Vanadium redox battery - Knowledge (XXG)

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design and reduced membrane thickness. Mass transport losses are from the lack of active vanadium species being transported to the electrode surface. The flow field design that promotes convective mass transport is crucial to reducing mass transport losses. Serpentine and interdigitated flow field designs were produced by machining a bipolar plate adjacent to the porous electrode. The felt electrode can also be cut to create an electrolyte flow channel. Both serpentine and interdigitated flow fields have been shown to enhance mass transport, which reduces mass transport polarisation and therefore increases limiting current density and peak power density. Flow dispensers are sometimes placed in the cell to distribute the flow and reduce jets. The flow field must also be designed to provide uniform electrolyte distribution to prevent dead zones in the cell and reduce

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charging cell and vanadium dual battery system." 1989AU-0028152 1989-12-09. M. Kazacos and S. Kazacos Maria, "High energy density vanadium electrolyte solutions, methods of preparation thereof and all-vanadium redox cells and batteries containing high energy vanadium electrolyte solutions." 1996AT-0911853T 1996-05-031996AU-0054914 1996-05-031996US-08945869 1996-05-031996WO-AU00268 1996-05-031996NZ-0306364 1996-05-031996ES-0911853T 1996-05-031996EP-0911853 1996-05-031996DE-6030298 1996-05-031996CA-2220075 1996-05-031998HK-0110321 1998-08-312002US-10226751 2002-08-22

317: 454: 885:, StorEn Technologies in Australia, Largo Energy and Ashlawn Energy in the United States; H2 in Gyeryong-si, South Korea; Renewable Energy Dynamics Technology, Invinity Energy Systems in the United Kingdom, VoltStorage and Schmalz in Europe; Prudent Energy in China; Australian Vanadium, CellCube and North Harbour Clean Energy in Australia; Yadlamalka Energy Trust and Invinity Energy Systems in Australia; EverFlow Energy JV SABIC SCHMID Group in Saudi Arabia and Bushveld Minerals in South Africa. 534:(added as vanadium sulfate(s) and sulfuric acid) as the only anion in VRFB solutions, which limited the maximum vanadium concentration to 1.7 M of vanadium ions. In the 1990s, Skyllas-Kazacos discovered the use of ammonium phosphate and other inorganic compounds as precipitation inhibitors to stabilise 2 M vanadium solutions over a temperature range of 5 to 45 C and a Stabilising Agent patent was filed by UNSW in 1993. This discovery was largely overlooked however and in around 2010 a team from 343:(PAN) or rayon fibers at approximately 1500°C and 1400°C, respectively. Graphite felt, on the other hand, undergoes pyrolysis at a higher temperature of about 2400°C. To thermally activate the felt electrodes, the material is heated to 400°C in an air or oxygen-containing atmosphere. This process significantly increases the surface area of the felt, enhancing it by a factor of 10. The activity towards vanadium species are attribute to the increase in oxygen functional groups such as 192:

additives as potential precipitation inhibitors. They discovered that inorganic phosphate and ammonium compounds were effective in inhibiting precipitation of 2 M vanadium solutions in both the negative and positive half-cell at temperatures of 5 and 45 °C respectively and ammonium phosphate was selected as the most effective stabilising agent. Ammonium and phosphate additives were used to prepare and test a 3 M vanadium electrolyte in a flow cell with excellent results.

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electrochemical dissolution and were patented by the University of NSW in 1989. During the 1990s the UNSW group conducted extensive research on membrane selection, graphite felt activation, conducting plastic bipolar electrode fabrication, electrolyte characterisation and optimisation as well as modelling and simulation. Several 1-5 kW VFB prototype batteries were assembled and field tested in a Solar House in Thailand and in an electric golf cart at UNSW.

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avoided in earlier VRFB studies. The surprising oxidative stability (albeit only at the state of charge below ca. 80%) of V solutions in the presence of chloride was explained on the basis of activity coefficients. Many researchers explain the increased stability of V(V) at elevated temperatures by the higher proton concentration in the mixed acid electrolyte that shifts the thermal precipitation equilibrium of V(V) away from V

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the electrical equipment. Unless specifically designed for colder or warmer climates, most sulfuric acid-based vanadium batteries work between about 10 and 40 °C. Below that temperature range, the ion-infused sulfuric acid crystallizes. Round trip efficiency in practical applications is around 70–80%.

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The electrodes in a VRB cell are carbon based. Several types of carbon electrode used in VRB cell has been report such as carbon felt, carbon paper, carbon cloth, and graphite felt. Carbon-based materials have the advantages of low cost, low resistivity and good stability. Among them, carbon felt and

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and limited catalytic activity when interacting with vanadium species. To enhance its catalytic performance and wettability, several approaches have been employed, including thermal treatment, acid treatment, electrochemical modification, and the incorporation of catalysts. Carbon felt is typically

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electrolyte, that allowed for the use in VRFBs solutions with the vanadium concentration of 2.5 M over a whole temperature range between −20 and +50 °C. Based on the standard equilibrium potential of the V/V couple it is expected to oxidize chloride, and for this reason chloride solutions were

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loss. Activation loss arises from slow charge transfer kinetics between the surface of the electrode and electrolyte. Ohmic losses are from the ohmic resistance of the electrolyte, electrode, membrane, and current collector. Ohmic losses can be reduced by improved cell design, such as zero-gap cell

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Other useful properties of vanadium flow batteries are their fast response to changing loads and their overload capacities. They can achieve a response time of under half a millisecond for a 100% load change, and allow overloads of as much as 400% for 10 seconds. Response time is limited mostly by

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group (C-O) after thermal treatment in air. There is currently no consensus regarding the specific functional groups and reaction mechanisms that dictate the interaction of vanadium species on the surface of the electrode. It has been proposed that the V(II)/V(III) reaction follows an inner-sphere

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In order to extend the operating temperature range of the battery and prevent precipitation of vanadium in the electrolyte at temperatures above 40C in the case of V(V), or below 10C in case of the negative half-cell solution, Skyllas-Kazacos and coworkers tested hundreds of organic and inorganic

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One of the important breakthroughs achieved by Skyllas-Kazacos and coworkers was the development of a number of processes to produce vanadium electrolytes of over 1.5 M concentration using the lower cost, but insoluble vanadium pentoxide as starting material. These processes involved chemical and

