466:
mass-produced passenger cars appeared on the Suzuki Cervo in 1988. However, this simple method was not widely adopted by other automakers in the initial years due to the unnatural steering feel of the motor caused by the inertia at the time of rapid steering for danger avoidance in slower speed driving, as well as at the time of faster speed driving in which the electromagnetic clutch makes the steering force smaller, returning to the manual steering mode. In the year 1990, a direct full control system of a rack assist without a clutch was put into practical use in the Honda NSX (initially installed in automatics only). Since then, there has been a transition of trend from brush-attached motors to brushless motors in the rack type for ordinary vehicles and this method has become the mainstream.
438:
response to variable-rate and variable-damping suspension systems, optimizing ride, handling, and steering for each vehicle. This new technological feature also gave engineers the ability to add new driver assistance features. This includes features such as lane assist, wind drift correction, etc. On Fiat group cars the amount of assistance can be regulated using a button named "CITY" that switches between two different assist curves, while most other EPS systems have variable assist. These give more assistance as the vehicle slows down, and less at faster speeds.
193:
396:
2125:
1672:
2115:
1692:
1682:
280:
artificial steering feel, there is a separate hydraulically operated system that tries to turn the steering wheel back to centre position. The amount of pressure applied is proportional to road speed, so that at low speeds the steering is very light, and at high speeds it is very difficult to move more than a small amount off centre.
442:
required to steer. This heavy effort is similar to that of an inoperative hydraulic steering assist system. Depending on the driving situation, driving skill and strength of the driver, steering assist loss may or may not lead to a crash. The difficulty of steering with inoperative power steering is compounded by the choice of
279:
In this power steering system, the force steering the wheels comes from the car's high pressure hydraulic system and is always the same no matter what the road speed is. Turning the steering wheel moves the wheels simultaneously to a corresponding angle via a hydraulic cylinder. In order to give some
516:
This system should not be confused with variable assist power steering, which varies steering assist torque, not steering ratios, nor with systems where the gear ratio is only varied as a function of steering angle. These last are more accurately called non-linear types (e.g. Direct-Steer offered by
469:
Other electric power steering systems (including 4WS) later appeared on the Honda NSX after 1990, the Honda
Prelude and the Subaru SVX in 1991, the Nissan 300ZX (Z32; after the Version 3 onwards), Silvia, Skyline, and the Laurel in 1993, the MG F, the FIAT Punto Mk2 in 1999, the Honda S2000 in 1999,
465:
In 1986, NSK put the world’s first electric power steering system for battery forklifts into practical use. In 1988, Koyo Seiko (currently JTEKT) and NSK co-developed a column system exclusively for minicars sold only in the domestic market of Japan. The first-ever electric power steering system for
55:
add controlled energy to the steering mechanism, so the driver can provide less effort to turn the steered wheels when driving at typical speeds, and considerably reduce the physical effort necessary to turn the wheels when a vehicle is stopped or moving slowly. Power steering can also be engineered
441:
A mechanical linkage between the steering wheel and the steering gear is retained in EPS. In the event of component failure or power failure that causes a failure to provide assistance, the mechanical linkage serves as a back-up. If EPS fails, the driver encounters a situation where heavy effort is
457:
because there is no belt-driven hydraulic pump constantly running, whether assistance is required or not, and this is a major reason for their introduction. Another major advantage is the elimination of a belt-driven engine accessory, and several high-pressure hydraulic hoses between the hydraulic
228:
at the lower end of the steering column. As the steering wheel rotates, so does the steering column, as well as the upper end of the torsion bar. Since the torsion bar is relatively thin and flexible, and the bottom end usually resists being rotated, the bar will twist by an amount proportional to
220:
to the steering gear, which in turn steers the roadwheels. The steering wheel operates valves to control flow to the cylinder. The more torque the driver applies to the steering wheel and column, the more fluid the valves allow through to the cylinder, and so the more force is applied to steer the
236:
The steering booster is arranged so that should the booster fail, the steering will continue to work (although the wheel will feel heavier). Loss of power steering can significantly affect the handling of a vehicle. Each vehicle owner's manual gives instructions for inspection of fluid levels and
232:
Since the hydraulic pumps are positive-displacement type, the flow rate they deliver is directly proportional to the speed of the engine. This means that at high engine speeds the steering would naturally operate faster than at low engine speeds. Because this would be undesirable, a restricting
183:
A study in 1999 on the perceptual fidelity of steering force feedback, found that ordinary real-world truck and car drivers naturally expect an increase in feedback torque as speed increases, and for this reason early forms of power steering, which lacked such effect, were met with disapproval.
