Organ-on-a-chip - Knowledge (XXG)

1126: 1115: 508:. Current methods of inducing IBD are using inflammatory cues to activate Caco-2. It was found that the intestinal epithelium experienced a reduction in barrier function and increased cytokine concentrations. The gut-on-a-chip allowed for the assessment on drug transport, absorption and toxicity as well as potential developments in studying pathogenesis and interactions in the microenvironment overall. Immune cells are essential in mediating inflammatory processes in many gastrointestinal disorders, a recent gut-on-a-chip system also includes multiple immune cells, e.g., macrophages, dendritic cells, and CD4+ T cells in the system. Additionally, the gut-on-a-chip allows the testing of anti-inflammatory effects of bacterial species. 1098:

laboratory techniques usually focus on 2D structures, such as petri-dish that lacks capability to recapitulate real physiology that occurs in 3D. Therefore, the authors developed a new method to fabricate functional, cell-lining and perfusable microchannels inside 3D hydrogel. The vessel endothelial and renal epithelial cells are cultured inside hydrogel microchannel and form cellular coverage to mimic vessels and tubules, respectively. They employed confocal microscope to examine the passive diffusion of one small organic molecule (usually drugs) between the vessels and tubules in hydrogel. The study demonstrates the beneficial potential to mimic renal physiology for regenerative medicine and drug screening.

1572:-free culture media that would be valuable to all cell types included in the device. Optimized standard media are generally targeted to one specific cell-type, whereas a human-on-a-chip will evidently require a common medium (CM). In fact, they claim to have identified a cell culture CM that, when used to perfuse all cell cultures in the microfluidic device, maintains the cells' functional levels. Heightening the sensitivity of the in vitro cultured cells ensures the validity of the device, or that any drug injected into the microchannels will stimulate an identical physiological and metabolic reaction from the sample cells as whole organs in humans. 464:(PDMS) polymer. In order to mimic the gut microenvironment, peristalsis-like fluid flow is designed. By inducing suction in the vacuum chambers along both sides of the main cell channel bilayer, cyclic mechanical strain of stretching and relaxing are developed to mimic the gut behaviors. Furthermore, cells undergo spontaneous villus morphogenesis and differentiation, which generalizes characteristics of intestinal cells. Under the three-dimensional villi scaffold, cells not only proliferate, but metabolic activities are also enhanced. Another important player in the gut is the microbes, namely 360:

used acutely (less than 6 hours after slice harvesting) or cultured for later experimental use. Because organotypic brain slices can maintain viability for weeks, they allow for long-term effects to be studied. Slice-based systems also provide experimental access with precise control of extracellular environments, making it a suitable platform for correlating disease with neuropathological outcomes. Because approximately 10 to 20 slices can be extracted from a single brain, animal usage is significantly reduced relative to

1107: 1402:, sub-atmospheric pressure is applied through one of the fixation channels. Then after sealing the loading well shut, the second fixation channel is subjected to a sub-atmospheric pressure. Now the artery is symmetrically established in the inspection area, and a transmural pressure is felt by the segment. The remaining channels are opened and constant perfusion and superfusion are adjusted using separate syringe pumps. 1457:. One study attempted to address this problem by comparing the qualities of collagen scaffolding from three different animal sources: pig skin, rat tail, and duck feet. Other studies also faced detachment issues due to contraction, which can problematic considering that the process of full skin differentiation can take up to several weeks. Contraction issues have been avoided by replacing collagen scaffolding with a 1054:

important substances takes place. In the device, this section is merely a straight channel, but blood particles going to the filtrate have to cross the previously mentioned membrane and a layer of renal proximal tubule cells. The second segment of the tubules is the loop of Henle where the reabsorption of water and ions from the urine takes place. The device's looping channels strives to simulate the

1165:(PDMS) with multiple channels and chambers based on specific design and objective. PDMS is used and has become popular because it has relatively low price for raw materials, and it is also easily molded for microfluidic devices. But PDMS can absorb important signaling molecules including proteins and hormones. Other more inert materials such as polysulfone or polycarbonate are used in liver-chips. 1287:. A microfluidic platform simulating the biological response of an artery could not only enable organ-based screens to occur more frequently throughout a drug development trial, but also yield a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms behind pathologic changes in small arteries and develop better treatment strategies. Axel Gunther from the University of Toronto argues that such 497:. The gut, which plays an important role in the human digestive system, determines the effectiveness of a drug by absorbing its chemical and biological properties selectively. While it is costly and time consuming to develop new drugs, the fact that the gut-on-a-chip technology attains a high level of throughput has significantly decreased research and development costs and time for new drugs. 1638:) models that represent the mass transfer of compounds in compartmental models of the mammalian body, may contribute to improving the drug development process. Some emerging technologies have the ability to measure multiple biological processes in a co-culture of mixed cell types, cells from different parts of the body, which is suggested to provide more similarity to in Vivo models. 524: 36: 4582:

Lucchesi, Carolina; Manatakis, Dimitris V.; Maniar, Kairav K.; Quinn, Meaghan E.; Ravan, Joseph S.; Rizos, Ann Catherine; Sauld, John F. K.; Sliz, Josiah D.; Tien-Street, William; Trinidad, Dennis Ramos; Velez, James; Wendell, Max; Irrechukwu, Onyi; Mahalingaiah, Prathap Kumar; Ingber, Donald E.; Scannell, Jack W.; Levner, Daniel (6 December 2022).

1437:" to test for the presence of antigens or antibodies that could denote the presence of a pathogen. Despite the wide variety of potential applications, relatively little research has gone into developing a skin-on-a-chip compared to many other organ-on-a-chips, such as lungs and kidneys. Issues such as detachment of the 468:. Many microbial species in the gut microbiota are strict anaerobes. In order to co-culture these oxygen intolerant anaerobes with the oxygen favorable intestinal cells, a polysulfone fabricated gut-on-a-chip is designed. The system maintained the co-culture of colon epithelial cells, goblet-like cells, and bacteria 640:, researchers hope to learn more about health risks in certain environments, and correct previously oversimplified in vitro models. Because a microfluidic lung-on-a-chip can more exactly reproduce the mechanical properties of a living human lung, its physiological responses will be quicker and more accurate than a 1662:

development of multicompartment devices, representations of the human body such as those in used PBPK models can be used to guide the device design with regard to the arrangement of chambers and fluidic channel connections to augment the drug development process, resulting in increased success in clinical trials.

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remove metabolic byproducts. A 100 μm thick membrane of PDMS separates the primary and secondary chamber, allowing the secondary chamber to be connected to another microfluidic network that perfuses 37 °C room air with 10% carbon dioxide, and producing air exchange for rat hepatocytes. The production of

1482:. In static cultures, used in traditional skin equivalents, cells receive nutrients in the medium only through diffusion, whereas dynamic perfusion can improve nutrient flow through interstitial spaces, or gaps between cells. This perfusion has also been demonstrated to improve tight junction formation of the 1588:

reservation that pharmaceutical companies have towards organs-on-chips, namely the isolation of organs. As these devices become more and more accessible, the complexity of the design increases exponentially. Systems will soon have to simultaneously provide mechanical perturbation and fluid flow through a

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techniques that simulate human injuries. There are also concerns with regards to the validity of such animal models, due to deficiency in cross-species extrapolation. Moreover, animal models offer very limited control of individual variables and it can be cumbersome to harvest specific information.

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system that compartmentalizes microenvironments in which 3D cellular aggregates are cultured to mimic multiple organs in the body. Most organ-on-a-chip models today only culture one cell type, so even though they may be valid models for studying whole organ functions, the systemic effect of a drug on

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stimulate the contraction of the myocytes via a field-stimulation – thus curving the strips/teeth in the MTF. Researchers have developed a correlation between tissue stress and the radius of curvature of the MTF strips during the contractile cycle, validating the demonstrated chip as a "platform

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microchambers, aligned with sensors and stimulating electrodes as a tool that will electrochemically and optically monitor the cardiomyocytes' metabolism. Another lab-on-a-chip similarly combined a microfluidic network in PDMS with planar microelectrodes, this time to measure extracellular potentials

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Microfluidic devices have been paired with organotypic slices to improve culture viability. The standard procedure for culturing organotypic brain slices (around 300 microns in thickness) uses semi-porous membranes to create an air-medium interface, but this technique results in diffusion limitations

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responses to temperature differentials). The application of microfluidics in organs-on-chips enables the efficient transport and distribution of nutrients and other soluble cues throughout the viable 3D tissue constructs. Organs-on-chips are referred to as the next wave of 3D cell-culture models that

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systems such as micro cell culture analogs (μCCAs) could be used in conjunction with PBPK models. These μCCAs scaled-down devices, termed also body-on-a-chip devices, can simulate multi-tissue interactions under near-physiological fluid flow conditions and with realistic tissue-to-tissue size ratios

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Efforts made toward the development of micro fabricated cell culture systems that aim to create models that replicate aspects of the human body as closely as possible and give examples that demonstrate their potential use in drug development, such as identifying synergistic drug interactions as well

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In the early phase of drug development, animal models were the only way of obtaining in vivo data that would predict the human pharmacokinetic responses. However, experiments on animals are lengthy, expensive and controversial. For example, animal models are often subjected to mechanical or chemical

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and formation of cell layers was also reported in microfluidic culture when compared to traditional static culture, agreeing with earlier findings of improved cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions due to dynamic perfusion, or increased permeation through interstitial spaces due to the pressure from