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M. Skyllas-Kazacos, M. Rychcik and G. Robins Robert, "All vanadium redox battery." 1986AU-0055562 1986-04-02. M. Skyllas-Kazacos, "All-vanadium redox battery and additives." 1988WO-AU00472 1988-12-091989AU-0028153 1989-12-09. M. Skyllas-Kazacos, M. Kazacos and C. Mcdermott Rodney John, "Vanadium

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The UNSW All-Vanadium Redox Flow Battery patents and technology were licensed to Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation and Kashima-Kita Electric Power Corporation in the mid-1990s and subsequently acquired by Sumitomo Electric Industries where extensive field testing was conducted in a wide range of

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Bourke, Andrea; Oboroceanu, Daniela; Quill, Nathan; Lenihan, Catherine; Safi, Maria Alhajji; Miller, Mallory A.; Savinell, Robert F.; Wainright, Jesse S.; SasikumarSP, Varsha; Rybalchenko, Maria; Amini, Pupak; Dalton, Niall; Lynch, Robert P.; Buckley, D. Noel (1 March 2023). "Review—Electrode

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VRBs achieve a specific energy of about 20 Wh/kg (72 kJ/kg) of electrolyte. Precipitation inhibitors can increase the density to about 35 Wh/kg (126 kJ/kg), with higher densities possible by controlling the electrolyte temperature. The

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graphite felt are preferred because of their enhanced three-dimensional network structures and higher specific surface areas, as well as good conductivity and chemical and electrochemical stability. The pristine carbon-based electrode exhibits

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Yang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Tang, L.; Liu, T.; Huang, J.; Peng, S.; Yang, X. (September 2019). "Investigations on physicochemical properties and electrochemical performance of sulfate-chloride mixed acid electrolyte for vanadium redox flow battery".

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Li, L.; Kim, S.; Wang, W.; Vijayakumar, M.; Nie, Z.; Chen, B.; Zhang, J.; Xia, G.; Hu, J.; Graff, G.; Liu, J.; Yang, Z. (2011). "A stable vanadium redox-flow battery with high energy density for large-scale energy storage".

408:). However, vanadium ions can penetrate a PFSA membrane, a phenomenon known as crossing-over, reducing the energy capacity of the battery. A 2021 study found that penetration is reduced with hybrid sheets made by growing 1822:

He, Zhangxing; Lv, Yanrong; Zhang, Tianao; Zhu, Ye; Dai, Lei; Yao, Shuo; Zhu, Wenjie; Wang, Ling (January 2022). "Electrode materials for vanadium redox flow batteries: Intrinsic treatment and introducing catalyst".

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Different types of graphite flow fields are used in vanadium flow batteries. From left to right: rectangular channels, rectangular channels with flow distributor, interdigitated flow field, and serpentine flow

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Their reduced self-discharge makes them potentially appropriate in applications that require long-term energy storage with little maintenance—as in military equipment, such as the sensor components of the

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Jin, Jutao; Fu, Xiaogang; Liu, Qiao; Liu, Yanru; Wei, Zhiyang; Niu, Kexing; Zhang, Junyan (25 June 2013). "Identifying the Active Site in Nitrogen-Doped Graphene for the VO 2+ /VO 2 + Redox Reaction".

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Chakrabarti, M.H.; Brandon, N.P.; Hajimolana, S.A.; Tariq, F.; Yufit, V.; Hashim, M.A.; Hussain, M.A.; Low, C.T.J.; Aravind, P.V. (May 2014). "Application of carbon materials in redox flow batteries".

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Tang, Ao; McCann, John; Bao, Jie; Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria (November 2013). "Investigation of the effect of shunt current on battery efficiency and stack temperature in vanadium redox flow battery".

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Shi, Yu; Eze, Chika; Xiong, Binyu; He, Weidong; Zhang, Han; Lim, T.M.; Ukil, A.; Zhao, Jiyun (March 2019). "Recent development of membrane for vanadium redox flow battery applications: A review".

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Parasuraman, Aishwarya; Lim, Tuti Mariana; Menictas, Chris; Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria (July 2013). "Review of material research and development for vanadium redox flow battery applications".

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and VO ions, while the electrolyte in the negative half-cells consists of V and V ions. The electrolytes can be prepared by several processes, including electrolytically dissolving

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Sun, Bianting; Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria (October 1992). "Chemical modification of graphite electrode materials for vanadium redox flow battery application—part II. Acid treatments".

551:. Nevertheless, because of a high vapor pressure of HCl solutions and the possibility of chlorine generation during charging, such mixed electrolytes have not been widely adopted. 2774: 1227: 3401: 1375:

Zhong, S.; Kazacos, M.; Burford, R.P.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (October 1991). "Fabrication and activation studies of conducting plastic composite electrodes for redox cells".

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to make a battery with a single electroactive element instead of two. For several reasons, including their relative bulkiness, vanadium batteries are typically used for

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nanoparticles on the surface of single-layered graphene oxide sheets. These hybrid sheets are then embedded into a sandwich structured PFSA membrane reinforced with

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Aaron, Doug; Tang, Zhijiang; Papandrew, Alexander B.; Zawodzinski, Thomas A. (October 2011). "Polarization curve analysis of all-vanadium redox flow batteries".

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Spagnuolo, G.; Petrone, G.; Mattavelli, P.; Guarnieri, M. (2016). "Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries: Potentials and Challenges of an Emerging Storage Technology".

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Pissoort mentioned the possibility of VRFBs in the 1930s. NASA researchers and Pellegri and Spaziante followed suit in the 1970s, but neither was successful.

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Lourenssen, Kyle; Williams, James; Ahmadpour, Faraz; Clemmer, Ryan; Tasnim, Syeda (October 2019). "Vanadium redox flow batteries: A comprehensive review".

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Sun, B.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (June 1992). "Modification of graphite electrode materials for vanadium redox flow battery application—I. Thermal treatment".

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Chieng, S.C.; Kazacos, M.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (16 December 1992). "Modification of Daramic, microporous separator, for redox flow battery applications".

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Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria; Kasherman, D.; Hong, D.R.; Kazacos, M. (September 1991). "Characteristics and performance of 1 kW UNSW vanadium redox battery".