437:
exerted inside the steering column, and a computer module applies assistive torque via the motor, which connects either to the steering gear or steering column. This allows varied amounts of assistance to be applied depending on driving conditions. Engineers can therefore tailor steering-gear
90:
Some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the middle; this hinge allows the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders move the halves of the frame relative to each other to steer.
229:
the applied torque. The difference in position between the opposite ends of the torsion bar controls a valve. The valve allows fluid to flow to the cylinder which provides steering assistance; the greater the "twist" of the torsion bar, the greater the force.
70:
Other power steering systems (such as those in the largest off-road construction vehicles) have no direct mechanical connection to the steering linkage; they require electrical power. Systems of this kind, with no mechanical connection, are sometimes called
233:
orifice and flow-control valve direct some of the pump's output back to the hydraulic reservoir at high engine speeds. A pressure relief valve prevents a dangerous build-up of pressure when the hydraulic cylinder's piston reaches the end of its stroke.
63:. These systems have a direct mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the linkage that steers the wheels. This means that power-steering system failure (to augment effort) still permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone.
99:
The first power steering system on a vehicle was apparently installed in 1876 by a man with the surname of Fitts, but little else is known about him. The next power steering system was put on a
Columbia 5-ton truck in 1903 where a separate
180:, which all increase the required steering effort. Heavier vehicles, as are common in some countries, would be extremely difficult to maneuver at low speeds, while vehicles of lighter weight may not need power assisted steering at all.
302:
Electro-hydraulic power steering systems, sometimes abbreviated EHPS, and also sometimes called "hybrid" systems, use the same hydraulic assist technology as standard systems, but the hydraulic pressure comes from a pump driven by an
66:
Electric power steering systems use electric motors to provide the assistance instead of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator (motor, in this case) is controlled by the rest of the power steering system.
615:
810:
828:
172:
Starting in the mid-1950s
American manufacturers offered the technology as optional or standard equipment while it is widely offered internationally on modern vehicles, owing to the trends toward
335:, with an electric pump. This meant that the power steering would still operate while the engine was stopped by the computer to save fuel. Electro-hydraulic systems can be found in some cars by
1089:
846:
832:
814:
255:
Some modern systems also include an electronic control valve to reduce the hydraulic supply pressure as the vehicle's speed increases; this is variable-assist power steering.
314:
that replaced the conventional large steering wheel with two 5-inch (127 mm) rings, a fast 15:1 gear ratio, and an electric hydraulic pump in case the engine stalled.
447:
328:
with electro-hydraulic power steering. This avoided running hydraulic lines from the engine (which was behind the driver in the MR2) up to the steering rack.
473:
The system has been used by various automobile manufacturers, and most commonly applied for smaller cars to reduce fuel consumption and manufacturing costs.
118:, included a mechanical power steering mechanism as part of his patent (U.S. Patent 646,477) issued on April 3, 1900 for the first four-wheel drive system.
577:
204:
to multiply force applied to the steering wheel inputs to the vehicle's steered (usually front) road wheels. The hydraulic pressure typically comes from a
1119:
1244:
1097:
132:
and refined the hydraulic-assisted power steering system, but the automaker calculated it would be too expensive to produce. Davis then signed up with
2159:
128:, began exploring how steering could be made easier, and in 1926 invented and demonstrated the first practical power steering system. Davis moved to
458:
pump, mounted on the engine, and the steering gear, mounted on the chassis. This greatly simplifies manufacturing and maintenance. By incorporating
780:
1286:
321:
was fitted with a unique Cybrid adaptive electro-hydraulic steering system that changed the level of assistance based on the vehicle's speed.
694:
166:
723:
2164:
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957:
1844:
1647:
684:
625:
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under the name "Hydraguide". The
Chrysler system was based on some of Davis' expired patents. General Motors introduced the 1952
988:
2154:
1801:
1018:
125:
1218:
1879:
1359:
540:
59:
Hydraulic power steering systems for cars augment steering effort via an actuator, a hydraulic cylinder that is part of a
2169:
1319:
1188:
498:
459:
1954:
1601:
1445:
1791:
1491:
1369:
1279:
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electric power steering systems can instantly vary torque assist levels to aid the driver in corrective maneuvers.
