1205:
1325:, corresponding to the most stable nuclides. On one side of the valley of stability, this ratio is small, corresponding to an excess of protons over neutrons in the nuclides. These nuclides tend to be unstable to β decay or electron capture, since such decay converts a proton to a neutron. The decay serves to move the nuclides toward a more stable neutron-proton ratio. On the other side of the valley of stability, this ratio is large, corresponding to an excess of neutrons over protons in the nuclides. These nuclides tend to be unstable to β decay, since such decay converts neutrons to protons. On this side of the valley of stability, β decay also serves to move nuclides toward a more stable neutron-proton ratio.
1218:
803:
1231:
3344:
2000:
2601:
2230:
2623:
1204:
816:
1217:
3357:
31:
3339:{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{}\\{\ce {^{238}_{92}U->{^{234}_{90}Th}->{^{234\!m}_{91}Pa}}}{\ce {->}}{\ce {^{234}_{92}U->{^{230}_{90}Th}->}}\\{\ce {^{226}_{88}Ra->{^{222}_{86}Rn}->{^{218}_{84}Po}->{^{214}_{82}Pb}->{^{214}_{83}Bi}->}}\\{\ce {^{214}_{84}Po->{^{210}_{82}Pb}->{^{210}_{83}Bi}->{^{210}_{84}Po}->{^{206}_{82}Pb}}}\\{}\end{array}}}
1230:
1173:, to be stable. The valley of stability is formed by the negative of binding energy, the binding energy being the energy required to break apart the nuclide into its proton and neutron components. The stable nuclides have high binding energy, and these nuclides lie along the bottom of the valley of stability. Nuclides with weaker binding energy have combinations of
2371:
drip lines, no nuclei can exist. The location of the neutron drip line is not well known for most of the Segrè chart, whereas the proton and alpha drip lines have been measured for a wide range of elements. Drip lines are defined for protons, neutrons, and alpha particles, and these all play important roles in nuclear physics.
1197:
that take the resulting nuclides sequentially down the slopes of the valley of stability. The sequence of decays take nuclides toward greater binding energies, and the nuclides terminating the chain are stable. The valley of stability provides both a conceptual approach for how to organize the myriad
1223:
Chart of nuclides by half life. Black squares represent nuclides with the longest half lives hence they correspond to the most stable nuclides. The most stable, long-lived nuclides lie along the floor of the valley of stability. Nuclides with more than 20 protons must have more neutrons than protons
2370:
The boundaries of the valley of stability, that is, the upper limits of the valley walls, are the neutron drip line on the neutron-rich side, and the proton drip line on the proton-rich side. The nucleon drip lines are at the extremes of the neutron-proton ratio. At neutron–proton ratios beyond the
2270:
Te are unstable with an excess of neutrons, while those on the right are unstable with an excess of protons. A nuclide on the left therefore undergoes β decay, which converts a neutron to a proton, hence shifts the nuclide to the right and toward greater stability. A nuclide on the right similarly
2225:
These reactions correspond to the decay of a neutron to a proton, or the decay of a proton to a neutron, within the nucleus, respectively. These reactions begin on one side or the other of the valley of stability, and the directions of the reactions are to move the initial nuclides down the valley
2011:
The figure at right shows the average binding energy per nucleon as a function of atomic mass number along the line of beta stability, that is, along the bottom of the valley of stability. For very small atomic mass number (H, He, Li), binding energy per nucleon is small, and this energy increases
1210:
Chart of nuclides (isotopes) by binding energy, depicting the valley of stability. The diagonal line corresponds to equal numbers of neutrons and protons. Dark blue squares represent nuclides with the greatest binding energy, hence they correspond to the most stable nuclides. The binding energy is
3416:
near that of uranium or other fissionable nuclei have too many neutrons to be stable; this neutron excess is why multiple free neutrons but no free protons are usually emitted in the fission process, and it is also why many fission product nuclei undergo a long chain of β decays, each of which
2374:
The difference in binding energy between neighboring nuclides increases as the sides of the valley of stability are ascended, and correspondingly the nuclide half-lives decrease, as indicated in the figure above. If one were to add nucleons one at a time to a given nuclide, the process will
1236:
Chart of nuclides by type of decay. Black squares are stable nuclides. Nuclides with excessive neutrons or protons are unstable to β (light blue) or β (green) decay, respectively. At high atomic number, alpha emission (orange) or spontaneous fission (dark blue) become common decay
2402:
in West
Germany. Research in the field flourished after this breakthrough, and to date more than 25 nuclides have been found to exhibit proton emission. The study of proton emission has aided the understanding of nuclear deformation, masses and structure, and it is an example of
1713:
1290:. By acting to separate protons from one another, the neutrons within a nuclide play an essential role in stabilizing nuclides. With increasing atomic number, even greater numbers of neutrons are required to obtain stability. The heaviest stable element,
2024:(26 protons, 30 neutrons) are a close second and third. These nuclides lie at the very bottom of the valley of stability. From this bottom, the average binding energy per nucleon slowly decreases with increasing atomic mass number. The heavy nuclide
2604:
The uranium-238 series is a series of α (N and Z less 2) and β− decays (N less 1, Z plus 1) to nuclides that are successively deeper into the valley of stability. The series terminates at lead-206, a stable nuclide at the bottom of the valley of
2375:
eventually lead to a newly formed nuclide that is so unstable that it promptly decays by emitting a proton (or neutron). Colloquially speaking, the nucleon has 'leaked' or 'dripped' out of the nucleus, hence giving rise to the term "drip line".
3448:
for each fission that has occurred. These antineutrinos come from the decay of fission products that, as their nuclei progress down a β decay chain toward the valley of stability, emit an antineutrino along with each β particle. In 1956,
2553:" of neutrons and protons. One possible magic number of neutrons for spherical nuclei is 184, and some possible matching proton numbers are 114, 120 and 126. These configurations imply that the most stable spherical isotopes would be
1141:
is less than that of the original nuclide. The difference between the initial and final nuclide binding energies is carried away by the kinetic energies of the decay products, often the beta particle and its associated neutrino.
3388:, usually with the release of additional neutrons. Like all nuclides with a high atomic number, these uranium nuclei require many neutrons to bolster their stability, so they have a large neutron-proton ratio (
2233:
The negative of binding energy per nucleon for nuclides with atomic mass number 125 plotted as a function of atomic number. The profile of binding energy across the valley of stability is roughly a parabola.