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scaffolding from microchannels, incomplete cellular differentiation, and predominant use of poly(dimethysiloxane) (PDMS) for device fabrication, which has been shown to leach chemicals into biological samples and cannot be mass-produced stymie standardization of a platform. One additional difficulty

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The artery-on-a-chip is designed for reversible implantation of the sample. The device contains a microchannel network, an artery loading area and a separate artery inspection area. There is a microchannel used for loading the artery segment, and when the loading well is sealed, it is also used as a

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One step towards validating the microfluidic device's simulation of the full filtration and reabsorption behavior of a physiological nephron would include demonstrating that the transport properties between blood and filtrate are identical with regards to where they occur and what is being let in by

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Brain-on-a-chip devices can cause shear stress on cells or tissue due to flow through small channels, which can result in cellular damage. These small channels also introduce susceptibility to the trapping of air bubbles that can disrupt flow and potentially cause damage to the cells. The widespread

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physiology with additional throughput and optical benefits, thus pairing well with microfluidic devices. Brain slices have advantages over primary cell culture in that tissue architecture is preserved and multicellular interactions can still occur. There is flexibility in their use, as slices can be

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Mathematical pharmacokinetic (PK) models aim to estimate concentration-time profiles within each organ on the basis of the initial drug dose. Such mathematical models can be relatively simple, treating the body as a single compartment in which the drug distribution reaches a rapid equilibrium after

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One recent report illustrates a biomimic nephron on hydrogel microfluidic devices with establishing the function of passive diffusion. The complex physiological function of nephron is achieved on the basis of interactions between vessels and tubules (both are hollow channels). However, conventional

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decreases, triggering an expansion of the alveoli. As air is pulled into the lungs, alveolar epithelium and the coupled endothelium in the capillaries are stretched. Since a vacuum is connected to the side channels, a decrease in pressure will cause the middle channel to expand, thus stretching the

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Although multiple publications claim to have translated organ functions onto this interface, the development of these microfluidic applications is still in its infancy. Organs-on-chips vary in design and approach between different researchers. Organs that have been simulated by microfluidic devices

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Dynamic perfusion may also improve cell viability, demonstrated by placing a commercial skin equivalent in a microfluidic platform that extended the expected lifespan by several weeks. This early study also demonstrated the importance of hair follicles in skin equivalent models. Hair follicles are

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have outlined a methodology that utilizes such a microfluidic system in the attempt to construct a viable Prostate epithelium model. The approach focuses on a cylindrical microchannel configuration, mimicking the morphology of a human secretory duct, within which the epithelium is located. Various

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models replicate a 3D environment for embedded cells (which provides precise control of cellular and extracellular environment), replicate shear stress, have more physiologically relevant morphology in comparison to 2D models, and provide easy incorporation of different cell types into the device.

1559:. The cells were linked in a 2D fluidic network with culture medium circulating as a blood surrogate, thus efficiently providing a nutritional delivery transport system, while simultaneously removing wastes from the cells. "The development of the μCCA laid the foundation for a realistic in vitro 1053:

In the tubules, some substances are added to the filtrate as part of the urine formation, and some substances reabsorbed out of the filtrate and back into the blood. The first segment of these tubules is the proximal convoluted tubule. This is where the almost complete absorption of nutritionally

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adhesion molecules. In Huh's experiment, the pulmonary inflammation was simulated by introducing medium containing a potent proinflammatory mediator. Only hours after the injury was caused, the cells in the microfluidic device subjected to a cyclic strain reacted in accordance with the previously

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Despite the progress in microfluidic BBB devices, these devices are often too technically complex, require highly specialized setups and equipment, and are unable to detect temporal and spatial differences in the transport kinetics of substances that migrate across cellular barriers. Also, direct

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Because the device can be used with both animal and human cells, it can facilitate cross-species extrapolation. Used in conjunction with PBPK models, the devices permit an estimation of effective concentrations that can be used for studies with animal models or predict the human response. In the

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Recently, physiologically based perfusion in vitro systems have been developed to provide cell culture environment close to in vivo cell environment. A new testing platforms based on multi-compartmental perfused systems have gained a remarkable interest in pharmacology and toxicology. It aims to

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layer in between. The metabolic substrate and metabolic byproducts share this channel to be supplied or removed. Later, a dual-channel is made, and endothelial cells and hepatocytes cells have their own channels to supply the substrate or remove the byproduct. The production of urea and positive

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in an 8*8 element array of microfluidic wells. Each well is separated into two chambers. The primary chamber contains rat hepatocytes and 3T3-J2 fibroblasts and is made of glass for cells adhesion. Each of primary chamber is connected to a microfluidic network that supply metabolic substrate and

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A reported design of a heart-on-a-chip claims to have built "an efficient means of measuring structure-function relationships in constructs that replicate the hierarchical tissue architectures of laminar cardiac muscle." This chip determines that the alignment of the myocytes in the contractile

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bed in the biological tissue. Another pair of microchannels serves to fix the two ends of the arterial segment. Finally, the last pair of microchannels is used to provide superfusion flow rates, in order to maintain the physiological and metabolic activity of the organ by delivering a constant

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models the PK of about any chemical in humans, almost from first principles. These models can be either very simple, like statistical dose-response models, or sophisticated and based on systems biology, according to the goal pursued and the data available. All we need for those models are good

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requires patients to go to a clinic up to three times per week. A more transportable and accessible form of treatment would not only increase the patient's overall health (by increasing frequency of treatment), but the whole process would become more efficient and tolerable. Artificial kidney

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is a device that integrates one or several laboratory functions on a single chip that deals with handling particles in hollow microfluidic channels. It has been developed for over a decade. Advantages in handling particles at such a small scale include lowering fluid volume consumption (lower

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Ewart, Lorna; Apostolou, Athanasia; Briggs, Skyler A.; Carman, Christopher V.; Chaff, Jake T.; Heng, Anthony R.; Jadalannagari, Sushma; Janardhanan, Jeshina; Jang, Kyung-Jin; Joshipura, Sannidhi R.; Kadam, Mahika M.; Kanellias, Marianne; Kujala, Ville J.; Kulkarni, Gauri; Le, Christopher Y.;

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Recreation of the prostate epithelium is motivated by evidence suggesting it to be the site of nucleation in cancer metastasis. These systems essentially serve as the next step in the development of cells cultured from mice to two and subsequently three-dimensional human cell culturing. PDMS

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of these necessary nutrients and gases, transport is improved and higher tissue viability can be achieved. In addition to keeping standard slices viable, brain-on-a-chip platforms have allowed the successful culturing of thicker brain slices (approximately 700 microns), despite a significant

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is one of the most common methods for drug administration. It allows patients, especially out-patients, to self-serve the drugs with minimal possibility of experiencing acute drug reactions and in most cases: pain-free. However, the drug's action in the body can be largely influenced by the

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A limitation of the early organ-on-a-chip approach is that simulation of an isolated organ may miss significant biological phenomena that occur in the body's complex network of physiological processes, and that this oversimplification limits the inferences that can be drawn. Many aspects of

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substances would be screened to confirm that even though it may benefit one cell type, it does not compromise the functions of others. It is probably already possible to print these organs with 3D printers, but the cost is too high. Designing whole body biomimetic devices addresses a major

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sample. In the glomerulus' section of the nephron, the membrane allows certain blood particles through its wall of capillary cells, composed by the endothelium, basement membrane and the epithelial podocytes. The fluid that is filtered from the capillary blood into Bowman's space is called

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system for culturing multiple cell types with high fidelity to in vivo situations", claim C. Zhang et al. They have developed a microfluidic human-on-a-chip, culturing four different cell types to mimic four human organs: liver, lung, kidney and fat. They focused on developing a standard

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technique. However, such methods currently require manually skilled personnel and are not scalable. An artery-on-a-chip could overcome several of these limitations by accommodating an artery onto a platform which would be scalable, inexpensive and possibly automated in its manufacturing.

377:-like" characteristics without sacrificing cell viability. Microfluidic devices support high-throughput screening and toxicological assessments in both 2D and slice cultures, leading to the development of novel therapeutics targeted for the brain. One device was able to screen the drugs 565:. The device largely comprises three microfluidic channels, and only the middle one holds the porous membrane. Culture cells were grown on either side of the membrane: human alveolar epithelial cells on one side, and human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells on the other. 1389:

The protocol of loading and securing the tissue sample into the inspection zone helps understand how this approach acknowledges whole organ functions. After immersing the tissue segment into the loading well, the loading process is driven by a syringe withdrawing a constant

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mechanisms or ADME processes that involve its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. Perfused in vitro systems combined with kinetic modelling are promising tools for studying in vitro the different processes involved in the toxicokinetics of xenobiotics.

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have already been simulated by microfluidic devices. "Such cell cultures can lead to new insights into cell and organ function and be used for drug screening". A kidney-on-a-chip device has the potential to accelerate research encompassing artificial replacement for lost

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Because microfluidic devices can be designed with optical accessibility, this also allows for the visualization of morphology and processes in specific regions or individual cells. Brain-on-a-chip systems can model organ-level physiology in neurological diseases, such as

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gels accommodates shape changes and cell-cell connections – formerly prohibited by rigid 2D culture substrates. Nevertheless, even the best 3D culture models fail to mimic an organ's cellular properties in many aspects, including tissue-to-tissue interfaces (e.g.,

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Franke WW, Borrmann CM, Grund C, Pieperhoff S (February 2006). "The area composita of adhering junctions connecting heart muscle cells of vertebrates. I. Molecular definition in intercalated disks of cardiomyocytes by immunoelectron microscopy of desmosomal proteins".