753:
192:
2090:
1979:
1919:
1884:
935:
1869:
1721:
1248:
1839:
1811:
1324:
1685:
521:); a plot of steering-wheel position versus axle steering angle is progressively curved (and symmetrical).
1829:
1819:
1404:
875:
225:
201:
141:
1506:
1272:
1219:"Honda to Launch S2000 Type V Equipped with the World's First Variable Gear Ratio Steering (VGS) System"
158:
with a power steering system using the work Davis had done for the company almost twenty years earlier.
107:
121:
1924:
1859:
1150:
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1949:
1929:
1714:
332:
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2000:
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Applying driving simulation to quantify steering effort preference as a function of vehicle speed
336:
213:
133:
52:
48:
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1758:
1611:
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861:
690:
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589:
311:
173:
151:
1964:
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1501:
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209:
150:
introduced the first commercially available passenger car power steering system on the 1951
80:
17:
1139:”NSK Technical Journal 647 Product introduction "Electric Power Steering", September 1987
1984:
1914:
535:
506:
454:
400:
241:
224:
One design for measuring the torque applied to the steering wheel has a torque sensor – a
559:
2085:
1899:
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60:
34:
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1959:
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1409:
1329:
1090:"Ready for another recall? NHTSA investigating Ford for more power steering problems"
518:
360:
291:
72:
38:
27:
Device that helps steer vehicles by augmenting steering effort of the steering wheel
2037:
1974:
1944:
1939:
1425:
1075:
510:
310:
In 1965, Ford experimented with a fleet of "wrist-twist instant steering" equipped
137:
115:
1022:
1149:
Okamoto, Kenjiro; Chikuma, Isamu; Saito, Naoki; Miyazaki, Hiroya (1 April 1989).
648:
2118:
2042:
2015:
2010:
1874:
1864:
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1626:
1575:
1560:
1516:
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1389:
1339:
1222:
482:
249:
76:
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for easier steering on heavy vehicles boosted the need for power assistance on
2100:
2062:
1904:
1737:
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1364:
913:
890:
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352:
340:
325:
284:
111:
862:
Vehicle
Simulation: Perceptual Fidelity in the Design of Virtual Environments
662:
593:
2057:
2047:
1969:
1934:
1657:
1621:
1606:
1580:
1511:
1486:
450:
has assisted car manufacturers with recalling EPS systems prone to failure.
318:
294:
in 1970, and was known as 'VariPower' in the UK and 'SpeedFeel' in the U.S.
84:
56:
to provide some artificial feedback of forces acting on the steered wheels.
501:
system to alter steering gear ratios and steering assist levels. In 2003,
176:, greater vehicle mass, reduced assembly line production costs, and wider
1849:
1534:
1374:
1349:
494:
273:
245:
155:
147:
42:
1550:
757:
430:
426:
348:
205:
162:
470:
Toyota Prius in 2000, the BMW Z4 in 2002, and the Mazda RX-8 in 2003.
2020:
1834:
1545:
1435:
1344:
831:. Canadian Intellectual Property Office. 15 June 2015. Archived from
813:. Canadian Intellectual Property Office. 15 June 2015. Archived from
490:
434:
376:
364:
269:
264:
1166:
1046:"So long, hydraulics - the electronic revolution in power steering"
493:
introduced the "Variable Gear Ratio
Steering" (VGRS) system on the
2005:
1909:
1430:
394:
384:
380:
217:
191:
165:
filed several patents for improvements of power steering with the
847:"Manual and power actuated steering mechanism for motor vehicles"
811:"Manual and power actuated steering mechanism for motor vehicles"
2027:
368:
356:
344:
177:
144:
and tank-recovery vehicles for the
British and American armies.
1710:
1268:
1264:
1748:
1304:
560:"What is a Power Steering System in Cars? - Explore All Facts"
502:
1706:
136:, a parts manufacturer for automakers. Military needs during
936:"Top 5: Citroen SM innovations that saw the future (video)"
104:
was used to assist the driver in turning the front wheels.