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Singh, Manoj K.; Kapoor, Manshu; Verma, Anil (May 2021). "Recent progress on carbon and metal based electrocatalysts for vanadium redox flow battery".

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Yao, Yanxin; Lei, Jiafeng; Shi, Yang; Ai, Fei; Lu, Yi-Chun (11 February 2021). "Assessment methods and performance metrics for redox flow batteries".

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Chieng, S.C.; Kazacos, M.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (1992). "Preparation and evaluation of composite membrane for vanadium redox battery applications".

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Guo, Yun; Huang, Jie; Feng, Jun-Kai (February 2023). "Research progress in preparation of electrolyte for all-vanadium redox flow battery".

2664:"Methanesulfonic acid-based electrode-decoupled vanadium–cerium redox flow battery exhibits significantly improved capacity and cycle life" 1145: 3892: 3779: 2778: 249: 1219: 2468: 2388: 1031:

Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, Nanotechnology and Microelectronics: Materials, Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena

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presented the first successful demonstration of an All-Vanadium Redox Flow Battery employing dissolved vanadium in a solution of

3942: 2905: 1015:. IRENA (2017), Electricity Storage and Renewables: Costs and Markets to 2030, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. 433: 3254: 2709: 3870: 1898: 1448:

Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria (1 July 2022). "Review—Highlights of UNSW All-Vanadium Redox Battery Development: 1983 to Present".

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VRFBs' large potential capacity may be best-suited to buffer the irregular output of utility-scale wind and solar systems.

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Vafiadis, Helen; Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria (2006). "Evaluation of membranes for the novel vanadium bromine redox flow cell".

2226:"Stack Developments in a kW Class All Vanadium Mixed Acid Redox Flow Battery at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory" 177: 3379: 4107: 3614: 2224:

Reed, David; Thomsen, Edwin; Li, Bin; Wang, Wei; Nie, Zimin; Koeppel, Brian; Kizewski, James; Sprenkle, Vincent (2016).

878: 615: 493: 3917: 3591:—Net electricity generation from all forms of renewable energies in America increased by over 15% between 2005 and 2009 316: 3784: 3526: 2164:

Milshtein, Jarrod D.; Tenny, Kevin M.; Barton, John L.; Drake, Javit; Darling, Robert M.; Brushett, Fikile R. (2017).

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Roznyatovskaya, N.; Noack, J.; Mild, H.; Fühl, M.; Fischer, P.; Pinkwart, K.; Tübke, J.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (2019).

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Revankar, Shripad T. (2019). "Chapter 6. Chemical Energy Storage". In Bindra, Hitesh & Revankar, Shripad (eds.).

2262:"Engineering aspects of the design, construction and performance of modular redox flow batteries for energy storage" 3276: 437: 3972: 3719: 3575: 2001:

Zhang, Yue; Zhang, Denghua; Luan, Chao; Zhang, Yifan; Yu, Wenjie; Liu, Jianguo; Yan, Chuanwei (24 February 2023).

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Alotto, P.; Guarnieri, M.; Moro, F. (2014). "Redox Flow Batteries for the storage of renewable energy: a review".

2094: 3987: 2864:"The world's largest all-vanadium redox flow battery energy storage system for a wind farm, 风场配套用全球最大全钒液流电池储能系统" 3885: 1174:

A. Pelligri and P. M. Spaziante, in GB Patent 2030349 (1978), to Oronzio de Nori Impianti Elettrochimici S.p.A.

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types (e.g., lead–acid, 30–40 Wh/kg (108–144 kJ/kg); and lithium ion, 80–200 Wh/kg (288–720 kJ/kg)).

245: 3992: 3937: 3922: 3855: 3814: 3789: 3769: 3749: 2883: 2261: 619: 199:

Number of patent families and non-patent publications about several types of flow battery chemistries by year.

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Rychik, M.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (January 1988). "Characteristics of a new all-vanadium redox flow battery".

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Storage and Hybridization of Nuclear Energy – Techno-economic Integration of Renewable and Nuclear Energy

3947: 3764: 2837: 1142:"Vanadium redox flow batteries can provide cheap, large-scale grid energy storage. Here's how they work" 924: 651: 527: 273: 169: 3809: 3060: 160:

Numerous companies and organizations are involved in funding and developing vanadium redox batteries.

3825: 3794: 3630: 2556: 2512: 2311: 2276: 2128: 2065: 1913: 1871: 1832: 1796: 1761: 1726: 1690: 1504: 1457: 1419: 1384: 1268: 1193: 1106: 1038: 973: 705: 627: 592: 567: 3505:"Vanadium producer Bushveld Minerals begins building flow battery electrolyte plant in South Africa" 2802:"Hybridspeichersystem in Wohnquartier – KIT plant in Bruchsal Weltpremiere mit Strom-Wärme-Kopplung" 3977: 3962: 3897: 3865: 3860: 3676: 2623: 253: 154: 3595:

redT and Avalon have merged as Invinity Energy Systems, a global leader in Vanadium Flow Batteries

3967: 3838: 3691: 3649: 3543: 2691: 2572: 2528: 2474: 2429: 2376: 1983: 1639: 1522: 1473: 417: 369: 2862:

Zonghao, L. I. U.; Huamin, Zhang; Sujun, G. a. O.; Xiangkun, M. A.; Yufeng, L. I. U.; 刘宗浩, 张华民.

2430:"Electric Grid Reliability: Increasing Energy Storage in Vanadium Redox Batteries by 70 Percent" 2966:"UET and Snohomish County PUD Dedicate the World's Largest Capacity Containerized Flow Battery" 1241: 4112: 4041: 3759: 3729: 2683: 2464: 2408: 2384: 2354: 2034: 1661: 1056: 623: 608: 409: 352:

mechanism, while the V(IV)/V(V) reaction tends to proceed through an outer-sphere mechanism.