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is the first line of defense against many pathogens and can itself be subject to a variety of diseases and issues, such as cancers and inflammation. As such, skin-on-a-chip (SoC) applications include testing of topical pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, studying the

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in the glomerulus to vary between 15–20%, or the filtration reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule to vary between 65–70%, and finally the urea concentration in urine (collected at one of the two outlets of the device) to vary between 200–400 mM.

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The liver-on-a-chip has shown its great potential for liver-related research. Future goals for liver-on-a-chip devices focus on recapitulating a more realistic hepatic environment, including reagents in fluids, cell types, extending survival time, etc.

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and other nonparenchymal cells. This coculture method is extensively studied and is proved to be beneficial for extension of hepatocytes survival time and support the performance of liver-specific functions. Many liver-on-a-chip systems are made of

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approaches utilized for teasing apart specific mechanisms at the single-cell level and at the tissue-level are becoming increasingly sophisticated and so are the fabrication methods. Rapid dissemination and availability of low cost, high resolution

1617:. The development of MEMS-based biochips that reproduce complex organ-level pathological responses could revolutionize many fields, including toxicology and the developmental process of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics that rely on animal testing and 3650:

Werdich AA, Lima EA, Ivanov B, Ges I, Anderson ME, Wikswo JP, Baudenbacher FJ (August 2004). "A microfluidic device to confine a single cardiac myocyte in a sub-nanoliter volume on planar microelectrodes for extracellular potential recordings".

344:, and 4) adding high precision and tunability of microfluidic devices. Brain-on-a-chip devices span multiple levels of complexity in terms of cell culture methodology. Devices have been made using platforms that range from traditional 2D 684:

apparatus made of cardiac tissue and the gene expression profile (affected by shape and cell structure deformation) contributes to the force produced in cardiac contractility. This heart-on-a-chip is a biohybrid construct: an engineered

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Sambuy Y, De Angelis I, Ranaldi G, Scarino ML, Stammati A, Zucco F (January 2005). "The Caco-2 cell line as a model of the intestinal barrier: influence of cell and culture-related factors on Caco-2 cell functional characteristics".

241:). Consequently, there is virtually no mixing between neighboring streams in one hollow channel. In cellular biology convergence, this rare property in fluids has been leveraged to better study complex cell behaviors, such as cell 6306:

Zandi Shafagh, Reza; Youhanna, Sonia; Keulen, Jibbe; Shen, Joanne X.; Taebnia, Nayere; Preiss, Lena C.; Klein, Kathrin; Büttner, Florian A.; Bergqvist, Mikael; van der Wijngaart, Wouter; Lauschke, Volker M. (26 October 2022).

1658:. Data obtained with these systems may be used to test and refine mechanistic hypotheses. Microfabricating devices also allows us to custom-design them and scale the organs' compartments correctly with respect to one another. 1612:

Therefore, mimicking a human's physiological responses in an in vitro model needs to be made more affordable, and needs to offer cellular level control in biological experiments: biomimetic microfluidic systems could replace

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A human-on-a-chip design that allows tuning microfluidic transport to multiple tissues using a single fluidic actuator was designed and evaluated for modelling prediabetic hyperglycaemia using liver and pancreatic tissues.

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interface models. Such a multifunctional microdevice can reproduce key structural, functional and mechanical properties of the human alveolar-capillary interface (i.e., the fundamental functional unit of the living lung).

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Fernández-Moreira V, Song B, Sivagnanam V, Chauvin AS, Vandevyver CD, Gijs M, et al. (January 2010). "Bioconjugated lanthanide luminescent helicates as multilabels for lab-on-a-chip detection of cancer biomarkers".

456:(ECM)-coated membrane lined by the gut epithelial cells: Caco-2, which has been used extensively as the intestinal barrier. Caco-2 cells are cultured under spontaneous differentiation of its parental cell, a human colon 6429:

Edington, Collin D.; Chen, Wen Li Kelly; Geishecker, Emily; Kassis, Timothy; Soenksen, Luis R.; Bhushan, Brij M.; Freake, Duncan; Kirschner, Jared; Maass, Christian; Tsamandouras, Nikolaos; Valdez, Jorge (2018-03-14).

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scenarios, which allows the assessment of drug candidates and other therapeutic approaches. Scalability of this method is also attractive to researchers, as the reusable mold approach ensures a low-cost of production.

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reagents costs, less waste), increasing portability of the devices, increasing process control (due to quicker thermo-chemical reactions) and decreasing fabrication costs. Additionally, microfluidic flow is entirely

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Zhou Q, Patel D, Kwa T, Haque A, Matharu Z, Stybayeva G, et al. (December 2015). "Liver injury-on-a-chip: microfluidic co-cultures with integrated biosensors for monitoring liver cell signaling during injury".

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Dongeun Huh from Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard describes their fabrication of a system containing two closely apposed microchannels separated by a thin (10 μm) porous flexible

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The design and fabrication process of this particular microfluidic device entails first covering the edges of a glass surface with tape (or any protective film) such as to contour the substrate's desired shape. A

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Maoz BM, Herland A, Henry OY, Leineweber WD, Yadid M, Doyle J, et al. (June 2017). "Organs-on-Chips with combined multi-electrode array and transepithelial electrical resistance measurement capabilities".

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Zhang, Jianbo; Huang, Yu-Ja; Yoon, Jun Young; Kemmitt, John; Wright, Charles; Schneider, Kirsten; Sphabmixay, Pierre; Hernandez-Gordillo, Victor; Holcomb, Steven J.; Bhushan, Brij; Rohatgi, Gar (January 2021).

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Zhang, Jianbo; Huang, Yuja; Trapecar, Martin; Wright, Charles; Schneider, Kirsten; Kemmit, John; Hernandez-Gordillo, Victor; Griffith, Linda; Alm, Eric; Trumper, David; Yoon, Jun Young; Breault, David (2024).

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is the variability of cell-culture scaffolding, or the base substance in which to culture cells, that is used in skin-on-chip devices. In the human body, this substance is known as the extracellular matrix.

585:(valued at approximately 10%), significantly increases the rate of nanoparticle translocation across the porous membrane, when compared to a static version of this device, and to a Transwell culture system. 3967:

Marsano A, Conficconi C, Lemme M, Occhetta P, Gaudiello E, Votta E, et al. (February 2016). "Beating heart on a chip: a novel microfluidic platform to generate functional 3D cardiac microtissues".

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Park J, Lee BK, Jeong GS, Hyun JK, Lee CJ, Lee SH (January 2015). "Three-dimensional brain-on-a-chip with an interstitial level of flow and its application as an in vitro model of Alzheimer's disease".

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Lu S, Cuzzucoli F, Jiang J, Liang LG, Wang Y, Kong M, et al. (November 2018). "Development of a biomimetic liver tumor-on-a-chip model based on decellularized liver matrix for toxicity testing".

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group from MIT. A complex multi-organ-on-a-chip was developed to have 4, 7, or 10 organs interconnected through fluidic control. The system is able to maintain the function of these organs for weeks.

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as it recapitulated the injuries at both cellular and tissue levels. Injuries include but not limited to: inhabitation of mucus production, promotion of villus blunting, and distortion of microvilli.

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that involve liver functions. Liver-on-a-chip devices provide a good model to help researchers work on dysfunction and pathogenesis of the liver with relatively low cost. Researchers use primary rat

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Chen MB, Srigunapalan S, Wheeler AR, Simmons CA (July 2013). "A 3D microfluidic platform incorporating methacrylated gelatin hydrogels to study physiological cardiovascular cell-cell interactions".

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An organ-based microfluidic platform has been developed as a lab-on-a-chip onto which a fragile blood vessel can be fixed, allowing for determinants of resistance artery malfunctions to be studied.

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technology is revolutionizing this space and opening new possibilities for building patient specific heart and cardiovascular systems. The confluence of high resolution 3D printing, patient derived

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at the far end of the loading channel. This causes the transport of the artery towards its dedicated position. This is done with closed fixation and superfusion in/outlet lines. After stopping the

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There are a few other applications on liver-on-a-chip. Lu et al. developed a liver tumor-on-a-chip model. The decellularized liver matrix (DLM)-gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA)-based biomimetic liver

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over the cover slip and curing. Muscular thin films (MTF) enable cardiac muscle monolayers to be engineered on a thin flexible substrate of PDMS. In order to properly seed the 2D cell culture, a

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Each part of the device has its unique design, generally consisting of two microfabricated layers separated by a membrane. The only inlet to the microfluidic device is designed for the entering

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research is striving to bring transportability, wearability and perhaps implantation capability to the devices through innovative disciplines: microfluidics, miniaturization and nanotechnology.

722:"brick wall" pattern on the PDMS surface. Once the ventricular myocytes were seeded on the functionalized substrate, the fibronectin pattern oriented them to generate an anisotropic monolayer. 1634:

as simulating multi-organ metabolic interactions. Multi compartment micro fluidic-based devices, particularly those that are physical representations of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (

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Hermanns MI, Fuchs S, Bock M, Wenzel K, Mayer E, Kehe K, et al. (April 2009). "Primary human coculture model of alveolo-capillary unit to study mechanisms of injury to peripheral lung".