1151:"Improvement of Driver's Feel of Electric Power Steering"
1120:"Electric power steering: one good turn deserves another"
1221:(Press release). Honda News. 7 July 2000. Archived from
663:"Driving-gear for motor-carriages - US patent 646477 A"
196:
A power steering fluid reservoir and pulley driven pump
849:. Canadian Intellectual Property Office. 15 June 2015.
33:
is a system for reducing a driver's effort to turn a
248:
is transmitted. Common working liquids are based on
2078:
1993:
1810:
1757:
1635:
1589:
1525:
1479:
1418:
1312:
1189:"The present and future of electric power steering"
891:"Rack-and-pinion Steering - How Car Steering Works"
497:and Landcruiser Cygnus, and also incorporated the
485:Type V featured the first electric power variable
237:regular maintenance of the power steering system.
75:" or "steer by wire", by analogy with aviation's "
958:"Will a twist of your wrist steer your next car?"
717:
715:
713:
446:in assisted steering gears vs. fully manual. The
324:In 1990, Toyota introduced its second-generation
200:Hydraulic power steering systems work by using a
212:driven by the vehicle's engine. A double-acting
1722:
1280:
873:Bertollini, G. P., & Hogan, R. M. (1999)
8:
1247:. CanadianDriver. 2003-06-02. Archived from
620:. University of Michigan Press. p. 23.
425:instead of a hydraulic system to assist the
399:An EPS module with a partially disassembled
1245:"BMW » First Drive: 2004 BMW 5-Series"
614:Wren, James A.; Wren, Genevieve J. (1979).
571:
569:
1729:
1715:
1707:
1287:
1273:
1265:
879:, (No. 1999-01-0394). SAE Technical Paper.
914:"Power Steering - How Car Steering Works"
829:"Manual and power actuated steering gear"
477:Electrically variable gear ratio systems
290:This system was first introduced in the
1193:International Journal of Vehicle Design
551:
307:instead of a drive belt at the engine.
124:, an engineer of the truck division of
453:Electric systems have an advantage in
259:DIRAVI variable-assist power steering
167:Canadian Intellectual Property Office
79:". In this context, "wire" refers to
7:
1681:
724:"Mr. Power Steering's Ship Comes In"
272:innovated the now common benefit of
83:that carry power and data, not thin
41:, by using a power source to assist
916:. Auto.howstuffworks.com. p. 4
893:. Auto.howstuffworks.com. p. 2
754:"The Waltham Museum's Hall-of-Fame"
244:" or "oil", is the medium by which
1845:Continuously variable transmission
722:Howe, Hartley E. (February 1956).
686:Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology
649:"Driving-gear for motor-carriages"
433:. Sensors detect the position and
25:
1648:Automobile auxiliary power outlet
689:. Elsevier Science. p. 521.
578:"Steering: A Century of Progress"
240:The working liquid, also called "
2160:Automotive steering technologies
2124:
2123:
2113:
1690:
1680:
1671:
1670:
1303:Part of a series of articles on
1096:. 7 January 2015. Archived from
756:. Waltham Museum. Archived from
489:steering (VGS) system. In 2002,
331:In 1994 Volkswagen produced the
1187:Nakayama, T.; Suda, E. (1994).
1157:. SAE Technical Paper Series.
1021:. Deylan.co.uk. Archived from
987:Markovich, Alex (April 1965).
683:Nunney, Malcolm James (2006).
1:
1880:Automated manual transmission
1360:Electronic instrument cluster
541:Direct-drive sim racing wheel
1320:Automotive navigation system
1122:. embedded.com. 30 June 2005
779:Lamm, Michael (March 1999).
499:electronic stability control
460:electronic stability control
18:Variable Gear Ratio Steering
2165:Vehicle safety technologies
1955:Semi-automatic transmission
1446:Electronic throttle control
912:Nice, Karim (31 May 2001).
889:Nice, Karim (31 May 2001).
415:motor-driven power steering
87:mechanical control cables.
2191:
1792:Internal combustion engine
1492:Automatic vehicle location
1155:SAE Technical Paper 890079
1044:Keebler, Jack (May 1986).
576:Schultz, Mort (May 1985).