1726:
is often divided by the mass number to obtain binding energy per nucleon for comparisons of binding energies between nuclides. Each of the terms in this formula has a theoretical basis. The coefficients
1959:
1286:(C) is composed of six neutrons and six protons, for example. Protons have a positive charge, hence within a nuclide with many protons there are large repulsive forces between protons arising from the
1419:
900:. The shape of the valley refers to the profile of binding energy as a function of the numbers of neutrons and protons, with the lowest part of the valley corresponding to the region of most
955:. The Segrè chart may be considered a map of the nuclear valley. The region of proton and neutron combinations outside of the valley of stability is referred to as the sea of instability.
2437:). Since only a neutron is lost in this process, the atom does not gain or lose any protons, and so it does not become an atom of a different element. Instead, the atom will become a new
1531:
4185:
2348:
carries away two neutrons and two protons, leaving a lighter nuclide. Since heavy nuclides have many more neutrons than protons, α decay increases a nuclide's neutron-proton ratio.
1161:
forms a rough initial line defining stable nuclides. The greater the number of protons, the more neutrons are required to stabilize a nuclide; nuclides with larger values for
2530:
that are relatively close to each other. Energy levels from quantum states in two different shells will be separated by a relatively large energy gap. So when the number of
1868:
912:(β or β). The decay of a nuclide becomes more energetically favorable the further it is from the line of beta stability. The boundaries of the valley correspond to the
2577:
of 184 are thought to be magic). This doubly magic configuration is the most likely to have a very long half-life. The next lighter doubly magic spherical nucleus is
1994:
1833:
1806:
1779:
1752:
1503:
1476:
1449:
4198:
by
Mackintosh, Ai-Khalili, Jonson, and Pena describes the valley of stability and its implications (Baltimore, Maryland:The Johns Hopkins University Press), 2001.
1961:. This equation for the neutron-proton ratio shows that in stable nuclides the number of neutrons is greater than the number of protons by a factor that scales as
2546:
per nucleon will reach a local maximum and thus that particular configuration will have a longer lifetime than nearby isotopes that do not possess filled shells.
1030:
greater than 10 years, and there are many combinations of protons and neutrons that form nuclides that are unstable. A common example of an unstable nuclide is
1255:
that binds nucleons together is a complicated function depending on nucleon type, spin state, electric charge, momentum, etc. and with contributions from non-
3847:
3444:
When fission reactions are sustained at a given rate, such as in a liquid-cooled or solid fuel nuclear reactor, the nuclear fuel in the system produces many
3750:
Rare
Isotope Science Assessment; Committee Board on Physics and Astronomy; Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences; National Research Council (2007).
2526:
is built up in "shells" in a manner similar to the structure of the much larger electron shells in atoms. In both cases, shells are just groups of quantum
761:
847:
1275:
are unbound. The nuclear force is not sufficiently strong to form either p-p or n-n bound states, or equivalently, the nuclear force does not form a
3620:
2399:
802:
4022:
3980:
3458:
1153:
as a function of neutron and proton numbers. Most stable nuclides have roughly equal numbers of protons and neutrons, so the line for which
3897:
1198:
stable and unstable nuclides into a coherent picture and an intuitive way to understand how and why sequences of radioactive decay occur.
4203:
110:
4061:
3603:
3550:
3408:, but have atomic numbers that are approximately half that of uranium. Isotopes with the atomic number of the fission products and an
3761:
2344:
As in β decay, the decay product X′ has greater binding energy and it is closer to the middle of the valley of stability. The
1718:
The difference between the mass of a nucleus and the sum of the masses of the neutrons and protons that comprise it is known as the
4172:
3353:
move further down the valley of stability towards the line of beta stability. Pb is stable and lies on the line of beta stability.
1247:
The protons and neutrons that comprise an atomic nucleus behave almost identically within the nucleus. The approximate symmetry of
1873:
The binding energy expression gives a quantitative estimate for the neutron-proton ratio. The energy is a quadratic expression in
1880:
414:
1513:
is used here. The binding energy is subtracted from the sum of the proton and neutron masses because the mass of the nucleus is
2137:
of the decaying nucleus, and X and X′ are the initial and final nuclides, respectively. For β decay, the generic form is
2028:
is not stable, but is slow to decay with a half-life of 4.5 billion years. It has relatively small binding energy per nucleon.
606:
2254:
The figure at right shows the average binding energy per nucleon across the valley of stability for nuclides with mass number
1181:
that lie off of the line of stability and further up the sides of the valley of stability. Unstable nuclides can be formed in
311:
3697:
Chowdhury, P. Roy; Samanta, C.; Basu, D. N. (2008). "Search for long lived heaviest nuclei beyond the valley of stability".
1345:
1251:
treats these particles as identical, but in a different quantum state. This symmetry is only approximate, however, and the
2489:
840:
2003:
The negative of binding energy per nucleon for the stable nuclides located along the bottom of the valley of stability.
2589:
The valley of stability can be helpful in interpreting and understanding properties of nuclear decay processes such as
1510:
2390:
as early as 1969, no other proton-emitting states were found until 1981, when the proton radioactive ground states of
2383:
1334:
624:
594:
95:
671:
4094:
1708:{\displaystyle E_{B}=a_{V}A-a_{S}A^{2/3}-a_{C}{\frac {Z^{2}}{A^{1/3}}}-a_{A}{\frac {(A-2Z)^{2}}{A}}\pm \delta (A,Z)}
221:
3839:
4069:, DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93, U.S. Department of Energy, January 1993, p. 29 (p. 133 of .pdf format), archived from
905:
557:
1322:
958:
Scientists have long searched for long-lived heavy isotopes outside of the valley of stability, hypothesized by
256:
4218:
4140:
833:
820:
552:
2506:
The island of stability is a region outside the valley of stability where it is predicted that a set of heavy
1999:
3397:
547:
444:
409:
105:
1259:. The nuclear force is not a fundamental force of nature, but a consequence of the residual effects of the
601:
4223:
2550:
2511:
1026:. Not all nuclides are stable, however. According to Byrne, stable nuclides are defined as those having a
963:
251:
216:
2259:
2235:
1130:
726:
611:
503:
962:
in the late 1960s. These relatively stable nuclides are expected to have particular configurations of "
666:
3938:
3870:
3812:
3716:
3655:
2515:
2243:
990:
nuclides that occur naturally on earth, each corresponding to a unique number of protons, called the
736:
711:
528:
2600:
3501:
2519:
2501:
2453:
1315:
971:
933:
631:
510:
404:
347:
340:
330:
266:
100:
3457:
exploited the (anticipated) intense flux of antineutrinos from a nuclear reactor in the design of
2229:
2007:
is about the most stable nuclide, and it is about the lowest point within the valley of stability.
1838:
1318:). Neutron number increases along the line of beta stability at a faster rate than atomic number.
