:
643:
1664:
1634:
1461:
815:
1338:
1981:
1935:
1930:
1920:
1808:
1537:
383:
1333:
1284:
1380:
1450:
1444:
1856:
1567:
1258:
729:
1178:
1758:
1561:
1130:
172:
1281:"News | KORG INC and Noritake Co., Limited Release Innovative Vacuum Tube: The Nutube | KORG (USA)"
1764:
506:
441:
262:
126:
1232:
1861:
1611:
1526:
425:
168:
24:
1748:
1742:
343:
299:
188:
401:
in North
America (the former from the early 1980s to the late-2000s in the form of (usually two) green
405:, and the latter from the mid 1980s to the early 2000s in the form of (usually 3) green or blue 10x14
1753:
1627:
416:
Multiplexing may be used in VFDs to reduce the number of connections necessary to drive the display.
176:
range from as low as 1,500 hours for a vivid red VFD to 30,000 hours for the more common green ones.
1899:
1803:
1710:
1593:
1554:
1481:
398:
332:
289:
220:
141:
35:
1352:
298:
digits in this way at a rate high enough to create the illusion of all digits glowing at once via
1941:
1815:
1737:
1732:
1695:
1305:
444:
and the Apex
Sangaku headphone amplifier. The Nutube is sold by Korg but made by Noritake Itron.
406:
402:
157:
65:
1894:
1690:
1622:
1146:
835:
811:
790:
712:
691:
658:
589:
535:
208:
912:
1946:
1685:
1487:
1433:
1061:
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145:
1031:
882:
1851:
1841:
1788:
1549:
1091:
942:
366:
204:
39:
852:
1001:
1455:
1411:
1403:
394:
294:
247:
134:
122:
257:
when heated to 650 °C by an electric current. These electrons are controlled and
1975:
51:
973:"VFD (Vacuum Fluorescent Display) | Products | NORITAKE ITRON CORPORATION"
609:
465:
30:
19:
1705:
1367:
1362:
635:
494:
490:
371:
314:
310:
293:
lower-left plates in all of the digits) are connected in parallel. One by one, the
266:
1357:
469:
A PCB with VFD display from a Casio M-1 Calculator, produced between 1976 and 1986
1820:
1783:
1504:
511:
250:
216:
1798:
1793:
1775:
1715:
479:
274:
97:
1915:
1889:
1846:
1836:
1542:
1439:
1347:
1280:
389:
Vacuum fluorescent displays were once commonly used as floor indicators for
375:
359:
258:
130:
762:"Directly-heated oxide cathode and fluorescent display tube using the same"
737:
281:
while inside the vacuum of the VFD to convert the carbonates into oxides.
1617:
1588:
1428:
390:
270:
254:
240:
228:
149:
54:
Hi-Fi. All segments are visible due to external ultraviolet illumination.
180:
was commonly used in the phosphors of VFDs in the past, but the current
1882:
1532:
1497:
177:
1363:
The smallest Triode and earliest VFD, the DM160, with size comparisons
1254:
810:(3rd ed.). Braunschweig, Germany: Westermann. 1999. p. 110.
1516:
1372:
1199:
1166:
486:
429:
365:
This technology was also used from 1979 to the mid-1980s in portable
354:
cars made in the early 1980s (referred to by Subaru enthusiasts as a
351:
309:
The light emitted by most VFDs contains many colors and can often be
306:
phosphor that emits a different color of light, for example, orange.
285:
236:
161:
489:. The DM160 is thus the smallest VFD and smallest triode valve. The
338:
1492:
1062:"Ultra-high luminance, full dot matrix display｜Futaba Corporation"
610:"Fluorescent phosphorescent coating free from sulphur and cadmium"
464:
232:
224:
203:
153:
45:
29:
18:
284:
The principle of operation is identical to that of a vacuum tube
148:, but operating at much lower voltages. Each tube in a VFD has a
1510:
1228:
433:
328:
243:
211:
of a VFD digit with 3 horizontal tungsten wires and control grid
181:
1376:
46:
636:"DM 160, Tube DM160; Röhre DM 160 ID19445, INDICATOR, in gene"
23:
A full view of a typical vacuum fluorescent display used in a
277:, which generates light at a peak wavelength of 505 nm.
125:
once commonly used on consumer electronics equipment such as
830:
William M. Yen, Shigeo
Shionoya, Hajime Yamamoto (editors),
437:
797:
Chapter 7 Vacuum Fluorescent Displays pp. 163 and following
428:
have experimented with the possibilities of using VFDs as
1169:
Vacuum Fluorescent Display Amplifiers For Primitive Radio
1032:"Double Layer Phosphor Printing VFD｜Futaba Corporation"
409:, one for the arrow and the other two for the digits).