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human organ and disease model technologies: pre-competitive non-profit, organ-on-chip research consortium, based in the Netherlands, aims for open access dissemination of research and data.

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of the loop of Henle. Likewise, the loop of Henle requires a number of different cell types because each cell type has distinct transport properties and characteristics. These include the

1511:, swelling due to extracellular fluid accumulation, a common response to infection or injury and an essential step for cellular repair. It was demonstrated that pre-application of Dex, a 1492:

the primary route into the subcutaneous layer for topical creams and other substances applied to the surface of the skin, a feature that more recent studies have often not accounted for.

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is then applied. After its dissolution, the protective film is peeled away, resulting in a self-standing body of PNIPA. The final steps involve the spin coating of protective surface of

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Nalayanda DD, Puleo C, Fulton WB, Sharpe LM, Wang TH, Abdullah F (October 2009). "An open-access microfluidic model for lung-specific functional studies at an air-liquid interface".

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Queval A, Ghattamaneni NR, Perrault CM, Gill R, Mirzaei M, McKinney RA, Juncker D (February 2010). "Chamber and microfluidic probe for microperfusion of organotypic brain slices".

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Zhang C, Zhao Z, Abdul Rahim NA, van Noort D, Yu H (November 2009). "Towards a human-on-chip: culturing multiple cell types on a chip with compartmentalized microenvironments".

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porous membrane and subsequently, the entire alveolar-capillary interface. The pressure-driven dynamic motion behind the stretching of the membrane, also described as a cyclic

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microchannel diameters were assessed for successful promotion of cell cultures, and it was observed that diameters of 150-400 μm were the most successful. Furthermore,

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Cheng W, Klauke N, Sedgwick H, Smith GL, Cooper JM (November 2006). "Metabolic monitoring of the electrically stimulated single heart cell within a microfluidic platform".

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In order to fully validate the biological accuracy of a device, its whole-organ responses must be evaluated. In this instance, researchers inflicted injuries to the cells:

1114: 1284: 1191:'s "productivity crisis". Zaher Nahle subsequently outlined 12 "reasons why micro-physiological systems (MPS) like organ-chips are better at modeling human diseases". 438:

measurements of permeability in these models are limited due to the limited perfusion and complex, poorly defined geometry of the newly formed microvascular network.

2940:

Kim HJ, Huh D, Hamilton G, Ingber DE (June 2012). "Human gut-on-a-chip inhabited by microbial flora that experiences intestinal peristalsis-like motions and flow".

636:

Additionally, researchers believe the potential value of this lung-on-a-chip system will aid in toxicology applications. By investigating the pulmonary response to

1085:

the membrane. For example, the large majority of passive transport of water occurs in the proximal tubule and the descending thin limb, or the active transport of

4436: 1226:-on-a-chip proved to be a suitable design for further anti-tumor studies. Zhou et al. analyzed alcohol injures on the hepatocytes and the signaling and recovery. 418:

conditions is essential for the translation of therapies and treatments. Additionally, brain-on-a-chip devices have been used for medical diagnostics, such as in

397:. Microfluidic probes have been used to deliver dyes with high regional precision, making way for localized microperfusion in drug applications. Microfluidic BBB 644:

system. Nevertheless, published studies admit that responses of a lung-on-a-chip do not yet fully reproduce the responses of native alveolar epithelial cells.

197:

subsequent microphysiometry aim to address these constraints by modeling more sophisticated physiological responses under accurately simulated conditions via

1409:

and his co-workers developed a model to study viral hemorrhagic syndrome, which involves virus induced vascular integrity loss. The model was used to study

2111:

Huang Y, Williams JC, Johnson SM (June 2012). "Brain slice on a chip: opportunities and challenges of applying microfluidic technology to intact tissues".

598:: Pulmonary inflammatory responses entail a multistep strategy, but alongside an increased production of epithelial cells and an early response release of 6228:

Viravaidya K, Shuler ML (2004). "Incorporation of 3T3-L1 cells to mimic bioaccumulation in a microscale cell culture analog device for toxicity studies".

5919:

Song HJ, Lim HY, Chun W, Choi KC, Sung JH, Sung GY (December 2017). "Fabrication of a pumpless, microfluidic skin chip from different collagen sources".

6497:"Does animal experimentation inform human healthcare? Observations from a systematic review of international animal experiments on fluid resuscitation" 5149:

Lutolf MP, Hubbell JA (January 2005). "Synthetic biomaterials as instructive extracellular microenvironments for morphogenesis in tissue engineering".

4312: 2841:

Sung JH, Shuler ML (August 2009). "Prevention of air bubble formation in a microfluidic perfusion cell culture system using a microscale bubble trap".

4875:

Technical Digest. IEEE International MEMS 99 Conference. Twelfth IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (Cat. No.99CH36291)

6309:"Bioengineered Pancreas–Liver Crosstalk in a Microfluidic Coculture Chip Identifies Human Metabolic Response Signatures in Prediabetic Hyperglycemia" 1026:

and a tubular component. Researchers at MIT claim to have designed a bioartificial device that replicates the function of the nephron's glomerulus,

4100:

Parsa H, Wang BZ, Vunjak-Novakovic G (September 2017). "A microfluidic platform for the high-throughput study of pathological cardiac hypertrophy".

4726:

Kane BJ, Zinner MJ, Yarmush ML, Toner M (July 2006). "Liver-specific functional studies in a microfluidic array of primary mammalian hepatocytes".

373:

transport barrier due to thickness. As thicker slices retain more native tissue architecture, this allows brain-on-a-chip devices to achieve more "

5984:"Organ-On-Chip Platforms: Skin Diseases Modeling using Combined Tissue Engineering and Microfluidic Technologies (Adv. Healthcare Mater. 19/2016)" 572:

of the epithelium, but also allows for pressure differences to exist between the middle and side channels. During normal inspiration in a human's

1449:(ECM) is composed primarily of collagen, and various collagen-based scaffolding has been tested in SoC models. Collagen tends to detach from the 5876:

Lee S, Jin SP, Kim YK, Sung GY, Chung JH, Sung JH (June 2017). "Construction of 3D multicellular microfluidic chip for an in vitro skin model".

5982:

Mohammadi MH, Heidary Araghi B, Beydaghi V, Geraili A, Moradi F, Jafari P, Janmaleki M, Valente KP, Akbari M, Sanati-Nezhad A (October 2016).

5820:"Skin-on-a-Chip: Transepithelial Electrical Resistance and Extracellular Acidification Measurements through an Automated Air-Liquid Interface" 5652:

Junaid A, Tang H, van Reeuwijk A, Abouleila Y, Wuelfroth P, van Duinen V, Stam W, van Zonneveld AJ, Hankemeier T, Mashaghi A (January 2020).

4186:"Heart-on-a-Chip Model with Integrated Extra- and Intracellular Bioelectronics for Monitoring Cardiac Electrophysiology under Acute Hypoxia" 3823:

Kujala VJ, Pasqualini FS, Goss JA, Nawroth JC, Parker KK (May 2016). "Laminar ventricular myocardium on a microelectrode array-based chip".

414:

more accurately than with traditional 2D and 3D cell culture techniques. The ability to model these diseases in a way that is indicative of

1353:

spatiotemporal influences found within the microenvironment, whereas myography protocols have, by virtue of their design, only established

1279:

Cardiovascular diseases are often caused by changes in structure and function of small blood vessels. For instance, self-reported rates of

5194:"Facile bench-top fabrication of enclosed circular microchannels provides 3D confined structure for growth of prostate epithelial cells" 1345:

concepts currently believe that subtle changes to this microenvironment have pronounced effects on arterial tone and can severely alter

393:(BBB), a significant hurdle for drugs to overcome when treating the brain, allowing for drug efficacy across this barrier to be studied 2975:

Kim HJ, Ingber DE (September 2013). "Gut-on-a-Chip microenvironment induces human intestinal cells to undergo villus differentiation".

1145:. In addition, because of its multi-functions, the liver is prone to many diseases, and liver diseases have become a global challenge. 628:

were detected in the alveolar compartment, meaning they had transmigrated from the vascular microchannel where the porous membrane had

46: 5492:

Senn T, Esquivel JP, Lörgen M, Sabaté N, Löchel B (October 2010). "Replica molding for multilevel micro-/nanostructure replication".

4890: 4481:

Weinberg E, Kaazempur-Mofrad M, Borenstein J (June 2008). "Concept and computational design for a bioartificial nephron-on-a-chip".

4465: 3010:

Shim KY, Lee D, Han J, Nguyen NT, Park S, Sung JH (June 2017). "Microfluidic gut-on-a-chip with three-dimensional villi structure".

2650: 71: 4774:"Liver sinusoid on a chip: Long-term layered co-culture of primary rat hepatocytes and endothelial cells in microfluidic platforms" 568:

The compartmentalization of the channels facilitates not only the flow of air as a fluid which delivers cells and nutrients to the

1262:

The objective of these constructions is to facilitate the collection of prostatic fluid, along with gauging cellular reactions to

725:

After the cutting of the thin films into two rows with rectangular teeth, and subsequent placement of the whole device in a bath,

3071:"Primary Human Colonic Mucosal Barrier Crosstalk with Super Oxygen-Sensitive Faecalibacterium prausnitzii in Continuous Culture" 2633:

MacNearney D, Qasaimeh MA, Juncker D (2018-01-26). "Microfluidic Probe for Neural Organotypic Brain Tissue and Cell Perfusion".