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A vanadium redox flow battery located at the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

3907: 3902: 3714: 3654: 2875: 2675: 2644: 2603: 2564: 2520: 2456: 2372: 2346: 2319: 2284: 2237: 2206: 2177: 2144: 2136: 2073: 2024: 2014: 1975: 1948: 1921: 1879: 1840: 1804: 1769: 1734: 1698: 1629: 1621: 1512: 1465: 1427: 1392: 1357: 1330: 1303: 1276: 1201: 1122: 1114: 1046: 981: 934: 2592:"Vanadium electrolyte for all-vanadium redox-flow batteries: the effect of the counter ion" 1001:

M. Skyllas-Kazacos, M. Rychcik and R. Robins, in AU Patent 575247 (1986), to Unisearch Ltd.

3774: 3701: 1599: 663: 588: 283: 150: 27: 2879: 2823: 2560: 2516: 2315: 2280: 2132: 2069: 2029: 2003:"An Economical Composite Membrane with High Ion Selectivity for Vanadium Flow Batteries" 2002: 1917: 1875: 1836: 1800: 1765: 1730: 1694: 1508: 1461: 1423: 1388: 1272: 1197: 1110: 1042: 977: 4010: 3664: 3086: 2724:"A Look at the Biggest Energy Storage Projects Built Around the World in the Last Year" 2460: 944: 558:/2Br couple is more negative than that of V/V, the positive electrode operates via the 554:

Another variation is the use of vanadium bromide salts. Since the redox potential of Br

332: 146: 45: 3469:"Australian Renewable Energy Agency backs vanadium flow battery project in outback SA" 3217:"Vanadium producer Largo prepares 1.4GWh of flow battery stack manufacturing capacity" 2943: 2752: 4096: 3644: 2913: 2695: 2576: 2478: 2052:

Tempelman, C. H. L.; Jacobs, J. F.; Balzer, R. M.; Degirmenci, V. (1 December 2020).

1987: 1526: 1477: 1396: 1361: 1334: 1307: 1280: 1205: 985: 902: 462: 442: 401: 381: 173: 2532: 1952: 1643: 3848: 3804: 3739: 3681: 3659: 3548: 3424:"Vanadium flow battery partners sign agreement to develop gigafactory in Australia" 2568: 2140: 1773: 1431: 138: 75: 3579:

The U.S. made a breakthrough battery discovery – then gave the technology to China

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The U.S. made a breakthrough battery discovery – then gave the technology to China

1899:"Carbon felt based-electrodes for energy and environmental applications: A review" 176:

in the 1980s. Her design used sulfuric acid electrolytes, and was patented by the

94: 2648: 1925: 4076: 4061: 3799: 3724: 910: 2323: 1979: 1883: 1517: 1492: 1469: 1118: 149:. The battery uses vanadium's ability to exist in a solution in four different 4020: 3754: 3734: 3327:"Lösungen für Energiespeichersysteme: Schmalz baut weiteres Geschäftsfeld auf" 2288: 2210: 2078: 2053: 2019: 1844: 1738: 1702: 892: 631: 470: 436:

curve can be attributed to three main areas: activation loss, ohmic loss, and

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Solutions of Vanadium sulfates in four different oxidation states of vanadium.

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having moving parts in the pumps that produce the flow of electrolyte solution

3022:"SDG&E and Sumitomo unveil largest vanadium redox flow battery in the US" 2687: 2608: 2591: 1625: 1575: 1075: 1060: 4066: 4056: 4046: 4015: 3671: 3491:"3GWh flow battery manufacturing facility to be constructed in Saudi Arabia" 939: 896: 337: 308: 269:

high and volatile prices of vanadium minerals (i.e. the cost of VRFB energy)

33: 3191:"StorEn Tech Provides First of Its Kind Vanadium Flow Battery To Australia" 2710:

A Comparison of Lead Acid to Lithium-ion in Stationary Storage Applications

2524: 2358: 2038: 1592: 248:: (a few tens of cents), approaching the 2016 $ 0.05 target stated by the 3744: 2242: 2225: 2182: 2165: 1634: 1126: 1027:"Review Article: Flow battery systems with solid electroactive materials" 730: 701: 667: 571: 539: 416:(Teflon). The nanoparticles also promote proton transport, offering high 361: 348: 344: 142: 3599: 3402:"Australian Vanadium Ltd ships first vanadium flow battery from Austria" 2149: 300: 241:

long charge/discharge cycle lives: 15,000-20,000 cycles and 10–20 years.

4051: 3299:"'UK's first' grid-scale battery storage system comes online in Oxford" 2679: 2663: 2622:

Yuriy V Tolmachev. Review—Flow Batteries From 1879 To 2022 And Beyond.

2095:"Hybrid membrane edges flow batteries toward grid-scale energy storage" 722: 630:. These capabilities make VRFBs an effective "all-in-one" solution for 562:

process. However, due to problems with volatility and corrosivity of Br

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Cyclic voltammogram of vanadium (IV) solution in sulfuric acid solution

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single charge state across the electrolytes avoids capacity degradation

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Vanadium geology is fairly unusual compared to a base metals ore body.

3446:"Renewable technology solutions to enable a sustainable energy future" 2350: 1051: 1026: 3589:

The Need for Vanadium Redox Energy Storage in Wind Turbine Generators

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Huong Le, Thi Xuan; Bechelany, Mikhael; Cretin, Marc (October 2017).

1808: 575: 405: 107: 3352: 1220:"Discovery and invention: How the vanadium flow battery story began" 3445: 2662:

Sankarasubramanian, Shrihari; Zhang, Yunzhu; Ramani, Vijay (2019).

4036: 3277:"US clean-tech investments leap to US$ 1.1bn. Where's Ireland at?" 3138:"Liquid battery the size of a truck, will give utilities a charge" 1076:"Vanadium: The metal that may soon be powering your neighbourhood" 452: 315: 307: 299: 194: 116: 101: 93: 877:

Companies funding or developing vanadium redox batteries include

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Entrepreneur, Office of the Queensland Chief (3 February 2021).

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https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1945-7111/acb8de/meta

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Kinetics and Electrolyte Stability in Vanadium Flow Batteries".

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Largest Capacity Flow Battery in North America and EU is Online

4071: 3380:"Made in China: Prudent Energy Lands $ 22M For Flow Batteries" 3112:"CellCube – the versatile energy storage system of the future" 657: 364:-based. The electrolyte in the positive half-cells contains VO 265:

VRFBs' main disadvantages compared to other types of battery:

3313:"Voltstorage develops a safe and ecological storage solution" 3061:"World's largest flow battery connected to the grid in China" 1602:, Clean Tech Alliance, 7 July 2014. Accessed 21 January 2016. 1012:

Electricity Storage and Renewables: Costs and Markets to 2030

3583: 3255:"South Korean flow battery maker H2 building 330MWh factory" 3111: 282:

relatively poor energy-to-volume ratio compared to standard

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DOE/Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (17 March 2011).