262:
2109:
2091:Hybrid vehicle drivetrain
1980:Transmission control unit
1920:Limited-slip differential
1885:Electrorheological clutch
1744:
1666:
1300:
1076:"Electric Power Steering"
298:Electro-hydraulic systems
1870:Dual-clutch transmission
1019:"The Golf Ecomatic Page"
274:speed sensitive steering
161:Charles F. Hammond from
2175:19th-century inventions
1840:Constant-velocity joint
1325:Automotive night vision
1161:. SAE Technical Paper.
1094:Newsome Melton law firm
781:"75 years of Chryslers"
617:Motor Trucks of America
407:Electric power steering
2155:Automotive accessories
1820:Automatic transmission
968:(4): 83. February 1984
403:
197:
1507:Remote keyless system
938:. CNET. 5 August 2014
859:Alfred T. Lee (2017)
398:
195:
1925:Locking differential
1860:Direct-shift gearbox
989:"Look, Ma-No Wheel!"
148:Chrysler Corporation
2170:American inventions
1950:Preselector gearbox
1930:Manual transmission
1251:on October 16, 2009
1225:on 6 September 2015
283:It was invented by
2096:Electric generator
2001:Wheel hub assembly
1355:Check engine light
1335:Blind spot monitor
404:
312:Mercury Park Lanes
214:hydraulic cylinder
198:
53:electric actuators
2137:
2136:
1890:Epicyclic gearing
1759:Automotive engine
1704:
1703:
1612:Glove compartment
1566:Child safety lock
1025:on 10 August 2011
993:Popular Mechanics
785:Popular Mechanics
734:(2): 161–164, 270
696:978-0-7506-8037-0
582:Popular Mechanics
333:Golf Mk3 Ecomatic
188:Hydraulic systems
174:front-wheel drive
152:Chrysler Imperial
108:Robert E. Twyford
81:electrical cables
16:(Redirected from
2182:
2127:
2126:
2117:
1994:Wheels and tires
1965:Torque converter
1731:
1724:
1717:
1708:
1694:
1684:
1683:
1674:
1673:
1571:Rear-view mirror
1502:Power door locks
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1282:
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611:
605:
604:
602:
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573:
564:
563:
556:
509:" system on the
391:Electric systems
210:rotary vane pump
202:hydraulic system
122:Francis W. Davis
110:, a resident of
21:
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2189:
2185:
2184:
2183:
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2074:
1989:
1985:Universal joint
1915:Hotchkiss drive
1806:
1753:
1740:
1735:
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1631:
1585:
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1414:
1370:Head-up display
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1050:Popular Science
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1038:
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962:Popular Science
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792:
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773:
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761:
760:on 19 July 2010
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728:Popular Science
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562:. 7 March 2022.
558:
557:
553:
549:
536:Steering engine
527:
507:active steering
479:
455:fuel efficiency
444:steering ratios
401:steering column
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300:
267:
261:
242:hydraulic fluid
190:
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28:
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1900:Friction drive
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1895:Fluid coupling
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1471:Steering wheel
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1441:Cruise control
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1385:Radar detector
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1380:Parking sensor
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1167:10.4271/890079
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1100:on 20 May 2017
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835:on 2016-03-04.
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531:Servomechanism
526:
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423:electric motor
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305:electric motor
299:
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263:Main article:
260:
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130:General Motors
102:electric motor
96:
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35:steering wheel
31:Power steering
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519:Mercedes-Benz
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484:
481:In 2000, the
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317:In 1988, the
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73:drive by wire
68:
64:
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57:
54:
50:
46:
44:
40:
39:motor vehicle
36:
32:
19:
2038:Racing slick
1975:Transfer box
1945:Park-by-wire
1940:Parking pawl
1855:Differential
1830:Direct-drive
1812:Transmission
1802:Steam engine
1747:Part of the
1746:
1465:
1426:Bowden cable
1302:
1295:Car interior
1253:. Retrieved
1249:the original
1239:
1227:. Retrieved
1223:the original
1213:
1201:. Retrieved
1196:
1192:
1182:
1170:. Retrieved
1158:
1154:
1144:
1135:
1124:. Retrieved
1114:
1102:. Retrieved
1098:the original
1093:
1084:
1070:
1058:. Retrieved
1053:
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1039:
1027:. Retrieved
1023:the original
1013:
1001:. Retrieved
996:
992:
982:
970:. Retrieved
965:
961:
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940:. Retrieved
930:
918:. Retrieved
907:
895:. Retrieved
884:
874:
869:
860:
855:
841:
833:the original
823:
815:the original
805:
793:. Retrieved
788:
784:
774:
762:. Retrieved
758:the original
748:
736:. Retrieved
731:
727:
700:. Retrieved
685:
678:
666:. Retrieved
657:
643:
631:. Retrieved
616:
609:
597:. Retrieved
585:
581:
554:
515:
505:introduced "
495:Lexus LX 470
480:
472:
468:
464:
452:
440:
418:
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406:
405:
330:
323:
316:
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268:
254:
239:
235:
231:
223:
199:
182:
171:
160:
146:
142:armored cars
138:World War II
126:Pierce-Arrow
120:
116:Pennsylvania
106:
98:
89:
69:
65:
61:servo system
58:
47:
30:
29:
2016:Alloy wheel
1875:Drive wheel
1865:Drive shaft
1825:Chain drive
1636:Convenience
1627:Vehicle mat
1576:Rumble seat
1561:Bucket seat
1517:VIN etching
1497:Immobiliser
1390:Speedometer
1340:Boost gauge
1313:Instruments
1229:8 September
1060:8 September
1003:8 September
972:8 September
483:Honda S2000
287:of France.