364:

studies. Organotypic brain slices can be extracted and cultured from multiple animal species (e.g. rats), but also from humans.

4524:

Mu X, Zheng W, Xiao L, Zhang W, Jiang X (April 2013). "Engineering a 3D vascular network in hydrogel for mimicking a nephron".

4282:

Jang KJ, Suh KY (January 2010). "A multi-layer microfluidic device for efficient culture and analysis of renal tubular cells".

1210:. A single-channel is made first. Hepatocytes and endothelial cells are then planted on the device and are separated by a thin 963: 652:

Past efforts to replicate in vivo cardiac tissue environments have proven to be challenging due to difficulties when mimicking

389:

multiform (the most common form of human brain cancer). These screening approaches have been combined with the modeling of the

4379:

Ronco C, Davenport A, Gura V (2011). "The future of the artificial kidney: moving towards wearable and miniaturized devices".

3126:

Choe A, Ha SK, Choi I, Choi N, Sung JH (March 2017). "Microfluidic Gut-liver chip for reproducing the first pass metabolism".

4773: 1642:

administration. Mathematical models can be highly accurate when all parameters involved are known. Models that combine PK or

1346: 1321:

drug concentrations. The multiple inputs from a microenvironment cause a wide range of mechanical or chemical stimuli on the

1055: 987: 918: 3332:"An immune-competent human gut microphysiological system enables inflammation-modulation by Faecalibacterium prausnitzii" 4243:"The future of personalized cardiovascular medicine demands 3D and 4D printing, stem cells, and artificial intelligence" 930: 482: 6579: 5445:"Live-cell phenotypic-biomarker microfluidic assay for the risk stratification of cancer patients via machine learning" 1089:

largely occurs in the proximal tubule and the thick ascending limb. The device's design requirements would require the

6647: 1137:, and it is related to glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, certain protein and hormone synthesis, and 707: 527:

Schematic drawing of a lung-on-a-chip. The membrane in the middle can be stretched by vacuum in the two side chambers.

1646:

models with PD models can predict the time-dependent pharmacological effects of a drug. We can nowadays predict with

1583:

will potentially be able to measure direct effects of one organ's reaction on another. For instance, the delivery of

1488:, the tough outer layer of the epidermis, which is the main barrier to penetration of the surface layer of the skin. 869: 460:, that represent the model of protective and absorptive properties of the gut. The microchannels are fabricated from 1329:(ECs) that line the vessel's outer and luminal walls, respectively. Endothelial cells are responsible for releasing 1291:-based devices could potentially help in the assessment of a patient's microvascular status in a clinical setting ( 1263: 1027: 959: 845: 820: 784: 770: 501: 294: 198: 6544:

van de Stolpe A, den Toonder J (September 2013). "Workshop meeting report Organs-on-Chips: human disease models".

1592:. "Anything that requires dynamic control rather than just static control is a challenge", says Takayama from the 751: 476: 2254:"A dense poly(ethylene glycol) coating improves penetration of large polymeric nanoparticles within brain tissue" 1686: 1654: 1551:

In particular, an integrated cell culture analog (μCCA) was developed and included lung cells, drug-metabolizing

1544: 1528: 1247: 1173: 334: 306:

mimic whole living organs' biological activities, dynamic mechanical properties and biochemical functionalities.

6193:

Luni C, Serena E, Elvassore N (February 2014). "Human-on-chip for therapy development and fundamental science".

5949:

Sriram G, Alberti M, Dancik Y, Wu B, Wu R, Feng Z, Ramasamy S, Bigliardi PL, Bigliardi-Qi M, Wang Z (May 2018).

2762:

Yi Y, Park J, Lim J, Lee CJ, Lee SH (December 2015). "Central Nervous System and its Disease Models on a Chip".

2551:"Recreating blood-brain barrier physiology and structure on chip: A novel neurovascular microfluidic bioreactor" 1349:. The engineers behind this design believe that a specific strength lies in its ability to control and simulate 1239:

developments have enabled the creation of microfluidic systems that offer the benefit of adjustable topography,

5251:

Debnath J, Brugge JS (September 2005). "Modelling glandular epithelial cancers in three-dimensional cultures".

1580: 994:

is posed to make significant strides towards truly personalized heart modelling and ultimately, patient care.

835: 1302:

vessels (arterioles and small arteries with diameters varying between 30 μm and 300 μm) include the

390: 3379:

Jalili-Firoozinezhad S, Prantil-Baun R, Jiang A, Potla R, Mammoto T, Weaver JC, et al. (February 2018).

2205:"Brain slices as models for neurodegenerative disease and screening platforms to identify novel therapeutics" 6637: 4320: 2501:"BBB on chip: microfluidic platform to mechanically and biochemically modulate blood-brain barrier function" 1188: 1119: 991: 947: 582: 577: 541: 2301:

Stoppini L, Buchs PA, Muller D (April 1991). "A simple method for organotypic cultures of nervous tissue".

6642: 6632: 5078: 1593: 1203:

and steady-state protein proves the viability of this device for use in high-throughput toxicity studies.

1106: 943: 910: 407: 403: 112: 5529:"Trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in the United States, 1988-2000" 4914:

Domansky, Karel; Inman, Walker; Serdy, James; Dash, Ajit; Lim, Matthew H. M.; Griffith, Linda G. (2010).

3381:"Modeling radiation injury-induced cell death and countermeasure drug responses in a human Gut-on-a-Chip" 6107:"Skin and hair on-a-chip: in vitro skin models versus ex vivo tissue maintenance with dynamic perfusion" 6067:

Ramadan Q, Ting FC (May 2016). "In vitro micro-physiological immune-competent model of the human skin".

1391: 1303: 1292: 875: 734: 715: 276:

3D cell-culture models exceed 2D culture systems by promoting higher levels of cell differentiation and

265: 261: 249: 641: 6144:

Ahn J, Yoon MJ, Hong SH, Cha H, Lee D, Koo HS, Ko JE, Lee J, Oh S, Jeon NL, Kang YJ (September 2021).

4336:

Cruz D, Bellomo R, Kellum JA, de Cal M, Ronco C (April 2008). "The future of extracorporeal support".

3860:"Ensembles of engineered cardiac tissues for physiological and pharmacological study: heart on a chip" 3691:"Ensembles of engineered cardiac tissues for physiological and pharmacological study: heart on a chip" 2499:

Griep LM, Wolbers F, de Wagenaar B, ter Braak PM, Weksler BB, Romero IA, et al. (February 2013).

1466:

continuous media flow. This improved differentiation and growth is thought to be in part a product of

754:) occurring in the human body better. Hence, they are considered promising models for studies such as 430:) in brain-on-a-chip devices has some drawbacks. Although PDMS is cheap, malleable, and transparent, 6443: 6385: 5774: 5665: 5205: 4197: 4016: 3909:"Mussel-inspired 3D fiber scaffolds for heart-on-a-chip toxicity studies of engineered nanomaterials" 3484: 3285: 2807: 2406: 1719: 1462: 1446: 1162: 1067: 898: 859: 791: 711: 672: 657: 562: 461: 453: 427: 281: 253: 3172:

Beaurivage C, Naumovska E, Chang YX, Elstak ED, Nicolas A, Wouters H, et al. (November 2019).

1322: 1299: 1090: 1063: 1023: 922: 621: 489: 447: 1129:

Potential financial impact of improved preclinical testing with liver-chips according to one study

620:

was used to demonstrate how the system can even mimic the innate cellular response to a bacterial

6411: 6328: 6253: 5901: 5509: 5276: 5174: 4896: 4801: 4701: 4506: 4430: 4361: 4223: 3561: 3518: 3453: 3151: 3045: 2913: 2866: 2531: 2326: 2084: 1890: 1798: 1743: 1589: 1386:

are connected to the chip and maintain physiological temperatures at the artery inspection area.

1362: 1341:

is defined as the degree of constriction inside a blood vessel relative to its maximum diameter.

914: 624:. The bacteria were introduced onto the apical surface of the alveolar epithelium. Within hours, 545: 411: 100: 1908:

Tang H, Abouleila Y, Si L, Ortega-Prieto AM, Mummery CL, Ingber DE, Mashaghi A (November 2020).

1478:

due to fluid flow, which may also improve nutrient supply to cells not directly adjacent to the

1141:. Within these functions, its detoxification response is essential for new drug development and 917:, maturation, and viability compared to the unstimulated control. The contraction rate of human 5573:

Günther A, Yasotharan S, Vagaon A, Lochovsky C, Pinto S, Yang J, et al. (September 2010).