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Arenas, L.F.; Ponce de León, C.; Walsh, F.C. (June 2017).

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of more than 98.1 percent and 88.9 percent, respectively.

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wide operating temperature range including passive cooling

2166:"Quantifying Mass Transfer Rates in Redox Flow Batteries" 3161:"How Queensland can supercharge the future of batteries" 873:

Companies funding or developing vanadium redox batteries

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1 MW 4 MWh containerized vanadium flow battery owned by

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Schematic design of a vanadium redox flow battery system

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Presentation paper from the IEEE summer 2001 conference

3050:, Greentech Media, June 2015. Accessed 21 January 2016. 1593:

UniEnergy Technologies Goes from Molecules to Megawatts

1581:. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. October 2012. 2996:"PUD invests $ 11.2 million in energy-storing units" 1493:"Review—Flow Batteries from 1879 to 2022 and Beyond" 400:

The most common membrane material is perfluorinated

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VRFBs' main advantages over other types of battery:

4029: 4001: 3823: 3699: 3637: 272:relatively poor round trip efficiency (compared to 157:, i.e., attached to power plants/electrical grids. 81: 70: 62: 54: 44: 26: 3544:"Improved Redox Flow Batteries For Electric Cars" 2054:"Membranes for all vanadium redox flow batteries" 614:They feature rapid response times well suited to 220:can remain discharged indefinitely without damage 2826:. Fraunhofer-Institut für Chemische Technologie. 2379:; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred (1999), 188:applications in the late 1990s and early 2000s. 3232:"Vanadium redox: powering up local communities" 1968:Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 2383:(6th ed.), New York: Wiley-Interscience, 256:Strategic Energy Technology Plan €0.05 target. 223:mixing electrolytes causes no permanent damage 3615: 2255: 2253: 1856: 1854: 1242:"Vanadium Redox Battery | UNSW Research" 643:Largest operational vanadium redox batteries 8: 2455:. London: Academic Press. pp. 177–227. 2407:(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. p. 153. 1443: 1441: 1025:Qi, Zhaoxiang; Koenig, Gary M. (July 2017). 626:. Fast response time is also beneficial for 21: 3165:Office of the Queensland Chief Entrepreneur 618:(UPS) applications, where they can replace 392:). The solution is strongly acidic in use. 235:battery modules can be added to meet demand 3622: 3608: 3600: 1165:P. A. Pissoort, in FR Patent 754065 (1933) 1099:Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 641: 634:, frequency regulation and load shifting. 2607: 2241: 2181: 2148: 2077: 2028: 2018: 1633: 1551:"Vanadium fuels growing demand for VRFBs" 1516: 1050: 997: 995: 566:, they did not gain much popularity (see 304:Schematic of vanadium redox flow battery. 2804:. Badische Neueste Nachrichten Kraichgau 486: 956: 432:The resistive losses identified by the 229:safe, non-flammable aqueous electrolyte 2230:Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2170:Journal of the Electrochemical Society 1864:Journal of the Electrochemical Society 1497:Journal of the Electrochemical Society 1450:Journal of the Electrochemical Society 578:flow battery has also been proposed . 20: 3537:World Map Of Global Vanadium Deposits 3471:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation 3467:Gabriella Marchant (4 January 2021). 1544: 1542: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1230:from the original on 18 October 2021. 536:Pacific Northwest National Laboratory 7: 2936:"DOE Global Energy Storage Database" 2906:"DOE Global Energy Storage Database" 2880:10.3969/j.issn.2095-4239.2014.01.010 2745:"DOE Global Energy Storage Database" 1614:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 1491:Tolmachev, Yuriy V. (1 March 2023). 3404:. Proactive Investors. 13 July 2016 3253:Andy Colthorpe (14 November 2022). 2800:Armin Herberger (19 January 2021). 2199:Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 1146:Australian Broadcasting Corporation 291:toxicity of vanadium (V) compounds. 279:heavy weight of aqueous electrolyte 2461:10.1016/B978-0-12-813975-2.00006-5 582:Specific energy and energy density 250:United States Department of Energy 137:(VRFB), is a type of rechargeable 14: 3279:. Silicon Republic. 11 April 2011 3230:BILL HAGSTRAND (23 August 2013). 2093:Lavars, Nick (12 November 2021). 1140:James Purtill (2 February 2023). 50:15–25 Wh/L (54–65 kJ/L) 16:Type of rechargeable flow battery 3690: 1074:Laurence Knight (14 June 2014). 909: 895: 3527:UNSW Site on Vanadium batteries 3426:. VSUN Energy. 24 November 2022 2972:. 29 March 2017. Archived from 2722:Stone, Mike (3 February 2016). 1953:10.1016/j.electacta.2012.09.067 1576:"Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries" 638:Largest vanadium grid batteries 3378:Jeff St. John (2 March 2010). 3140:. Puget Sound Business Journal 3046:Wesoff, Eric, St. John, Jeff. 2668:Sustainable Energy & Fuels 2569:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.226719 2141:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.12.087 1774:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.12.038 1432:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.05.079 1: 3136:Steve Wilhelm (3 July 2014). 