1137:
are emitted. An essential property of this and all nuclide decays is that the total energy of the
3732:
3706:
3679:
2378:
Proton emission is not seen in naturally occurring nuclides. Proton emitters can be produced via
1302: = 124, for example. For this reason, the valley of stability does not follow the line
1129:
In this form of decay, the original element becomes a new chemical element in a process known as
987:
574:
569:
384:
4113:
3904:
2386:(linac). Although prompt (i.e. not beta-delayed) proton emission was observed from an isomer in
1282:
Stable nuclides require approximately equal numbers of protons and neutrons. The stable nuclide
4228:
4199:
4018:
3976:
3757:
3671:
3599:
3546:
3506:
2609:
Radioactive decay often proceeds via a sequence of steps known as a decay chain. For example,
2488:. Delayed neutron decay can occur at times from a few milliseconds to a few minutes. The U.S.
2404:
2357:
2274:
Heavy nuclides are susceptible to α decay, and these nuclear reactions have the generic form,
948:
913:
766:
746:
741:
701:
579:
318:
306:
289:
261:
231:
72:
1964:
4070:
4012:
3946:
3878:
3820:
3724:
3663:
3481:
3450:
3369:
2379:
2365:
1291:
1287:
1190:
1182:
959:
921:
756:
686:
439:
357:
325:
145:
77:
4038:
1811:
1784:
1757:
1730:
1481:
1454:
1427:
3486:
3365:
2594:
2485:
2477:
2465:
2361:
917:
861:
751:
731:
706:
636:
523:
451:
397:
362:
22:
952:
904:. The line of stable nuclides down the center of the valley of stability is known as the
4181:
3942:
3874:
3816:
3720:
3659:
3540:
3496:
3373:
2574:
2543:
2523:
2457:
2345:
1522:
1506:
1276:
1256:
1150:
999:
967:
941:
901:
807:
661:
656:
535:
468:
276:
211:
188:
175:
162:
62:
40:
2271:
undergoes β decay, which shifts the nuclide to the left and toward greater stability.
4212:
3736:
3491:
3350:
2570:
2226:
walls towards a region of greater stability, that is, toward greater binding energy.
2134:
2016:(28 protons, 34 neutrons) has the highest mean binding energy of all nuclides, while
1521:, is necessary for a stable nucleus; within a nucleus, the nuclides are trapped by a
1267:, a bound state of a proton (p) and a neutron (n) is stable, exotic nuclides such as
1252:
1138:
991:
983:
925:
889:
786:
781:
776:
771:
721:
379:
352:
196:
135:
88:
67:
3683:
1263:
that surround the nucleons. One consequence of these complications is that although
4102:, ORNL/TM-2004/234, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, p. 1 (p. 11 of .pdf format)
2590:
2566:
2539:
2527:
2446:
2442:
2411:
2391:
1260:
1134:
716:
691:
676:
421:
369:
226:
2514:
of protons and neutrons will locally reverse the trend of decreasing stability in
1525:. A semi-empirical mass formula states that the binding energy will take the form
951:. The chart of those nuclides is also known as a Segrè chart, after the physicist
3929:
Fewell, M. P. (1995). "The atomic nuclide with the highest mean binding energy".
3751:
3667:
3441:
are, respectively, the numbers of neutrons and protons contained in the nucleus.
3778:
3476:
3471:
3454:
3377:
2610:
2469:
2395:
2130:
2025:
1719:
1518:
1194:
1039:
1007:
929:
681:
374:
296:
149:
3728:
3545:. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. Chapter 6.
2492:
defines a prompt neutron as a neutron emerging from fission within 10 seconds.
4191:
3824:
3566:
3356:
2562:
2558:
2481:
1272:
1186:
1035:
937:
909:
651:
641:
498:
478:
301:
171:
30:
982:
All atomic nuclei are composed of protons and neutrons bound together by the
3643:
2554:
2387:
2013:
1283:
1264:
1043:
1031:
1027:
696:
646:
473:
461:
456:
335:
3675:
3596:
Neutrons, Nuclei and Matter: An
Exploration of the Physics of Slow Neutrons
4171:
3753:
Scientific
Opportunities with a Rare-Isotope Facility in the United States
3972:
3882:
3445:
3349:
With each step of this sequence of reactions, energy is released and the
2628:
2614:
2507:
2426:
1268:
4184:– a virtual "flight" through 3D representation of the nuclide chart, by
4014:
Proton radioactivity, Ch. 3 of
Nuclear Decay Modes, Ed. Dorin N. Poenaru
3385:
3380:
absorbs a neutron and breaks into nuclides of lighter elements such as
2531:
2473:
2461:
2438:
2021:
2017:
2004:
1248:
897:
885:
158:
131:
123:
55:
45:
4175:
3381:
3289:
3241:
3193:
3149:
3097:
3049:
3008:
2967:
2928:
2870:
2816:
2768:
2711:
2657:
2581:-208, the heaviest known stable nucleus and most stable heavy metal.
2535:
2421:
1294:(Pb), has many more neutrons than protons. The stable nuclide Pb has
893:
50:
3950:
3302:
3254:
3206:
3165:
3110:
3062:
3021:
2980:
2939:
2896:
2842:
2781:
2724:
2683:
3711:
3355:
2599:
2228:
1998:
908:. The sides of the valley correspond to increasing instability to
947:
The nuclides within the valley of stability encompass the entire
3461:
to detect and confirm the existence of these elusive particles.
2578:
4120:. Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University
2613:
decays to Th which decays to Pa and so on, eventually reaching
2518:. The hypothesis for the island of stability is based upon the
1478:
are the rest mass of a proton and a neutron, respectively, and
4063:
DOE Fundamentals
Handbook - Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory
4017:. Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol. pp. 143–203.
2468:
event. Prompt neutrons emerge from the fission of an unstable
3861:
M. Schirber (2012). "Focus: Nuclei Emit Paired-up
Neutrons".
3539:
Mackintosh, R.; Ai-Khalili, J.; Jonson, B.; Pena, T. (2001).
3372:
are accompanied by the release of neutrons that sustain the
1954:{\displaystyle N/Z\approx 1+{\frac {a_{C}}{2a_{A}}}A^{2/3}}
4192:
The nuclear landscape: The variety and abundance of nuclei
1321:
The line of beta stability follows a particular curve of
1189:, for example. Such nuclides often decay in sequences of
1014:, of a nuclide is the sum of atomic and neutron numbers,
1149:
is a way of organizing all of the nuclides according to
892:
based on their binding energy. Nuclides are composed of
3642:
Seaborg, G. T.; Loveland, W.; Morrissey, D. J. (1979).