164:
vacuum tube because it also has a mesh control grid.
1908:
1870:
1829:
1774:
1678:
1659:
Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology
1577:
1472:
1419:
1410:
253:(barium, strontium and calcium oxides), which emit
1952:Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays
579:
577:
575:
808:Elektrotechnik Tabellen Kommunikationselektronik
156:that is bombarded by electrons emitted from the
34:A close-up of the VFD highlighting the multiple
1002:"Chip In Glass VFD(CIG VFD)｜Futaba Corporation"
584:Janglin Chen; Wayne Cranton; Mark Fihn (2011).
565:
563:
561:
559:
557:
555:
553:
551:
1348:Photos and specs for antique Russian VFD tubes
386:(OLEDs) is pushing VFDs out of these markets.
50:Vacuum fluorescent display from a CD and dual
1388:
335:supply or heavy-duty rechargeable batteries.
8:
1339:Vacuum Fluorescent Display (VFD) (including
1606:Surface-conduction electron-emitter display
1151:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
663:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
239:condition. The cathode is made up of fine
1517:Active-Matrix Organic light-emitting diode
1416:
1395:
1381:
1373:
57:
1092:"Clear Background VFD｜Futaba Corporation"
756:
754:
530:Shigeo Shionoya; William M. Yen (1998).
337:
853:"Front Luminous VFD｜Futaba Corporation"
522:
1368:The Russian VFD indicator like a DM160
1144:
656:
588:. Springer. pp. 1056, 1067–1068.
342:A digital dashboard cluster in a 1992
1102:from the original on 21 December 2019
1072:from the original on 21 December 2019
1042:from the original on 21 December 2019
953:from the original on 21 December 2019
923:from the original on 21 December 2019
893:from the original on 21 December 2019
863:from the original on 21 December 2019
789:, Gulf Professional Publishing, 1992
586:Handbook of Visual Display Technology
7:
1653:Ferroelectric liquid crystal display
1202:A VFD Receiver (Triodes in Disguise)
1175:December 2008, retrieved 2010 Feb 8"
1012:from the original on 18 January 2020
196:millions of units were made yearly.
16:Display used in consumer electronics
1727:Light-emitting electrochemical cell
1208:January 2009, retrieved 2010 Feb 8"
711:Gulf Professional Publishing, 1992
690:Gulf Professional Publishing, 1992
160:. In fact, each tube in a VFD is a
140:A VFD operates on the principle of
1926:Large-screen television technology
1261:from the original on 22 April 2018
1235:from the original on 16 March 2018
913:"Gradation VFD｜Futaba Corporation"
883:"Bi-Planar VFD｜Futaba Corporation"
14:
1600:Organic light-emitting transistor
1334:Noritake's Guide to VFD Operation
1312:from the original on 23 July 2023
1255:"The Sangaku headphone amplifier"
493:is slightly different shape (see
1963:Comparison of display technology
78:
71:
64:
1594:Electroluminescent Quantum Dots
1287:from the original on 2020-11-01
1181:from the original on 2009-08-26
1123:"VFD as an audio/RF amplifier?"
943:"Hybrid VFD｜Futaba Corporation"
768:from the original on 2021-02-02
646:from the original on 2012-01-13
616:from the original on 2021-02-02
38:, tensioned by the sheet metal
1665:Laser-powered phosphor display
1358:The DM70 VFD related Magic eye
1229:"Vox MV50 AC guitar amplifier"
787:Handbook of display technology
709:Handbook of display technology
688:Handbook of display technology
1:
1931:Optimum HDTV viewing distance
1921:History of display technology
1809:Computer-generated holography
384:organic light-emitting diodes
1511:Organic light-emitting diode
1505:Light-emitting diode display
785:Joseph A. Castellano (ed),
707:Joseph A. Castellano (ed),
686:Joseph A. Castellano (ed),
399:Montgomery Elevator Company
1998:
1721:Vacuum fluorescent display
1445:Electroluminescent display
534:. CRC Press. p. 561.
115:vacuum fluorescent display
1960:
1568:Liquid crystal on silicon
1341:How to drive the filament
261:by the grids (made using
215:The device consists of a
42:at the right of the image
1759:Fourteen-segment display
1562:Digital Light Processing
1306:"Calculator.org website"
1127:Electronics Point forums
730:"VFD｜Futaba Corporation"
495:photo of DM160 and IV-15
127:video cassette recorders
1765:Sixteen-segment display
1451:Rear-projection display
1353:Simple VFD Test Circuit
507:Sixteen-segment display
263:photochemical machining
169:liquid crystal displays
144:, roughly similar to a
1612:Field-emission display
1527:Liquid-crystal display
1121:N9WOS (29 July 2005).