250:mineral oil
226:torsion bar
77:fly-by-wire
2150:Auto parts
2144:Categories
2101:Alternator
1749:Automobile
1738:Powertrain
1653:Cup holder
1597:Boot liner
1556:Bench seat
1480:Anti-theft
1451:Gear stick
1400:Telematics
1395:Tachometer
1365:Fuel gauge
1255:2009-12-08
1203:8 November
1126:2011-09-07
1056:(5): 50–56
1029:8 November
999:(4): 91–93
764:8 November
633:8 November
599:8 November
547:References
487:gear ratio
421:) uses an
341:Volkswagen
319:Subaru XT6
292:Citroën SM
216:applies a
112:Pittsburgh
1970:Transaxle
1935:Manumatic
1905:Gearshift
1777:Fuel cell
1658:Car phone
1622:Sun visor
1607:Dashboard
1581:Seat belt
1512:Smart key
1405:Tell-tale
1172:4 October
594:0032-4558
588:(5): 59.
169:in 1958.
85:wire rope
49:Hydraulic
2129:Category
2068:Tubeless
2053:Run-flat
2033:Off-road
1850:Coupling
1772:Electric
1676:Category
1419:Controls
1375:Odometer
1350:Carputer
525:See also
511:5 Series
246:pressure
221:wheels.
156:Cadillac
43:steering
1686:Commons
1551:Armrest
1535:Seating
791:(3): 75
702:18 June
431:vehicle
429:of the
353:Citroën
349:Peugeot
285:Citroën
206:gerotor
163:Detroit
95:History
2119:Portal
2079:Hybrid
2043:Radial
2021:Hubcap
1835:Clutch
1782:Hybrid
1751:series
1696:Portal
1546:Airbag
1530:Safety
1436:Clutch
1345:Buzzer
1104:28 May
942:28 May
920:28 May
897:28 May
795:28 May
738:28 May
693:
668:29 May
624:
592:
491:Toyota
435:torque
427:driver
383:, and
377:Toyota
365:Suzuki
270:DIRAVI
265:DIRAVI
134:Bendix
2063:Spare
2006:Wheel
1910:Giubo
1643:Audio
1487:Alarm
1431:Brake
1199:: 243
448:NHTSA
413:) or
385:Mazda
381:Honda
361:Ĺ koda
218:force
178:tires
37:of a
2058:Snow
2048:Rain
2028:Tire
1305:cars
1231:2015
1205:2015
1174:2019
1106:2015
1062:2015
1031:2015
1005:2015
974:2015
944:2015
922:2015
899:2015
797:2015
766:2015
740:2015
704:2010
691:ISBN
670:2015
635:2015
622:ISBN
601:2014
590:ISSN
419:MDPS
373:MINI
369:Opel
357:SEAT
345:Audi
337:Ford
2011:Rim
1163:doi
1054:228
997:123
966:186
789:176
732:168
586:162
503:BMW
411:EPS
326:MR2
208:or
51:or
2146::
1197:15
1195:.
1191:.
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960:.
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712:^
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417:(
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20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