2500: 2346:"Culturing thick brain slices: an interstitial 3D microperfusion system for enhanced viability" 6561: 6526: 6477: 6459: 6403: 6354: 6336: 6288: 6245: 6210: 6175: 6126: 6084: 6049: 5951:"Full-thickness human skin-on-chip with enhanced epidermal morphogenesis and barrier function" 5893: 5851: 5800: 5740: 5691: 5604: 5550: 5474: 5425: 5376: 5325: 5268: 5233: 5166: 5131: 5043: 5007: 4953: 4935: 4886: 4851: 4793: 4743: 4693: 4658: 4623: 4605: 4584:"Performance assessment and economic analysis of a human Liver-Chip for predictive toxicology" 4541: 4498: 4461: 4396: 4353: 4299: 4264: 4215: 4166: 4117: 4082: 4042: 3985: 3938: 3889: 3840: 3805: 3769: 3720: 3668: 3632: 3597: 3553: 3510: 3445: 3410: 3361: 3311: 3254: 3205: 3174:"Development of a Gut-On-A-Chip Model for High Throughput Disease Modeling and Drug Discovery" 3143: 3108: 3090: 3037: 2992: 2957: 2905: 2858: 2823: 2779: 2744: 2708: 2690: 2670: 2646: 2615: 2580: 2523: 2481: 2432: 2375: 2318: 2283: 2234: 2182: 2128: 2076: 2032: 2012: 1993: 1939: 1855: 1837: 1790: 1782: 1735: 1471: 1326: 1252: 1216: 1207: 894: 883: 688: 494: 6432:"Interconnected Microphysiological Systems for Quantitative Biology and Pharmacology Studies" 6105:

Ataç B, Wagner I, Horland R, Lauster R, Marx U, Tonevitsky AG, et al. (September 2013).

2549:

Brown JA, Pensabene V, Markov DA, Allwardt V, Neely MD, Shi M, et al. (September 2015).

1625:

provide a cell culture environment close to the in vivo situation to reproduce more reliably

1413:

virus disease and to study anti-Ebola drugs. In 2021, the approach has been adapted to model

452:

The human gut-on-a-chip contains two microchannels that are separated by the flexible porous

6553: 6516: 6508: 6467: 6451: 6393: 6344: 6320: 6280: 6237: 6202: 6165: 6157: 6118: 6076: 6039: 6031: 5995: 5962: 5928: 5885: 5841: 5831: 5790: 5782: 5730: 5722: 5681: 5673: 5594: 5586: 5540: 5501: 5464: 5456: 5415: 5407: 5366: 5356: 5345:"Disruption of prostate epithelial differentiation pathways and prostate cancer development" 5315: 5307: 5296:"Review of Prostate Anatomy and Embryology and the Etiology of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia" 5260: 5223: 5213: 5158: 5121: 5113: 5035: 4997: 4987: 4943: 4927: 4878: 4841: 4833: 4785: 4735: 4685: 4650: 4613: 4595: 4533: 4490: 4388: 4345: 4291: 4254: 4205: 4156: 4148: 4109: 4074: 4032: 4024: 3977: 3928: 3920: 3879: 3871: 3832: 3797: 3759: 3751: 3710: 3702: 3660: 3624: 3589: 3545: 3500: 3492: 3437: 3400: 3392: 3351: 3343: 3301: 3293: 3272:

Beaurivage C, Kanapeckaite A, Loomans C, Erdmann KS, Stallen J, Janssen RA (December 2020).

3244: 3236: 3195: 3185: 3135: 3098: 3082: 3027: 3019: 2984: 2949: 2897: 2850: 2815: 2771: 2736: 2698: 2682: 2638: 2607: 2570: 2562: 2515: 2471: 2463: 2422: 2414: 2365: 2357: 2310: 2273: 2265: 2252:

Nance EA, Woodworth GF, Sailor KA, Shih TY, Xu Q, Swaminathan G, et al. (August 2012).

2224: 2216: 2172: 2164: 2120: 2068: 2024: 1983: 1975: 1929: 1921: 1882: 1845: 1829: 1774: 1727: 1671: 1406: 1365:

to the outer walls, the drug-facing side constricted much more than the drug opposing side.

1330: 1177: 1071: 971: 951: 614: 469: 320: 298: 277: 202: 128: 5443:

Manak MS, Varsanik JS, Hogan BJ, Whitfield MJ, Su WR, Joshi N, et al. (October 2018).

5102:"Prostate organogenesis: tissue induction, hormonal regulation and cell type specification" 4772:

Kang YB, Sodunke TR, Lamontagne J, Cirillo J, Rajiv C, Bouchard MJ, Noh M (December 2015).

1618: 1560: 1484: 1395: 1318: 1256: 1153: 1074: 1015: 1011: 741: 217: 213: 209: 104: 5505: 4392: 1818:"Human organs-on-chips for disease modelling, drug development and personalized medicine" 6447: 6389: 5778: 5669: 5209: 4201: 4020: 3488: 3356: 3289: 2811: 2410: 1723: 1706:

Zhang, Boyang; Korolj, Anastasia; Lai, Benjamin Fook Lun; Radisic, Milica (2018-08-01).

103:(chip) that simulates the activities, mechanics and physiological response of an entire 6521: 6496: 6472: 6431: 6349: 6308: 6170: 6145: 6044: 6019: 5846: 5819: 5795: 5762: 5735: 5710: 5686: 5653: 5599: 5574: 5469: 5444: 5420: 5395: 5371: 5344: 5320: 5295: 5228: 5193: 5126: 5101: 5002: 4975: 4948: 4618: 4583: 4161: 4136: 4037: 4004: 3933: 3908: 3907:

Ahn S, Ardoña HA, Lind JU, Eweje F, Kim SL, Gonzalez GM, et al. (September 2018).

3884: 3859: 3764: 3755: 3739: 3715: 3690: 3505: 3472: 3405: 3380: 3306: 3273: 3249: 3224: 3200: 3173: 3103: 2703: 2575: 2550: 2476: 2451: 2450:

van der Helm MW, van der Meer AD, Eijkel JC, van den Berg A, Segerink LI (2016-01-02).

2427: 2394: 2370: 2345: 2278: 2253: 2229: 2204: 2177: 2168: 2152: 2028: 1988: 1963: 1934: 1909: 1850: 1817: 1614: 1597: 1383: 1379: 1142: 1138: 664: 569: 537: 532: 505: 465: 457: 142: 5192:

Dolega ME, Wagh J, Gerbaud S, Kermarrec F, Alcaraz JP, Martin DK, et al. (2014).

3740:"Biohybrid thin films for measuring contractility in engineered cardiovascular muscle" 660:

responses. Such features would greatly increase the accuracy of in vitro experiments.

6626: 6415: 5513: 5062: 4419: 4417:

Maton A, Hopkins J, McLaughlin CM, Johnson S, Warner MQ, LaHart D, Wright JD (1993).

4227: 4003:

Mathur A, Loskill P, Shao K, Huebsch N, Hong S, Marcus SG, et al. (March 2015).

2535: 2314: 1894: 1479: 1475: 1450: 1358: 1350: 1338: 1314: 1184: 1149: 1059: 1031: 978: 939: 913:

cardiac tissues (μECTs) stimulated by this design show improved synchronous beating,

902: 872: 865: 848: 798: 653: 637: 558: 330: 257: 229: 120: 6257: 6106: 5905: 5280: 4805: 4705: 4510: 4452: 4005:"Human iPSC-based cardiac microphysiological system for drug screening applications" 3565: 3522: 3457: 3155: 3049: 2870: 2330: 1747: 1078: 280:

organization. 3D culture systems are more successful because the flexibility of the

5178: 4900: 4365: 2361: 1676: 1467: 1280: 1240: 926: 879: 852: 809: 737: 629: 594: 386: 378: 369: 345: 326: 234: 174: 138: 124: 108: 96: 93: 2917: 2775: 2467: 2088: 1802: 6612:

EU H2020 Project (ORCHID) grant agreement No 766884, Organ-on-Chip in development

6206: 5967: 5950: 5218: 5064:

Development of a Microfluidic Model of a Human Prostate Gland for Cancer Research

4349: 4210: 4185: 3471:

Huh D, Matthews BD, Mammoto A, Montoya-Zavala M, Hsin HY, Ingber DE (June 2010).

2269: 434:

and small molecules can be absorbed by it and later leech at uncontrolled rates.

1584: 1569: 1524: 1504: 1433:

of skin diseases and inflammation, and "creating noninvasive automated cellular

1414: 1405:

Vessel-on-chips have been applied to study many disease processes. For example,

1354: 1334: 983: 936: 891: 862: 842: 831: 828: 817: 805: 802: 788: 781: 777: 774: 766: 763: 719: 692: 685: 625: 302: 290: 246: 150: 17: 6455: 5932: 5677: 4992: 4882: 4600: 4494: 4259: 4242: 3593: 3347: 3297: 3086: 2220: 1833: 1707: 1373:

channel, to replicate the process of nutritive delivery of arterial blood to a

523: 6035: 5889: 5763:"Skin-on-a-chip model simulating inflammation, edema and drug-based treatment" 5460: 5311: 4870: 4135:

Kong M, Lee J, Yazdi IK, Miri AK, Lin YD, Seo J, et al. (February 2019).

3924: 3549: 3441: 3396: 3274:"Development of a human primary gut-on-a-chip to model inflammatory processes" 3240: 3139: 3023: 2901: 2854: 2642: 2519: 1979: 1925: 1886: 1731: 1564: 1454: 1425: 1417:

and to show the therapeutic effects of peptide FX-06 for Lassa virus disease.

1342: 1267: 1195: 1157: 1134: 755: 726: 668: 382: 286: 238: 182: 6512: 6463: 6340: 6332: 6161: 4939: 4609: 4268: 4184:

Liu H, Bolonduro OA, Hu N, Ju J, Rao AA, Duffy BM, et al. (April 2020).