470:
346:
235:envelope under a high
212:
55:
43:
27:
25:videocassette recorder
1749:Eight-segment display
1743:Seven-segment display
977:www.noritake-itron.jp
634:(HB9RXQ), Ernst Erb.
468:
395:Otis Elevator Company
344:Mercury Grand Marquis
341:
300:persistence of vision
207:
49:
33:
22:
1982:Vacuum tube displays
1871:Display capabilities
1754:Nine-segment display
1456:Plasma display panel
1098:. 27 February 2021.
1068:. 27 February 2021.
1038:. 27 February 2021.
1008:. 27 February 2021.
949:. 27 February 2021.
919:. 27 February 2021.
889:. 27 February 2021.
859:. 27 February 2021.
290:multiplexed displays
59:Different VFD tubes
1900:See-through display
1804:Holographic display
1482:Quantum dot display
1167:"H. P. Friedrichs,
640:www.radiomuseum.org
407:dot-matrix displays
403:16-segment displays
142:cathodoluminescence
60:
1942:Color Light Output
1936:High Dynamic Range
1738:Dot-matrix display
1733:Lightguide display
1404:Display technology
834:, CRC Press, 2007
471:
347:
213:
58:
56:
44:
28:
1969:
1968:
1895:Always-on display
1686:Electromechanical
1674:
1673:
832:Phosphor Handbook
595:978-3-540-79566-7
541:978-0-8493-7560-6
532:Phosphor Handbook
497:for comparison).
430:triode amplifiers
187:VFDs can display
111:
110:
1989:
1947:Flexible display
1909:Related articles
1789:Autostereoscopic
1488:Electronic paper
1434:Cathode-ray tube
1417:
1397:
1390:
1383:
1374:
1322:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1292:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1216:
1215:
1200:"Des. Kostryca,
1196:
1190:
1189:
1187:
1186:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1150:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1133:on 11 March 2018
1129:. Archived from
1118:
1112:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1096:www.futaba.co.jp
1088:
1082:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1066:www.futaba.co.jp
1058:
1052:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1036:www.futaba.co.jp
1028:
1022:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1006:www.futaba.co.jp
998:
992:
991:
989:
988:
979:. Archived from
969:
963:
962:
960:
958:
947:www.futaba.co.jp
939:
933:
932:
930:
928:
917:www.futaba.co.jp
909:
903:
902:
900:
898:
887:www.futaba.co.jp
879:
873:
872:
870:
868:
857:www.futaba.co.jp
849:
843:
828:
822:
821:
804:
798:
783:
777:
776:
774:
773:
758:
749:
748:
746:
745:
736:. Archived from
734:www.futaba.co.jp
726:
720:
705:
699:
684:
678:
675:
669:
668:
662:
654:
652:
651:
631:
625:
624:
622:
621:
606:
600:
599:
581:
570:
567:
546:
545:
527:
420:Use as amplifier
315:color saturation
158:cathode filament
146:cathode ray tube
107:
91:
82:
75:
68:
61:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1956:
1904:
1866:
1852:Slide projector
1842:Movie projector
1825:
1770:
1670:
1580:
1573:
1474:
1468:
1421:
1406:
1401:
1330:
1325:
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1313:
1304:
1303:
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1136:
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1103:
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999:
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986:
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936:
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881:
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846:
829:
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801:
784:
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771:
769:
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759:
752:
743:
741:
728:
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723:
706:
702:
685:
681:
676:
672:
655:
649:
647:
633:
632:
628:
619:
617:
608:
607:
603:
596:
583:
582:
573:
568:
549:
542:
529:
528:
524:
520:
503:
463:
450:
422:
367:electronic game
324:
313:to enhance the
231:) encased in a
202:
152:-coated carbon
135:microwave ovens
105:
104:
95:
89:
88:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1995:
1993:
1985:
1984:
1974:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1961:
1958:
1957:
1955:
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1949:
1944:
1939:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1912:
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372:Fresnel lenses
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295:microprocessor
248:alkaline earth
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123:display device
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795:0-12-163420-5
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1857:Transparency
1830:Static media
1784:Stereoscopic
1720:
1340:
1314:. Retrieved
1300:
1289:. Retrieved
1275:
1263:. Retrieved
1249:
1237:. Retrieved
1223:
1212:. Retrieved
1205:
1201:
1194:
1183:. Retrieved
1177:. Eham.net.