2031:
For β decay, nuclear reactions have the generic form
1414:{\displaystyle m=Zm_{p}+Nm_{n}-{\frac {E_{B}}{c^{2}}}}
2626:
1967:
1883:
1841:
1814:
1787:
1760:
1733:
1534:
1484:
1457:
1430:
1348:
1211:
greatest along the floor of the valley of stability.
1877:that is minimized when the neutron-proton ratio is
924:. Regions of instability within the valley at high
3338:
1988:
1953:
1862:
1835:and a coefficient that appears in the formula for
1827:
1800:
1773:
1746:
1707:
1497:
1470:
1443:
1413:
936:. The shape of the valley is roughly an elongated
2754:
2480:can occur within the same context, emitted after
2258: = 125. At the bottom of this curve is
2565:-310. Of particular note is Fl, which would be "
2410:Two examples of nuclides that emit neutrons are
3360:Nuclear fission seen with a uranium-235 nucleus
3803:Seaborg, G. T. (1987). "Superheavy elements".
3376:. Fission occurs when a heavy nuclide such as
2266:Te), which is stable. Nuclides to the left of
1279:deep enough to bind these identical nucleons.
998:, and a unique number of neutrons, called the
916:, where nuclides become so unstable they emit
944:as a function of neutron and atomic numbers.
841:
8:
4141:"The Neutrino: From Poltergeist to Particle"
3898:"Nuclear Masses and Binding Energy Lesson 3"
3534:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3526:
3524:
3522:
884:) is a characterization of the stability of
1165:require an even larger number of neutrons,
3962:
3960:
1339:The mass of an atomic nucleus is given by
848:
834:
18:
3710:
3598:. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications.
3330:
3309:
3296:
3284:
3268:
3259:
3248:
3236:
3220:
3211:
3200:
3188:
3172:
3159:
3144:
3129:
3115:
3104:
3092:
3076:
3067:
3056:
3044:
3028:
3015:
3003:
2987:
2974:
2962:
2946:
2923:
2908:
2890:
2881:
2865:
2849:
2836:
2827:
2811:
2796:
2786:
2775:
2763:
2762:
2753:
2738:
2729:
2718:
2706:
2690:
2677:
2668:
2652:
2637:
2631:
2627:
2625:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1941:
1937:
1924:
1910:
1904:
1887:
1882:
1840:
1819:
1813:
1792:
1786:
1765:
1759:
1738:
1732:
1672:
1650:
1644:
1625:
1621:
1611:
1605:
1599:
1582:
1578:
1568:
1552:
1539:
1533:
1517:than that sum. This property, called the
1489:
1483:
1462:
1456:
1435:
1429:
1403:
1393:
1387:
1378:
1362:
1347:
4196:Nucleus: A trip into the heart of matter
3840:"Greetings From the Island of Stability"
3623:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
3542:Nucleus: A trip into the heart of matter
3396:). The nuclei resulting from a fission (
4093:Mihalczo, John T. (November 19, 2004),
3589:
3587:
3585:
3583:
3518:
1200:
21:
4139:Reines, Frederick (December 8, 1995).
2476:heavy nucleus almost instantaneously.
2542:of a given shell in the nucleus, the
1329:Neutrons, protons, and binding energy
16:Characterization of nuclide stability
7:
3779:"Climbing out of the nuclear valley"
2449:after emitting one of its neutrons.
2398:were observed at experiments at the
1133:and a beta particle and an electron
3644:"Superheavy elements: a crossroads"
3621:"Discovery of Elements 113 and 115"
928:also include radioactive decay by
14:
4176:The Live Chart of Nuclides - IAEA
2441:of the original element, such as
2012:rapidly with atomic mass number.
4170:
4096:Radiation Detection From Fission
4000:. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
3850:from the original on 2023-10-13.
1229:
1216:
1203:
815:
814:
801:
29:
4182:The Valley of Stability (video)
3967:Konya, J.; Nagy, N. M. (2012).
1314: = 20 is the element
2020:(26 protons, 32 neutrons) and
1857:
1845:
1702:
1690:
1669:
1653:
1:
2516:elements heavier than uranium
2490:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
2352:Proton and neutron drip lines
940:corresponding to the nuclide
3998:Introductory Nuclear Physics
3756:. National Academies Press.
3668:10.1126/science.203.4382.711
3368:processes that occur within
2384:linear particle accelerators
2250:Sb) is unstable to β− decay.
1870:are determined empirically.
1863:{\displaystyle \delta (A,Z)}
3969:Nuclear and Radio-chemistry
3931:American Journal of Physics
2549:A filled shell would have "
1335:Semi-empirical mass formula
595:High-energy nuclear physics
4245:
3729:10.1103/PhysRevC.77.044603
2499:
2355:
1332:
4178:with filter on decay type
3896:Oregon State University.
3825:10.1080/00107518708211038
3323:
3282:
3234:
3186:
3143:
3090:
3042:
3001:
2960:
2922:
2863:
2810:
2759:
2704:
2651:
2522:, which implies that the
2464:immediately emitted by a
4194:– Chapter 6 of the book
4114:"Shell Model of Nucleus"
3316:
3310:
3275:
3269:
3227:
3221:
3179:
3173:
3136:
3130:
3083:
3077:
3035:
3029:
2994:
2988:
2953:
2947:
2915:
2909:
2856:
2850:
2803:
2797:
2745:
2739:
2697:
2691:
2644:
2638:
3568:The valley of stability
1989:{\displaystyle A^{2/3}}
1511:mass–energy equivalence
970:, and form a so-called
106:Interacting boson model
3361:
3340:
3307:
3266:
3218:
3170:
3122:
3074:
3026:
2985:
2944:
2901:
2847:
2793:
2736:
2688:
2606:
2251:
2008:
1990:
1955:
1864:
1829:
1802:
1775:
1748:
1709:
1499:
1472:
1445:
1415:
1310:for A larger than 40 (
1046:of about 5,730 years:
906:line of beta stability
3359:
3341:
3285:
3237:
3189:
3145:
3093:
3045:
3004:
2963:
2924:
2866:
2812:
2764:
2707:
2653:
2603:
2538:completely fills the
2478:Delayed neutron decay
2242:Te) is stable, while
2232:
2002:
1991:
1956:
1865:
1830:
1828:{\displaystyle a_{A}}
1803:
1801:{\displaystyle a_{C}}
1776:
1774:{\displaystyle a_{S}}
1749:
1747:{\displaystyle a_{V}}
1710:
1500:
1498:{\displaystyle E_{B}}
1473:
1471:{\displaystyle m_{n}}
1446:
1444:{\displaystyle m_{p}}
1416:
1131:nuclear transmutation
882:beta stability valley
493:High-energy processes
191:– equal all the above
89:Models of the nucleus
3996:K. S. Krane (1988).