1660:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. 2023. 178:University of New South Wales 3516:General and cited references 3234:. Crain's Cleveland Business 2649:10.1016/j.memsci.2005.12.028 2381:Advanced Inorganic Chemistry 1926:10.1016/j.carbon.2017.06.078 1825:Chemical Engineering Journal 1789:WIREs Energy and Environment 1719:Chemical Engineering Journal 1397:10.1016/0378-7753(91)80042-V 1362:10.1016/0013-4686(92)87084-D 1335:10.1016/0013-4686(92)85064-R 1308:10.1016/0376-7388(92)80008-8 1281:10.1016/0378-7753(92)85002-R 1206:10.1016/0378-7753(88)80005-3 986:10.1016/0378-7753(91)80058-6 879:Sumitomo Electric Industries 862: 859: 856: 842: 839: 836: 822: 819: 816: 802: 799: 796: 782: 779: 776: 762: 759: 756: 742: 739: 736: 718: 715: 712: 692: 689: 686: 616:uninterruptible power supply 526:The original VRFB design by 204:Advantages and disadvantages 2637:Journal of Membrane Science 1549:Ragsdale, Rose (May 2020). 1296:Journal of Membrane Science 930:Polysulfide bromide battery 217:no limit on energy capacity 135:vanadium redox flow battery 4129: 2324:10.1038/s41560-020-00772-8 1980:10.1016/j.jiec.2022.11.037 1119:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.001 681:Minami Hayakita Substation 570:for a similar problem). A 3780:Metal–air electrochemical 3688: 3584:VRFB developments at UNSW 3448:. Yadlamalka Energy. 2023 2940:energystorageexchange.org 2910:energystorageexchange.org 2838:"Energy Storage in China" 2824:"Großprojekt "RedoxWind"" 2749:energystorageexchange.org 2505:Advanced Energy Materials 2289:10.1016/j.est.2017.02.007 2269:Journal of Energy Storage 2211:10.1007/s10800-011-0335-7 2079:10.1016/j.est.2020.101754 2058:Journal of Energy Storage 2020:10.3390/membranes13030272 1845:10.1016/j.cej.2021.131680 1739:10.1016/j.cej.2021.131680 1703:10.1016/j.est.2019.100844 1683:Journal of Energy Storage 591:is low compared to other 538:proposed a mixed sulfate- 129:(VRB), also known as the 2708:Allbright, Greg, et al. 2609:10.3390/batteries5010013 2549:Journal of Power Sources 1884:10.1149/1945-7111/acbc99 1754:Journal of Power Sources 1658:Flow batteries. Volume 1 1626:10.1109/MIE.2016.2611760 1518:10.1149/1945-7111/acb8de 1470:10.1149/1945-7111/ac7bab 1412:Journal of Power Sources 1377:Journal of Power Sources 1261:Journal of Power Sources 1186:Journal of Power Sources 966:Journal of Power Sources 445:across the cell stack. 3553:Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft 1598:31 January 2016 at the 917:Renewable energy portal 414:polytetrafluoroethylene 74:>12,000–14,000 4082:Semipermeable membrane 3871:Lithium–iron–phosphate 3532:Report by World Energy 2775:"Redox-Flow-Batterien" 2525:10.1002/aenm.201100008 2403:Atkins, Peter (2010). 883:UniEnergy Technologies 461:The reaction uses the 458: 360:Both electrolytes are 322: 313: 305: 200: 180:in Australia in 1986. 127:vanadium redox battery 122: 114: 112:UniEnergy Technologies 99: 22:Vanadium redox battery 3953:Rechargeable alkaline 3631:Electrochemical cells 3257:. Energy Storage News 925:List of battery types 881:, CellCube (Enerox), 811:San Miguel Substation 791:SnoPUD MESA 2 Project 522:Proposed improvements 456: 319: 311: 303: 274:lithium-ion batteries 232:no noise or emissions 198: 170:Maria Skyllas-Kazacos 131:vanadium flow battery 120: 105: 97: 3933:Nickel–metal hydride 3171:on 28 September 2020 3087:"Redox Flow Battery" 2712:All Cell, March 2012 2243:10.1149/2.0281601jes 2183:10.1149/2.0201711jes 1246:research.unsw.edu.au 628:frequency regulation 593:rechargeable battery 568:zinc-bromine battery 418:coulombic efficiency 110:and manufactured by 82:Nominal cell voltage 4108:Grid energy storage 3943:Polysulfide–bromide 3785:Nickel oxyhydroxide 3677:Thermogalvanic cell 3353:"Stacks of Schmalz" 3026:Energy Storage News 2970:Energy Storage News 2561:2019JPS...43426719Y 2517:2011AdEnM...1..394L 2405:Inorganic Chemistry 2377:Wilkinson, Geoffrey 2316:2021NatEn...6..582Y 2281:2017JEnSt..11..119A 2176:(11): E3265–E3275. 2133:2019ApEn..238..202S 2070:2020JEnSt..3201754T 1941:Electrochimica Acta 1918:2017Carbo.122..564H 1876:2023JElS..170c0504B 1837:2022ChEnJ.42731680H 1801:2021WIREE..10E.393S 1766:2014JPS...253..150C 1731:2022ChEnJ.42731680H 1695:2019JEnSt..2500844L 1509:2023JElS..170c0505T 1462:2022JElS..169g0513S 1424:2013JPS...242..349T 1389:1991JPS....36...29Z 1350:Electrochimica Acta 1323:Electrochimica Acta 1273:1992JPS....39...11C 1226:. 18 October 2021. 1224:Energy Storage News 1198:1988JPS....22...59R 1111:2014RSERv..29..325A 1043:2017JVSTB..35d0801Q 978:1991JPS....35..399S 644: 620:lead–acid batteries 254:European Commission 155:grid energy storage 23: 3706:(non-rechargeable) 3650:Concentration cell 3315:. 16 January 2018. 3197:. 19 December 2020 2916:on 19 October 2013 2755:on 9 November 2017 2680:10.1039/C9SE00286C 2555:: Article 226719. 2236:(1): A5211–A5219. 831:Pullman Washington 652:Commissioning date 642: 459: 370:vanadium pentoxide 323: 314: 306: 201: 123: 115: 100: 4090: 4089: 3556:. 13 October 2009 3331:Windkraft-Journal 3002:. 2 November 2016 2976:on 18 August 2018 2946:on 31 August 2018 2886:on 13 August 2017 2414:978-1-42-921820-7 2373:Cotton, F. Albert 2351:10.1021/nn3046709 2205:(10): 1175–1182. 1667:978-3-527-35171-8 1356:(13): 2459–2465. 