1172:
1168:
1161:
1135:. Retrieved
1131:the original
1126:
1116:
1104:. Retrieved
1095:
1086:
1074:. Retrieved
1065:
1056:
1044:. Retrieved
1035:
1026:
1014:. Retrieved
1005:
996:
985:. Retrieved
981:the original
976:
967:
955:. Retrieved
946:
937:
925:. Retrieved
916:
907:
895:. Retrieved
886:
877:
865:. Retrieved
856:
847:
831:
826:
807:
802:
786:
781:
770:. Retrieved
742:. Retrieved
738:the original
733:
724:
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687:
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673:
648:. Retrieved
639:
629:
618:. Retrieved
604:
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531:
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455:
451:
423:
415:
411:
388:
381:
364:
355:
348:
325:
308:
304:
283:
279:
251:metal oxides
246:, coated by
214:
194:
186:
166:
139:
118:
114:
112:
1821:Fog display
1794:Multiscopic
1711:Fiber-optic
1623:Quantum dot
512:LED Display
480:Nixie tubes
432:. In 2015,
217:hot cathode
209:Macro image
103:16 segments
1862:Laser beam
1816:Volumetric
1776:3D display
1716:Nixie tube
1696:Split-flap
1581:generation
1555:Blue Phase
1475:generation
1422:generation
1291:2020-10-29
1214:2012-12-11
1210:. Eham.net
1185:2012-12-11
987:2020-01-04
817:3142250379
772:2020-10-29
744:2019-12-15
650:2012-08-13
620:2020-10-03
518:References
275:Zinc oxide
131:car radios
98:Sharp EL-8
94:8 segments
87:7 segments
1916:Scan line
1890:DisplayID
1847:Neon sign
1837:Monoscope
1679:Non-video
1440:Jumbotron
1106:4 January
1076:4 January
1046:4 January
1016:4 January
957:4 January
927:4 January
897:4 January
867:4 January
842:Chapter 8
391:elevators
376:LCD games
360:dashboard
356:digi-dash
267:fluoresce
255:electrons
221:filaments
36:filaments
1976:Category
1799:Hologram
1706:Eggcrate
1691:Flip-dot
1637:display
1618:Laser TV
1589:microLED
1519:(AMOLED)
1473:Current
1429:Eidophor
1310:Archived
1285:Archived
1265:11 March
1259:Archived
1239:11 March
1233:Archived
1206:eHam.net
1179:Archived
1173:eHam.net
1147:cite web
1137:11 March
1100:Archived
1070:Archived
1040:Archived
1010:Archived
951:Archived
921:Archived
891:Archived
861:Archived
766:Archived
719:page 176
659:cite web
644:Archived
614:Archived
501:See also
424:Several
311:filtered
271:graphite
259:diffused
241:tungsten
229:phosphor
150:phosphor
52:cassette
1883:CEA-861
1513:(OLED)
1498:Gyricon
1316:23 July
487:triodes
461:History
178:Cadmium
167:Unlike
121:) is a
40:springs
1767:(SISD)
1661:(TDEL)
1655:(FLCD)
1602:(OLET)
1570:(LCoS)
1529:(LCD)
1507:(LED)
1484:(QLED)
1458:(PDP)
838:
814:
793:
715:
698:page 9
694:
592:
538:
438:Nutube
352:Subaru
286:triode
237:vacuum
225:anodes
200:Design
162:triode
133:, and
1938:(HDR)
1761:(FSD)
1745:(SSD)
1729:(LEC)
1723:(VFD)
1667:(LPD)
1614:(FED)
1608:(SED)
1579:Next
1564:(DLP)
1493:E Ink
1447:(ELD)
1436:(CRT)
491:IV-15
329:watts
244:wires
233:glass
154:anode
1878:EDID
1700:Vane
1646:TMOS
1641:IMoD
1635:MEMS
1462:ALiS
1420:Past
1318:2023
1267:2018
1241:2018
1153:link
1139:2018
1108:2020
1078:2020
1048:2020
1018:2020
959:2020
929:2020
899:2020
869:2020
836:ISBN
812:ISBN
791:ISBN
713:ISBN
692:ISBN
665:link
590:ISBN
536:ISBN
448:Fade
434:Korg
182:RoHS
173:cd/m
1550:LED
1543:IPS
1533:TFT
442:Vox
393:by
322:Use
119:VFD
1978::
1538:TN
1308:.
1283:.
1257:.
1231:.
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1171:,
1149:}}
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