3910:on 30 September 2015
3883:10.1103/physics.5.30
3805:Contemporary Physics
3400:) inherit a similar
2624:
2382:, usually utilizing
1965:
1881:
1839:
1812:
1785:
1758:
1731:
1532:
1509:of the nucleus. The
1482:
1455:
1428:
1346:
1323:neutron–proton ratio
1298: = 82 and
1243:The role of neutrons
529:nuclear astrophysics
4156:Nobel Prize lecture
4011:S. Hofmann (1996).
3943:1995AmJPh..63..653F
3875:2012PhyOJ...5...30S
3817:1987ConPh..28...33S
3777:Boutin, C. (2002).
3721:2008PhRvC..77d4603C
3660:1979Sci...203..711S
3502:Nuclear shell model
3417:converts a nucleus
3306:
3301:
3265:
3253:
3217:
3205:
3169:
3164:
3121:
3109:
3073:
3061:
3025:
3020:
2984:
2979:
2943:
2938:
2900:
2895:
2846:
2841:
2792:
2780:
2735:
2723:
2687:
2682:
2520:nuclear shell model
2502:Island of stability
2496:Island of stability
2454:nuclear engineering
1147:valley of stability
1145:The concept of the
972:island of stability
934:spontaneous fission
866:valley of stability
511:Photodisintegration
434:Capturing processes
348:Spontaneous fission
341:Internal conversion
272:Valley of stability
267:Island of stability
101:Nuclear shell model
4146:. Nobel Foundation
4039:"Neutron Emission"
3975:. pp. 74–75.
3844:The New York Times
3594:Byrne, J. (2011).
3362:
3336:
3334:
2607:
2252:
2009:
1986:
1951:
1860:
1825:
1798:
1771:
1744:
1705:
1495:
1468:
1441:
1411:
914:nuclear drip lines
808:Physics portal
602:Quark–gluon plasma
385:Radiogenic nuclide
4024:978-0-7503-0338-5
3982:978-0-12-391487-3
3699:Physical Review C
3654:(4382): 711–717.
3507:Nuclear drip line
3315:
3314:
3313:
3299:
3295:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3251:
3247:
3226:
3225:
3224:
3203:
3199:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3162:
3155:
3135:
3134:
3133:
3107:
3103:
3082:
3081:
3080:
3059:
3055:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3018:
3014:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2977:
2973:
2952:
2951:
2950:
2934:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2893:
2889:
2855:
2854:
2853:
2839:
2835:
2802:
2801:
2800:
2778:
2774:
2757:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2721:
2717:
2696:
2695:
2694:
2680:
2676:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2405:quantum tunneling
2380:nuclear reactions
2358:Nuclear drip line
1931:
1682:
1635:
1409:
949:table of nuclides
870:belt of stability
868:(also called the
858:
857:
544:
290:Radioactive decay
246:Nuclear stability
73:Nuclear structure
4236:
4174:
4159:
4158:
4153:
4151:
4145:
4136:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4125:
4110:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4090:
4084:
4083:
4082:
4081:
4075:
4068:
4058:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4048:
4043:
4035:
4029:
4028:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3993:
3987:
3986:
3964:
3955:
3954:
3926:
3920:
3919:
3917:
3915:
3909:
3903:. Archived from
3902:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3835:
3829:
3828:
3800:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3789:
3774:
3768:
3767:
3747:
3741:
3740:
3714:
3694:
3688:
3687:
3639:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3628:
3619:Shaughnessy, D.
3616:
3610:
3609:
3591:
3578:
3577:
3576:
3575:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3536:
3482:Neutron emission
3398:fission products
3370:nuclear reactors
3345:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3335:
3331:
3325:
3324:
3311:
3308:
3300:
3297:
3293:
3283:
3270:
3267:
3264:
3263:
3252:
3249:
3245:
3235:
3222:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3204:
3201:
3197:
3187:
3174:
3171:
3163:
3160:
3153:
3131:
3124:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3108:
3105:
3101:
3091:
3078:
3075:
3072:
3071:
3060:
3057:
3053:
3043:
3030:
3027:
3019:
3016:
3012:
3002:
2989:
2986:
2978:
2975:
2971:
2961:
2948:
2945:
2932:
2910:
2903:
2902:
2894:
2891:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2864:
2851:
2848:
2840:
2837:
2833:
2832:
2831:
2798:
2795:
2794:
2791:
2790:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2740:
2737:
2734:
2733:
2722:
2719:
2715:
2705:
2692:
2689:
2681:
2678:
2674:
2673:
2672:
2639:
2632:
2486:fission products
2436:
2434:
2424:
2419:
2366:neutron emission
2340:
2339:
2338:
2331:
2330:
2321:
2320:
2319:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2211:
2210:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2193:
2192:
2184:
2183:
2182:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2160:
2159:
2158:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2096:
2095:
2094:
2087:
2086:
2078:
2077:
2076:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2045:
2044:
2042:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1960:
1958:
1957:
1952:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1932:
1930:
1929:
1928:
1915:
1914:
1905:
1891:
1876:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1834:
1832:
1831:
1826:
1824:
1823:
1807:
1805:
1804:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1753:
1751:
1750:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1714:
1712:
1711:
1706:
1683:
1678:
1677:
1676:
1651:
1649:
1648:
1636:
1634:
1633:
1629:
1616:
1615:
1606:
1604:
1603:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1573:
1572:
1557:
1556:
1544:
1543:
1504:
1502:
1501:
1496:
1494:
1493:
1477:
1475:
1474:
1469:
1467:
1466:
1450:
1448:
1447:
1442:
1440:
1439:
1420:
1418:
1417:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1407:
1398:
1397:
1388:
1383:
1382:
1367:
1366:
1233:
1220:
1207:
1183:nuclear reactors
1125:
1124:
1123:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1095:
1094:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1077:
1076:
1067:
1066:
1065:
1058:
1057:
986:. There are 286
960:Glenn T. Seaborg
942:binding energies
850:
843:
836:
823:
818:
817:
810:
806:
805:
682:Skłodowska-Curie
542:
358:Neutron emission
126:' classification
78:Nuclear reaction
33:
19:
4244:
4243:
4239:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4234:
4233:
4219:Nuclear physics
4209:
4208:
4167:
4162:
4149:
4147:
4143:
4138:
4137:
4133:
4123:
4121:
4112:
4111:
4107:
4099:
4092:
4091:
4087:
4079:
4077:
4073:
4066:
4060:
4059:
4055:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4037:
4036:
4032:
4025:
4010:
4009:
4005:
3995:
3994:
3990:
3983:
3966:
3965:
3958:
3951:10.1119/1.17828
3928:
3927:
3923:
3913:
3911:
3907:
3900:
3895:
3894:
3890:
3860:
3859:
3855:
3837:
3836:
3832:
3802:
3801:
3797:
3787:
3785:
3776:
3775:
3771:
3764:
3749:
3748:
3744:
3696:
3695:
3691:
3641:
3640:
3636:
3626:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3613:
3606:
3593:
3592:
3581:
3573:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3538:
3537:
3520:
3516:
3511:
3487:Proton emission
3467:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3326:
3255:
3207:
3126:
3125:
3111:
3063:
2905:
2904:
2877:
2823:
2782:
2749:
2725:
2664:
2634:
2633:
2622:
2621:
2595:nuclear fission
2587:
2504:
2498:
2466:nuclear fission
2432:
2430:
2417:
2415:
2368:
2362:proton emission
2356:Main articles:
2354:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2333:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2279:
2278:
2269:
2265:
2249:
2241:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2205:
2204:
2199:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2189:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2181:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2173:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2126:
2122:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2091:
2090:
2089:
2085:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2051:
2049:
2048:
2047:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2035:
1968:
1963:
1962:
1933:
1920:
1916:
1906:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1837:
1836:
1815:
1810:
1809:
1788:
1783:
1782:
1761:
1756:
1755:
1734:
1729:
1728:
1725:
1668:
1652:
1640:
1617:
1607:
1595:
1574:
1564:
1548:
1535:
1530:
1529:
1485:
1480:
1479:
1458:
1453:
1452:
1431:
1426:
1425:
1399:
1389:
1374:
1358:
1344:
1343:
1337:
1331:
1245:
1238:
1234:
1225:
1221:
1212:
1208:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1101:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1093:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1083:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1070:
1069:
1064:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1050:
1034:that decays by
980:
968:neutron numbers
930:alpha radiation
922:single neutrons
862:nuclear physics
854:
813:
800:
799:
792:
791:
627:
617:
616:
597:
587:
586:
531:
527:
524:Nucleosynthesis
516:
515:
494:
486:
485:
435:
427:
426:
400:
398:Nuclear fission
390:
389:
363:Proton emission
292:
282:
281:
247:
239:
238:
140:
127:
116:
115:
91:
23:Nuclear physics
17:
12:
11:
5:
4242:
4240:
4232:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4211:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4204:0-801 8-6860-2
4189:
4179:
4166:
4165:External links
4163:
4161:
4160:
4131:
4105:
4085:
4053:
4030:
4023:
4003:
3988:
3981:
3956:
3921:
3888:
3853:
3838:Sacks (2004).
3830:
3795:
3769:
3762:
3742:
3689:
3634:
3611:
3605:978-0486482385
3604:
3579:
3558:
3552:0-801 8-6860-2
3551:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3497:Stable nuclide
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3374:chain reaction
3351:decay products
3347:
3346:
3329:
3328:
3322:
3319:
3305:
3292:
3288:
3281:
3278:
3262:
3258:
3244:
3240:
3233:
3230:
3214:
3210:
3196:
3192:
3185:
3182:
3168:
3158:
3152:
3148:
3142:
3139:
3128:
3127:
3118:
3114:
3100:
3096:
3089:
3086:
3070:
3066:
3052:
3048:
3041:
3038:
3024:
3011:
3007:
3000:
2997:
2983:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2956:
2942:
2937:
2931:
2927:
2921:
2918:
2907:
2906:
2899:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2873:
2869:
2862:
2859:
2845:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2819:
2815:
2809:
2806:
2789:
2785:
2771:
2767:
2752:
2748:
2732:
2728:
2714:
2710:
2703:
2700:
2686:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2647:
2636:
2635:
2630:
2629:
2586:
2583:
2575:neutron number
2544:binding energy
2524:atomic nucleus
2500:Main article:
2497:
2494:
2484:of one of the
2458:prompt neutron
2353:
2350:
2342:
2341:
2336:
2327:
2317:
2303:
2293:
2282:
2267:
2263:
2247:
2239:
2223:
2222:
2216:
2208:
2198:
2190:
2180:
2166:
2156:
2145:
2119:
2118:
2112:
2102:
2092:
2084:
2074:
2060:
2050:
2039:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1909:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1844:
1822:
1818:
1795:
1791:
1768:
1764:
1741:
1737:
1723:
1716:
1715:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1686:
1681:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1610:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1538:
1523:potential well
1507:binding energy
1492:
1488:
1465:
1461:
1438:
1434:
1422:
1421:
1406:
1402:
1396:
1392:
1386:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1330:
1327:
1277:potential well
1257:central forces
1244:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1235:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1215:
1213:
1209:
1202:
1151:binding energy
1127:
1126:
1120:
1110:
1100:
1092:
1082:
1073:
1063:
1054:
1000:neutron number
979:
976:
918:single protons
874:nuclear valley
856:
855:
853:
852:
845:
838:
830:
827:
826:
825:
824:
811:
794:
793:
790:
789:
784:
779:
774:
769:
764:
759:
754:
749:
744:
739:
734:
729:
724:
719:
714:
709:
704:
699:
694:
689:
684:
679:
674:
669:
664:
659:
654:
649:
644:
639:
634:
628:
623:
622:
619:
618:
615:
614:
609:
604:
598:
593:
592:
589:
588:
585:
584:
583:
582:
577:
572:
563:
562:
561:
560:
555:
550:
539:
538:
536:Nuclear fusion
532:
522:
521:
518:
517:
514:
513:
508:
507:
506:
495:
492:
491:
488:
487:
484:
483:
482:
481:
476:
466:
465:
464:
459:
449:
448:
447:
436:
433:
432:
429:
428:
425:
424:
419:
418:
417:
407:
401:
396:
395:
392:
391:
388:
387:
382:
377:
372:
366:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
344:
343:
338:
328:
323:
322:
321:
316:
315:
314:
299:
293:
288:
287:
284:
283:
280:
279:
277:Stable nuclide
274:
269:
264:
259:
254:
252:Binding energy
248:
245:
244:
241:
240:
237:
236:
235:
234:
224:
219:
214:
208:
207:
193:
192:
185:
184:
168:
167:
155:
154:
142:
141:
128:
122:
121:
118:
117:
114:
113:
108:
103:
98:
92:
87:
86:
83:
82:
81:
80:
75:
70:
65:
63:Nuclear matter
60:
59:
58:
53:
43:
35:
34:
26:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4241:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4224:Radioactivity
4222:
4220:
4217:
4216:
4214:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4190:
4187:
4183:
4180:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4168:
4164:
4157:
4142:
4135:
4132:
4119:
4115:
4109:
4106:
4098:
4097:
4089:
4086:
4076:on 2014-03-19
4072:
4065:
4064:
4057:
4054:
4040:
4034:
4031:
4026:
4020:
4016:
4015:
4007:
4004:
3999:
3992:
3989:
3984:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3963:
3961:
3957:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3937:(7): 653–58.