1052:10.1116/1.4983210 870: 869: 751:Tomamae Wind Farm 706:Baden-Württemberg 673:Duration (hours) 624:diesel generators 609:GATOR mine system 422:energy efficiency 410:tungsten trioxide 341:polyacrylonitrile 284:storage batteries 92: 91: 55:Energy efficiency 4120: 3886:Lithium–titanate 3831: 3707: 3694: 3655:Electric battery 3624: 3617: 3610: 3601: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3509: 3508: 3501: 3495: 3494: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3464: 3458: 3457: 3455: 3453: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3433: 3431: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3411: 3409: 3398: 3392: 3391: 3389: 3387: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3366: 3364: 3349: 3343: 3342: 3340: 3338: 3323: 3317: 3316: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3295: 3289: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3227: 3221: 3220: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3187: 3181: 3180: 3178: 3176: 3167:. Archived from 3156: 3150: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3091:SumitomoElectric 3083: 3077: 3076: 3074: 3072: 3067:. 3 October 2022 3057: 3051: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3018: 3012: 3011: 3009: 3007: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2962: 2956: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2942:. Archived from 2932: 2926: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2912:. Archived from 2902: 2896: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2882:. Archived from 2859: 2853: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2842:ees-magazine.com 2834: 2828: 2827: 2820: 2814: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2781:on 14 March 2014 2777:. Archived from 2771: 2765: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2751:. Archived from 2741: 2735: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2719: 2713: 2706: 2700: 2699: 2674:(9): 2417–2425. 2659: 2653: 2652: 2643:(1–2): 394–402. 2632: 2626: 2620: 2614: 2613: 2611: 2587: 2581: 2580: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2499: 2493: 2489: 2483: 2482: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2439: 2437: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2400: 2394: 2393: 2369: 2363: 2362: 2345:(6): 4764–4773. 2334: 2328: 2327: 2299: 2293: 2292: 2266: 2257: 2248: 2247: 2245: 2221: 2215: 2214: 2194: 2188: 2187: 2185: 2161: 2155: 2154: 2152: 2116: 2110: 2109: 2107: 2105: 2090: 2084: 2083: 2081: 2049: 2043: 2042: 2032: 2022: 1998: 1992: 1991: 1963: 1957: 1956: 1936: 1930: 1929: 1903: 1894: 1888: 1887: 1858: 1849: 1848: 1819: 1813: 1812: 1809:10.1002/wene.393 1784: 1778: 1777: 1749: 1743: 1742: 1713: 1707: 1706: 1678: 1672: 1671: 1654: 1648: 1647: 1637: 1609: 1603: 1591:Miller, Kelsey. 1589: 1583: 1582: 1580: 1572: 1566: 1565: 1563: 1561: 1546: 1531: 1530: 1520: 1488: 1482: 1481: 1445: 1436: 1435: 1407: 1401: 1400: 1372: 1366: 1365: 1345: 1339: 1338: 1329:(7): 1253–1260. 1318: 1312: 1311: 1291: 1285: 1284: 1256: 1250: 1249: 1238: 1232: 1231: 1216: 1210: 1209: 1181: 1175: 1172: 1166: 1163: 1157: 1156: 1154: 1152: 1137: 1131: 1130: 1094: 1088: 1087: 1085: 1083: 1071: 1065: 1064: 1054: 1022: 1016: 1008: 1002: 999: 990: 989: 961: 935:Electric battery 919: 914: 913: 905: 900: 899: 771:Zhangbei Project 645: 512: 505: 499: 490: 479: 478: 475: 347:group (C=O) and 151:oxidation states 108:Avista Utilities 71:Cycle durability 66:20–30 years 40:(36–72 J/g) 24: 4128: 4127: 4123: 4122: 4121: 4119: 4118: 4117: 4093: 4092: 4091: 4086: 4025: 4004: 3997: 3918:Nickel–hydrogen 3876:Lithium–polymer 3832: 3829: 3828: 3819: 3708: 3705: 3704: 3695: 3686: 3633: 3628: 3572: 3559: 3557: 3542: 3518: 3513: 3512: 3507:. 15 June 2021. 3503: 3502: 3498: 3489: 3488: 3484: 3474: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3461: 3451: 3449: 3444: 3443: 3439: 3429: 3427: 3422: 3421: 3417: 3407: 3405: 3400: 3399: 3395: 3385: 3383: 3377: 3376: 3372: 3362: 3360: 3357:J. Schmalz GmbH 3351: 3350: 3346: 3336: 3334: 3325: 3324: 3320: 3311: 3310: 3306: 3301:. 24 June 2021. 3297: 3296: 3292: 3282: 3280: 3275: 3274: 3270: 3260: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3247: 3237: 3235: 3229: 3228: 3224: 3215: 3214: 3210: 3200: 3198: 3189: 3188: 3184: 3174: 3172: 3158: 3157: 3153: 3143: 3141: 3135: 3134: 3130: 3120: 3118: 3110: 3109: 3105: 3095: 3093: 3085: 3084: 3080: 3070: 3068: 3059: 3058: 3054: 3045: 3041: 3031: 3029: 3028:. 17 March 2017 3020: 3019: 3015: 3005: 3003: 2994: 2993: 2989: 2979: 2977: 2964: 2963: 2959: 2949: 2947: 2934: 2933: 2929: 2919: 2917: 2904: 2903: 2899: 2889: 2887: 2861: 2860: 2856: 2846: 2844: 2836: 2835: 2831: 2822: 2821: 2817: 2807: 2805: 2799: 2798: 2794: 2784: 2782: 2773: 2772: 2768: 2758: 2756: 2743: 2742: 2738: 2728: 2726: 2721: 2720: 2716: 2707: 2703: 2661: 2660: 2656: 2634: 2633: 2629: 2621: 2617: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2545: 2544: 2540: 2501: 2500: 2496: 2490: 2486: 2471: 2450: 2449: 2445: 2435: 2433: 2432:. Science Daily 2427: 2426: 2422: 2415: 2402: 2401: 2397: 2391: 2371: 2370: 2366: 2336: 2335: 2331: 2301: 2300: 2296: 2264: 2259: 2258: 2251: 2223: 2222: 2218: 2196: 2195: 2191: 2163: 2162: 2158: 2118: 2117: 2113: 2103: 2101: 2092: 2091: 2087: 2051: 2050: 2046: 2000: 1999: 1995: 1965: 1964: 1960: 1938: 1937: 1933: 1901: 1896: 1895: 1891: 1860: 1859: 1852: 1821: 1820: 1816: 1786: 1785: 1781: 1751: 1750: 1746: 1715: 1714: 1710: 1680: 1679: 1675: 1668: 1656: 1655: 1651: 1611: 1610: 1606: 1600:Wayback Machine 1590: 1586: 1578: 1574: 1573: 1569: 1559: 1557: 1555:Metal Tech News 1548: 1547: 1534: 1490: 1489: 1485: 1447: 1446: 1439: 1409: 1408: 1404: 1374: 1373: 1369: 1347: 1346: 1342: 1320: 1319: 1315: 1293: 1292: 1288: 1258: 1257: 