3936:
3932:
3925:
3922:
3906:
3899:
3892:
3889:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3857:
3854:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3834:
3831:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3799:
3796:
3784:
3780:
3773:
3770:
3765:
3763:9780309104081
3759:
3755:
3754:
3746:
3743:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3705:(4): 044603.
3704:
3700:
3693:
3690:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3638:
3635:
3622:
3615:
3612:
3607:
3601:
3597:
3590:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3570:
3569:
3562:
3559:
3554:
3548:
3544:
3543:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3513:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3492:Cluster decay
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3459:an experiment
3456:
3452:
3447:
3446:antineutrinos
3442:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3358:
3354:
3352:
3320:
3317:
3303:
3290:
3286:
3279:
3276:
3260:
3256:
3242:
3238:
3231:
3228:
3212:
3208:
3194:
3190:
3183:
3180:
3166:
3156:
3150:
3146:
3140:
3137:
3116:
3112:
3098:
3094:
3087:
3084:
3068:
3064:
3050:
3046:
3039:
3036:
3022:
3009:
3005:
2998:
2995:
2981:
2968:
2964:
2957:
2954:
2940:
2935:
2929:
2925:
2919:
2916:
2897:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2871:
2867:
2860:
2857:
2843:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2817:
2813:
2807:
2804:
2787:
2783:
2769:
2765:
2750:
2746:
2730:
2726:
2712:
2708:
2701:
2698:
2684:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2645:
2620:
2619:
2618:
2616:
2612:
2602:
2598:
2596:
2592:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2571:proton number
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2551:magic numbers
2547:
2545:
2541:
2540:energy levels
2537:
2533:
2529:
2528:energy levels
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2512:magic numbers
2509:
2503:
2495:
2493:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2428:
2423:
2413:
2408:
2406:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2376:
2372:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2307:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2272:
2261:
2257:
2245:
2237:
2231:
2227:
2170:
2140:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:atomic number
2132:
2064:
2034:
2033:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2006:
2001:
1997:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1871:
1854:
1851:
1848:
1842:
1820:
1816:
1793:
1789:
1766:
1762:
1739:
1735:
1721:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1687:
1684:
1679:
1673:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1612:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1505:is the total
1490:
1486:
1463:
1459:
1436:
1432:
1404:
1400:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1342:
1341:
1340:
1336:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1306: =
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1288:Coulomb force
1285:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1253:nuclear force
1250:
1242:
1232:
1227:
1224:to be stable.
1219:
1214:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1140:
1139:decay product
1136:
1132:
1049:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
992:atomic number
989:
985:
984:nuclear force
977:
975:
973:
969:
966:" atomic and
965:
961:
956:
954:
950:
945:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
926:atomic number
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
902:stable nuclei
899:
895:
891:
890:radioactivity
887:
883:
879:
878:energy valley
875:
871:
867:
863:
851:
846:
844:
839:
837:
832:
831:
829:
828:
822:
812:
809:
804:
798:
797:
796:
795:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
748:
745:
743:
740:
738:
735:
733:
730:
728:
725:
723:
720:
718:
715:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
678:
675:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
643:
640:
638:
635:
633:
630:
629:
626:
621:
620:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
599:
596:
591:
590:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
567:
565:
564:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
545:
541:
540:
537:
534:
533:
530:
525:
520:
519:
512:
509:
505:
504:by cosmic ray
502:
501:
500:
497:
496:
490:
489:
480:
477:
475:
472:
471:
470:
467:
463:
460:
458:
455:
454:
453:
450:
446:
443:
442:
441:
438:
437:
431:
430:
423:
420:
416:
415:pair breaking
413:
412:
411:
408:
406:
403:
402:
399:
394:
393:
386:
383:
381:
380:Decay product
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
367:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
353:Cluster decay
351:
349:
346:
342:
339:
337:
334:
333:
332:
329:
327:
324:
320:
317:
313:
310:
309:
308:
305:
304:
303:
300:
298:
295:
294:
291:
286:
285:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
249:
243:
242:
233:
230:
229:
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
209:
206:
202:
198:
197:Mirror nuclei
195:
194:
190:
187:
186:
183:
182:
179: −
178:
173:
170:
169:
166:
165:
160:
157:
156:
153:
152:
147:
144:
143:
139:
138:
133:
130:
129:
125:
120:
119:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
93:
90:
85:
84:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
68:Nuclear force
66:
64:
61:
57:
54:
52:
49:
48:
47:
44:
42:
39:
38:
37:
36:
32:
28:
27:
24:
20:
4195:
4155:
4150:February 20,
4148:. Retrieved
4134:
4122:. Retrieved
4118:HyperPhysics
4117:
4108:
4095:
4088:
4078:, retrieved
4071:the original
4062:
4056:
4045:. Retrieved
4033:
4013:
4006:
3997:
3991:
3968:
3934:
3930:
3924:
3914:30 September
3912:. Retrieved
3905:the original
3891:
3866:
3862:
3856:
3843:
3833:
3808:
3804:
3798:
3786:. Retrieved
3783:CERN Courier
3782:
3772:
3752:
3745:
3702:
3698:
3692:
3651:
3647:
3637:
3625:. Retrieved
3614:
3595:
3572:, retrieved
3567:
3561:
3541:
3443:
3438:
3434:
3433:+ 1), where
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3393:
3389:
3363:
3348:
2608:
2591:decay chains
2588:
2569:" (both its
2567:doubly magic
2548:
2505:
2451:
2447:beryllium-12
2443:beryllium-13
2412:beryllium-13
2409:
2392:lutetium-151
2377:
2373:
2369:
2343:
2305:
2273:
2255:
2253:
2224:
2168:
2120:
2062:
2030:
2010:
1872:
1717:
1514:
1423:
1338:
1320:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1281:
1261:strong force
1246:
1195:decay chains
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1146:
1144:
1135:antineutrino
1128:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1003:
995:
981:
957:
953:Emilio Segrè
946:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
859:
422:Photofission
370:Decay energy
297:Alpha α
271:
204:
200:
180:
176:
163:
150:
136:
3477:Gamma decay
3472:Alpha decay
3378:uranium-235
2573:of 114 and
2470:fissionable
2414:(mean life
2396:thulium-147
2131:mass number
1720:mass defect
1519:mass defect
1040:nitrogen-14
1008:mass number
978:Description
727:Oppenheimer
405:Spontaneous
375:Decay chain
326:K/L capture
302:Beta β
172:Isodiaphers
96:Liquid drop
4213:Categories
4124:22 January
4080:2010-06-03
4047:2014-10-30
3574:2023-12-01
3514:References
2605:stability.
2585:Discussion
2563:unbihexium
2559:unbinilium
2510:with near
2482:beta decay
2346:α particle
1333:See also:
1187:supernovas
1036:beta decay
988:primordial
938:paraboloid
910:beta decay
757:Strassmann
747:Rutherford
625:Scientists
580:Artificial
575:Cosmogenic
570:Primordial
566:Nuclides:
543:Processes:
499:Spallation
4042:(webpage)
3811:: 33–48.
3737:119207807
3712:0802.3837
3304:α
3261:−
3257:β
3213:−
3209:β
3167:α
3157:μ
3117:−
3113:β
3069:−
3065:β
3023:α
2982:α
2941:α
2898:α
2875:×
2844:α
2821:×
2788:−
2784:β
2731:−
2727:β
2685:α
2662:×
2561:-304 and
2555:flerovium
2445:becoming
2435:10 s
2388:cobalt-53
2260:tellurium
2236:Tellurium
2014:Nickel-62
1896:≈
1843:δ
1688:δ
1685:±
1660:−
1638:−
1593:−
1562:−
1385:−
1284:carbon-12
1273:dineutron
1265:deuterium
1191:reactions
1044:half-life
1032:carbon-14
1028:half-life
762:Świątecki
677:Pi. Curie
672:Fr. Curie
667:Ir. Curie
662:Cockcroft
637:Becquerel
558:Supernova
262:Drip line
257:p–n ratio
232:Borromean
111:Ab initio
4229:Isotopes
4188:(France)
3973:Elsevier
3848:Archived
3684:20055062
3676:17832968
3627:July 31,
3465:See also
3287:→
3239:→
3191:→
3147:→
3095:→
3047:→
3006:→
2965:→
2926:→
2868:→
2814:→
2766:→
2709:→
2655:→
2532:neutrons
2508:isotopes
2427:helium-5
2420:10
2313:X′
2244:antimony
2176:X′
2129:are the
2070:X′
1269:diproton
898:neutrons
886:nuclides
821:Category
722:Oliphant
707:Lawrence
687:Davisson
657:Chadwick
553:Big Bang
440:electron
410:Products
331:Isomeric
222:Even/odd
199: –
174:– equal
161:– equal
159:Isotones
148:– equal
134:– equal
132:Isotopes
124:Nuclides
46:Nucleons
3939:Bibcode
3871:Bibcode
3863:Physics
3813:Bibcode
3788:13 July
3717:Bibcode
3656:Bibcode
3648:Science
3386:krypton
3366:fission
2536:protons
2474:fissile
2462:neutron
2439:isotope
2022:iron-56
2018:iron-58
2005:Iron-56
1316:calcium
1249:isospin
1193:called
1042:with a
894:protons
777:Thomson
767:Szilárd
737:Purcell
717:Meitner
652:N. Bohr
647:A. Bohr
632:Alvarez
548:Stellar
452:neutron
336:Gamma γ
189:Isomers
146:Isobars
41:Nucleus
4202:
4021:
3979:
3869:: 30.
3760:
3735:
3682:
3674:
3602:
3549:
3451:Reines
3429:− 1)/(
3382:barium
3294:
3246:
3198:
3154:
3102:
3054:
3013:
2972:
2933:
2888:
2834:
2773:
2716:
2675:
2557:-298,
2425:) and
2364:, and
2246:-125 (
2238:-125 (
2212:ν
2121:where
2107:ν
1424:where
1237:modes.
1115:ν
1006:. The
864:, the
819:
787:Wigner
782:Walton
772:Teller
702:Jensen
469:proton
212:Stable
4144:(PDF)
4100:(PDF)
4074:(PDF)
4067:(PDF)
3908:(PDF)
3901:(PDF)
3733:S2CID
3707:arXiv
3680:S2CID
3455:Cowan
2460:is a
1169:>
1038:into
964:magic
880:, or
752:Soddy
732:Proca
712:Mayer
692:Fermi
642:Bethe
217:Magic
4200:ISBN
4152:2015
4126:2007
4019:ISBN
3977:ISBN
3916:2015
3790:2016
3758:ISBN
3672:PMID
3629:2016
3600:ISBN
3547:ISBN
3453:and
3437:and
3425:to (
3364:The
2930:1600
2593:and
2579:lead
2534:and
2456:, a
2394:and
2133:and
2125:and
1515:less
1451:and
1292:lead
1177:and
896:and
742:Rabi
697:Hahn
607:RHIC
227:Halo
4186:CEA
3947:doi
3879:doi
3821:doi
3725:doi
3664:doi
3652:203
3384:or
3321:206
3291:138
3280:210
3232:210
3184:210
3151:164
3141:214
3106:min
3088:214
3058:min
3040:214
3017:min
2999:218
2969:3.8
2958:222
2920:226
2872:7.7
2861:230
2818:2.4
2808:234
2777:min
2751:234
2702:234
2659:4.5
2649:238
2472:or
2452:In
2416:2.7
2400:GSI
1722:. E
1271:or
1185:or
932:or
920:or
888:to
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526:and
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4154:.
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2996:84
2990:Po
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2597:.
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2322:+
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2268:52
2264:52
2248:51
2240:52
2203:+
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2171:−1
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2079:+
2065:+1
2055:→
1996:.
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307:2β
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3406:Z
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2123:A
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2046:X
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2026:U
1982:3
1978:/
1974:2
1970:A
1947:3
1943:/
1939:2
1935:A
1926:A
1922:a
1918:2
1912:C
1908:a
1902:+
1899:1
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1464:n
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1437:p
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1360:m
1356:Z
1353:=
1350:m
1312:Z
1308:N
1304:Z
1300:N
1296:Z
1179:Z
1175:N
1171:Z
1167:N
1163:Z
1159:N
1155:Z
1121:e
1096:e
1078:N
1074:7
1059:C
1055:6
1024:N
1020:Z
1016:A
1012:A
1004:N
996:Z
849:e
842:t
835:v
474:p
462:r
457:s
319:β
205:N
201:Z
181:Z
177:N
164:N
151:A
137:Z
56:n
51:p
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