1253: 1240: 1239: 1235: 1218: 1217: 1213: 1183: 1182: 1178: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1150: 1148: 1139: 1138: 1134: 1096: 1095: 1091: 1081: 1079: 1073: 1072: 1068: 1024: 1023: 1019: 1009: 1005: 1000: 993: 963: 962: 958: 953: 915: 908: 901: 894: 891: 875: 851:Dalian Battery 710:September 2019 640: 601: 589:specific energy 584: 565: 557: 550: 546: 528:Skyllas-Kazacos 524: 511:= −0.26 V 507: 503: 492: 488: 476: 473: 472: 469: 451: 430: 398: 391: 387: 379: 375: 367: 358: 328: 298: 263: 211: 206: 166: 147:charge carriers 85:1.15–1.55 63:Time durability 28:Specific energy 17: 12: 11: 5: 4126: 4124: 4116: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4103:Flow batteries 4095: 4094: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4033: 4031: 4027: 4026: 4024: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4011:Atomic battery 4007: 4005: 4002: 3999: 3998: 3996: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3983:Vanadium redox 3980: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3958:Silver–cadmium 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3928:Nickel–lithium 3925: 3920: 3915: 3913:Nickel–cadmium 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3889: 3888: 3883: 3881:Lithium–sulfur 3878: 3873: 3868: 3858: 3853: 3852: 3851: 3841: 3835: 3833: 3830:(rechargeable) 3826:Secondary cell 3824: 3821: 3820: 3818: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3750:Edison–Lalande 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3711: 3709: 3700: 3697: 3696: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3668: 3667: 3665:Trough battery 3662: 3652: 3647: 3641: 3639: 3635: 3634: 3629: 3627: 3626: 3619: 3612: 3604: 3598: 3597: 3592: 3586: 3581: 3571: 3570:External links 3568: 3567: 3566: 3540: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3517: 3514: 3511: 3510: 3496: 3493:. 16 May 2020. 3482: 3459: 3437: 3415: 3393: 3370: 3344: 3333:. 16 June 2016 3318: 3304: 3290: 3268: 3245: 3222: 3208: 3182: 3151: 3128: 3103: 3078: 3052: 3039: 3013: 3000:Everett Herald 2987: 2957: 2927: 2897: 2854: 2829: 2815: 2792: 2766: 2736: 2714: 2701: 2654: 2627: 2615: 2582: 2538: 2511:(3): 394–400. 2494: 2484: 2469: 2443: 2420: 2413: 2395: 2389: 2364: 2329: 2310:(6): 582–588. 2294: 2249: 2216: 2189: 2156: 2121:Applied Energy 2111: 2085: 2044: 1993: 1958: 1931: 1889: 1850: 1814: 1779: 1744: 1708: 1673: 1666: 1649: 1604: 1584: 1567: 1532: 1483: 1437: 1402: 1367: 1340: 1313: 1302:(1–2): 81–91. 1286: 1251: 1233: 1211: 1176: 1167: 1158: 1132: 1089: 1066: 1017: 1003: 991: 972:(4): 399–404. 955: 954: 952: 949: 948: 947: 945:Energy storage 942: 937: 932: 927: 921: 920: 906: 890: 887: 874: 871: 868: 867: 864: 861: 858: 855: 852: 848: 847: 844: 841: 838: 835: 832: 828: 827: 824: 821: 818: 815: 812: 808: 807: 804: 801: 798: 795: 792: 788: 787: 784: 781: 778: 775: 772: 768: 767: 764: 761: 758: 755: 752: 748: 747: 744: 741: 738: 735: 733: 726: 725: 720: 717: 714: 711: 708: 698: 697: 694: 691: 688: 685: 682: 678: 677: 674: 671: 661: 654: 649: 639: 636: 600: 597: 583: 580: 563: 555: 548: 544: 523: 520: 515: 514: 501: 463:half-reactions 450: 447: 438:mass transport 429: 426: 397: 394: 389: 385: 377: 373: 365: 357: 354: 333:hydrophobicity 327: 324: 297: 294: 293: 292: 289: 286: 280: 277: 270: 262: 259: 258: 257: 246:levelized cost 242: 239: 236: 233: 230: 227: 224: 221: 218: 210: 207: 205: 202: 165: 162: 90: 89: 83: 79: 78: 72: 68: 67: 64: 60: 59: 56: 52: 51: 48: 46:Energy density 42: 41: 30: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4125: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4100: 4098: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4034: 4032: 4028: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4008: 4006: 4000: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3981: 3979: 3976: 3974: 3973:Sodium–sulfur 3971: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3961: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3948:Potassium ion 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3863: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3850: 3847: 3846: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3836: 3834: 3827: 3822: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3765:Lithium metal 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3720:Aluminium–air 3718: 3716: 3713: 3712: 3710: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3657: 3656: 3653: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3645:Galvanic cell 3643: 3642: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3625: 3620: 3618: 3613: 3611: 3606: 3605: 3602: 3596: 3593: 3590: 3587: 3585: 3582: 3580: 3577: 3574: 3573: 3569: 3555: 3554: 3550: 3545: 3541: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3523: 3520: 3519: 3515: 3506: 3500: 3497: 3492: 3486: 3483: 3470: 3463: 3460: 3447: 3441: 3438: 3425: 3419: 3416: 3403: 3397: 3394: 3381: 3374: 3371: 3359:. 28 May 2023 3358: 3354: 3348: 3345: 3332: 3328: 3322: 3319: 3314: 3308: 3305: 3300: 3294: 3291: 3278: 3272: 3269: 3256: 3249: 3246: 3233: 3226: 3223: 3219:. 6 May 2021. 3218: 3212: 3209: 3196: 3195:CleanTechnica 3192: 3186: 3183: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3155: 3152: 3139: 3132: 3129: 3117: 3113: 3107: 3104: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3079: 3066: 3062: 3056: 3053: 3049: 3043: 3040: 3027: 3023: 3017: 3014: 3001: 2997: 2991: 2988: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2961: 2958: 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