3331: 3094: 3070: 2694: 2686: 1841: 1786: 1739: 5396:"Delayed versus immediate surgical intervention and prostate cancer outcome" 5361: 4641:

Elias H, Bengelsdorf H (1952). "The structure of the liver of vertebrates".

3496: 1556: 1532: 1496: 1430: 1374: 1370: 955: 730:

for quantification of stress, electrophysiology and cellular architecture."

703: 695: 603: 599: 573: 549: 419: 190: 6565: 6530: 6481: 6407: 6358: 6324: 6292: 6249: 6214: 6179: 6130: 6088: 6053: 6000: 5983: 5897: 5855: 5804: 5744: 5695: 5608: 5554: 5545: 5528: 5478: 5429: 5380: 5329: 5272: 5237: 5170: 5135: 5047: 5011: 4957: 4855: 4797: 4747: 4697: 4662: 4627: 4545: 4502: 4400: 4357: 4303: 4219: 4170: 4152: 4137:"Cardiac Fibrotic Remodeling on a Chip with Dynamic Mechanical Stimulation" 4121: 4086: 4046: 3989: 3942: 3893: 3844: 3809: 3773: 3724: 3672: 3636: 3601: 3557: 3514: 3449: 3414: 3365: 3315: 3258: 3209: 3147: 3112: 3041: 2996: 2961: 2909: 2862: 2827: 2783: 2748: 2712: 2619: 2584: 2527: 2485: 2436: 2379: 2287: 2238: 2186: 2132: 2080: 2036: 1997: 1943: 1859: 1794: 1515:

cream with anti-inflammatory properties, reduced this swelling in the SoC.

1219:(HBV) replication test shows its potential to study hepatotropic viruses. 511:

The chip was used to model human radiation-induced injury to the intestine

5411: 2322: 1194:

One design from Kane et al. cocultures primary rat hepatocytes and 3T3-J2

5836: 5575:"A microfluidic platform for probing small artery structure and function" 4976:"A proof-of-concept study poised to remodel the drug development process" 3190: 1438: 1313:

The artery microenvironment is characterized by surrounding temperature,

1211: 1180: 1043: 1006: 967: 887: 824: 813: 617: 512: 368:

of nutrients and dissolved gases. Because microfluidic systems introduce

339: 242: 170: 133: 116: 5761:

Wufuer M, Lee G, Hur W, Jeon B, Kim BJ, Choi TH, Lee S (November 2016).

3032: 2452:"Microfluidic organ-on-chip technology for blood-brain barrier research" 6557: 6122: 6080: 6020:"Characterization of microfluidic human epidermal keratinocyte culture" 5117: 5039: 4846: 4837: 4537: 4113: 4078: 3981: 3875: 3836: 3801: 3706: 2988: 2953: 2740: 2124: 1681: 1512: 1206:

Another design from Kang et al. cocultures primary rat hepatocytes and

1169: 839: 746: 431: 6241: 6146:"Three-dimensional microengineered vascularised endometrium-on-a-chip" 5786: 5726: 4789: 4739: 4689: 4654: 4028: 2566: 2418: 1762: 1298:

Conventional methods used to examine intrinsic properties of isolated

1022:

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and is composed of a

293:), spatiotemporal gradients of chemicals, and the mechanically active 6284: 5590: 4931: 4915: 4295: 3664: 3628: 2819: 2611: 2072: 1778: 1500: 1458: 1255:

endured throughout this experimentation, despite the introduction of

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Bhatia SN, Ingber DE (August 2014). "Microfluidic organs-on-chips".

1873:

Wiest, J (January 2022). "Systems engineering of microphysiometry".

216:. An example is the liver chip platform that has enabled studies of 208:

The development of organ chips has enabled the study of the complex

5394:

Warlick C, Trock BJ, Landis P, Epstein JI, Carter HB (March 2006).

4676:

Williams R (September 2006). "Global challenges in liver disease".

6606: 1596:. This challenge has been partially tackled by tissue engineering 1552: 1508: 1434: 1410: 1223: 1124: 1113: 1105: 1047: 1038: 1002: 795: 522: 166: 158: 45:

may be in need of reorganization to comply with Knowledge (XXG)'s

4871:"Re-configurable fluid circuits by PDMS elastomer micromachining" 2635:

Open-Space Microfluidics: Concepts, Implementations, Applications

1283:

suggest that the rate is increasing, says a 2003 report from the

1243:, as well as an ease of observation via conventional microscopy. 663:

Microfluidics has already contributed to in vitro experiments on

1647: 1643: 1635: 1399: 1288: 1200: 1172:

researchers assessed advantages of using liver-chips predicting

1086: 759: 186: 154: 131:

in an organ-specific context. By acting as a more sophisticated

6616: 2669:

Zidarič, Tanja; Gradišnik, Lidija; Velnar, Tomaž (2022-04-01).

1152:

techniques to simulate the hepatic system by imitating complex

1118:

Proposed positioning of the Liver-Chip within a typical pharma

29: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4570: 3858:

Grosberg A, Alford PW, McCain ML, Parker KK (December 2011).

3689:

Grosberg A, Alford PW, McCain ML, Parker KK (December 2011).

1266:. Additionally, prostate-on-a-chip enables the recreation of 868:

heart-on-a-chip design is measured to generate 10% to 15% of

2671:"Astrocytes and human artificial blood-brain barrier models" 1543:

Researchers are working towards building a multi-channel 3D

6611: 5079:"Key Statistics for Prostate Cancer: Prostate Cancer Facts" 2344:

Rambani K, Vukasinovic J, Glezer A, Potter SM (June 2009).

4916:"Perfused multiwell plate for 3D liver tissue engineering" 2637:. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. pp. 139–154. 1495:

One study developed a SoC consisting of three layers, the

667:, which generate the electrical impulses that control the 6018:

O'Neill AT, Monteiro-Riviere NA, Walker GM (March 2008).

3738:

Alford PW, Feinberg AW, Sheehy SP, Parker KK (May 2010).

1579:

With more extensive development of these kinds of chips,

762:. Based on the study of Chen et al., the interactions of 4241:

Bax, Monique; Thorpe, Jordan; Romanov, Valentin (2023).

925:(hiPSC-CM) is observed to accelerate with 100-fold less 1828:(8). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 467–491. 942:

heart-on-a-chips have also facilitated the research of

348:

to 3D tissues in the form of organotypic brain slices.

53: 1461:-based dermal matrix, which did not contract. Greater 602:, the interface should undergo an increased number of 3473:"Reconstituting organ-level lung functions on a chip" 1176:

which could reduce the high costs and time needed in

6495:

Roberts I, Kwan I, Evans P, Haig S (February 2002).

1453:

backbone during culturing due to the contraction of

958:

level of the mechanically stimulated μECTs, such as

816:

with uniform pores, and a bottom channel containing

325:

Brain-on-a-chip devices create an interface between

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It constitutes the subject matter of significant 4451: 4418: 929:, a heart block treatment, when having electrical 333:by: 1) improving culture viability; 2) supporting 141:, they provide the potential as an alternative to 6580:"FluoSphera - BIO International Convention | BIO" 5818:Alexander FA, Eggert S, Wiest J (February 2018). 337:; 3) modeling organ-level physiology and disease 272:Transitioning from 3D cell-culture models to OOCs 27:Nanotechnology simulation of human organ function 1285:National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 5921:Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 1962:Huh D, Hamilton GA, Ingber DE (December 2011). 1651:parameter values for the molecule of interest. 1507:layer, separated by porous membranes, to study 1361:through only one of the two channels providing 966:(TGF-β) for the latter. 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The 5639:Human Anatomy & Physiology 5506:10.1088/0960-1317/20/12/129804 4311:Laura Howes (26 August 2009). 2362:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.03.016 2258:Science Translational Medicine 1763:"Microfluidic organs-on-chips" 1347:peripheral vascular resistance 1337:factors, thus modifying tone. 1133:The liver is a major organ of 607:mentioned biological response. 1: 5988:Advanced Healthcare Materials 5449:Nature Biomedical Engineering 4141:Advanced Healthcare Materials 2776:10.1016/j.tibtech.2015.09.007 2468:10.1080/21688370.2016.1142493 1187:, sometimes described as the 919:induced pluripotent stem cell 834:are verified to restrain the 260:, subcellular propagation of 6207:10.1016/j.copbio.2013.08.015 5968:10.1016/j.mattod.2017.11.002 5219:10.1371/journal.pone.0099416 4559:Eaton DC, Pooler JP (2009). 4350:10.1097/CCM.0b013e318168e4f6 4211:10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c00076 3336:npj Biofilms and Microbiomes 2315:10.1016/0165-0270(91)90128-m 2270:10.1126/scitranslmed.3003594 1248:University of Grenoble Alpes 964:transforming growth factor-β 483:Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron 471:Faecalibacterium prausnitzii 115:research, more precisely in 3229:Seminars in Immunopathology 2890:Cell Biology and Toxicology 878:. The device consists of a 127:has permitted the study of 6664: 6456:10.1038/s41598-018-22749-0 5933:10.1016/j.jiec.2017.07.034 5678:10.1016/j.isci.2019.100765 5637:Marieb N, Hoehn K (2006). 4993:10.3389/fmedt.2022.1053588 4883:10.1109/MEMSYS.1999.746817 4601:10.1038/s43856-022-00209-1 4495:10.1177/039139880803100606 4260:10.3389/fsens.2023.1294721 3594:10.1016/j.ejcb.2005.11.003 3348:10.1038/s41522-024-00501-z 3298:10.1038/s41598-020-78359-2 3087:10.1016/j.medj.2020.07.001 2221:10.2174/157015907780077105 1834:10.1038/s41576-022-00466-9 1264:microenvironmental changes 1028:proximal convoluted tubule 960:atrial natriuretic peptide 530: 502:inflammatory bowel disease 500:Even though the cause for 445: 318: 6036:10.1007/s10616-008-9149-9 5890:10.1007/s10544-017-0156-5 5461:10.1038/s41551-018-0285-z 5312:10.1016/j.ucl.2016.04.012 5081:. American Cancer Society 4561:Vander's Renal Physiology 3925:10.1007/s00216-018-1106-7 3550:10.1007/s00441-008-0750-1 3442:10.1007/s10544-009-9325-5 3397:10.1038/s41419-018-0304-8 3241:10.1007/s00281-014-0454-4 3140:10.1007/s10544-016-0143-2 3024:10.1007/s10544-017-0179-y 2902:10.1007/s10565-005-0085-6 2855:10.1007/s10544-009-9286-8 2643:10.1002/9783527696789.ch8 2520:10.1007/s10544-012-9699-7 2209:Current Neuropharmacology 2151:Humpel C (October 2015). 1980:10.1016/j.tcb.2011.09.005 1926:10.1016/j.tim.2020.06.005 1887:10.1016/j.ooc.2022.100016 1732:10.1038/s41578-018-0034-7 1687:Precision cut lung slices 1655:Microfluidic cell culture 1545:microfluidic cell culture 1174:drug-induced liver injury 1110:Schematic of a liver-chip 962:(ANP) for the former and 335:high-throughput screening 92:) is a multi-channel 3-D 6513:10.1136/bmj.324.7335.474 4421:Human Biology and Health 3538:Cell and Tissue Research 3385:Cell Death & Disease 2687:10.17305/bjbms.2021.6943 1712:Nature Reviews Materials 1604:Replacing animal testing 1581:pharmaceutical companies 1056:countercurrent mechanism 5878:Biomedical Microdevices 5362:10.3389/fonc.2013.00273 4588:Communications Medicine 3497:10.1126/science.1188302 3430:Biomedical Microdevices 3128:Biomedical Microdevices 3012:Biomedical Microdevices 2843:Biomedical Microdevices 2764:Trends in Biotechnology 2508:Biomedical Microdevices 2011:Moyer MW (March 2011). 1822:Nature Reviews Genetics 1319:luminal & abluminal 1241:gas and liquid exchange 1189:pharmaceutical industry 1081:collecting duct cells. 992:artificial intelligence 542:physiological relevance 6372:Baker M (March 2011). 6325:10.1002/advs.202203368 6230:Biotechnology Progress 6162:10.1093/humrep/deab186 6001:10.1002/adhm.201670104 5546:10.1001/jama.290.2.199 5253:Nature Reviews. Cancer 4338:Critical Care Medicine 4153:10.1002/adhm.201801146 1968:Trends in Cell Biology 1594:University of Michigan 1163:poly(dimethylsiloxane) 1130: 1122: 1111: 528: 355:model that replicates 113:biomedical engineering 5349:Frontiers in Oncology 4974:Nahle, Zaher (2022). 1293:personalized medicine 1128: 1117: 1109: 897:to avoid buckling of 716:microcontact printing 578:intrapleural pressure 544:of existing in vitro 526: 319:Further information: 266:embryonic development 262:biochemical signaling 119:. The convergence of 5837:10.3390/genes9020114 5622:Klabunde RE (2011). 5151:Nature Biotechnology 4877:. pp. 222–227. 4728:Analytical Chemistry 4344:(4 Suppl): S243-52. 4247:Frontiers in Sensors 3191:10.3390/ijms20225661 2061:Nature Biotechnology 1767:Nature Biotechnology 1531:and other stages of 1447:extracellular matrix 1120:preclinical workflow 1068:thick ascending limb 787:) are studied via a 658:electrophysiological 462:polydimethylsiloxane 454:Extracellular Matrix 428:polydimethylsiloxane 385:combinatorically in 254:cell differentiation 6448:2018NatSR...8.4530E 6390:2011Natur.471..661B 5779:2016NatSR...637471W 5670:2020iSci...23j0765J 5412:10.1093/jnci/djj072 5210:2014PLoSO...999416D 4202:2020NanoL..20.2585L 4021:2015NatSR...5E8883M 3489:2010Sci...328.1662H 3290:2020NatSR..1021475B 2977:Integrative Biology 2812:2010Ana...135...42F 2411:2016NatSR...625062F 2017:Scientific American 1724:2018NatRM...3..257Z 1323:smooth muscle cells 1315:transmural pressure 1246:Researchers at the 1091:filtration fraction 1064:thin ascending limb 948:cardiac hypertrophy 622:pulmonary infection 611:Pulmonary infection 490:Oral administration 477:Eubacterium rectale 448:Intestine-on-a-chip 408:Parkinson's disease 404:Alzheimer's disease 391:blood-brain barrier 205:and microfluidics. 54:editing the article 6648:Tissue engineering 6558:10.1039/c3lc50248a 6436:Scientific Reports 6123:10.1039/c3lc50227a 6081:10.1039/C6LC00229C 5767:Scientific Reports 5118:10.1242/dev.148270 5040:10.1039/C5LC00874C 4838:10.1039/C8LC00852C 4538:10.1039/c3lc41342j 4313:"Kidney on a chip" 4114:10.1039/C7LC00415J 4079:10.1039/C3LC00051F 4009:Scientific Reports 3982:10.1039/C5LC01356A 3876:10.1039/C1LC20557A 3837:10.1039/C6TB00324A 3802:10.1039/C7LC00412E 3707:10.1039/c1lc20557a 3278:Scientific Reports 2989:10.1039/c3ib40126j 2954:10.1039/c2lc40074j 2741:10.1039/c4lc00962b 2399:Scientific Reports 2125:10.1039/c2lc21142d 1590:circulatory system 1304:pressure myography 1131: 1123: 1112: 886:for caging and an 876:mechanical strains 771:interstitial cells 742:3D cell constructs 676:from single adult 529: 412:multiple sclerosis 101:integrated circuit 6242:10.1021/bp034238d 6156:(10): 2720–2731. 5787:10.1038/srep37471 5727:10.1002/bit.27636 4832:(22): 3379–3392. 4790:10.1002/bit.25659 4740:10.1021/ac051856v 4690:10.1002/hep.21347 4655:10.1159/000140715 4108:(19): 3264–3271. 4029:10.1038/srep08883 3919:(24): 6141–6154. 3831:(20): 3534–3543. 3796:(13): 2294–2302. 2567:10.1063/1.4934713 2419:10.1038/srep25062 2264:(149): 149ra119. 1472:pressure gradient 1327:endothelial cells 1253:cellular adhesion 1217:hepatitis B virus 1208:endothelial cells 901:, along with the 890:compartment with 691:myocardium is an 642:Transwell culture 583:mechanical strain 574:respiratory cycle 495:first pass effect 295:microenvironments 82: 81: 74: 47:layout guidelines 16:(Redirected from 6655: 6594: 6593: 6591: 6590: 6576: 6570: 6569: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6524: 6492: 6486: 6485: 6475: 6426: 6420: 6419: 6401: 6369: 6363: 6362: 6352: 6313:Advanced Science 6303: 6297: 6296: 6285:10.1039/b915147h 6268: 6262: 6261: 6225: 6219: 6218: 6190: 6184: 6183: 6173: 6141: 6135: 6134: 6102: 6093: 6092: 6075:(10): 1899–908. 6064: 6058: 6057: 6047: 6015: 6006: 6005: 6003: 5979: 5973: 5972: 5970: 5946: 5937: 5936: 5916: 5910: 5909: 5873: 5860: 5859: 5849: 5839: 5815: 5809: 5808: 5798: 5758: 5749: 5748: 5738: 5721:(3): 1405–1410. 5706: 5700: 5699: 5689: 5649: 5643: 5642: 5634: 5628: 5627: 5619: 5613: 5612: 5602: 5591:10.1039/c004675b 5570: 5559: 5558: 5548: 5524: 5518: 5517: 5489: 5483: 5482: 5472: 5440: 5434: 5433: 5423: 5391: 5385: 5384: 5374: 5364: 5340: 5334: 5333: 5323: 5291: 5285: 5284: 5248: 5242: 5241: 5231: 5221: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5129: 5112:(8): 1382–1398. 5097: 5091: 5090: 5088: 5086: 5075: 5069: 5068: 5058: 5052: 5051: 5022: 5016: 5015: 5005: 4995: 4971: 4962: 4961: 4951: 4932:10.1039/B913221J 4911: 4905: 4904: 4866: 4860: 4859: 4849: 4821: 4810: 4809: 4769: 4752: 4751: 4723: 4710: 4709: 4673: 4667: 4666: 4638: 4632: 4631: 4621: 4603: 4578: 4565: 4564: 4556: 4550: 4549: 4521: 4515: 4514: 4478: 4472: 4471: 4458:Renal Physiology 4455: 4447: 4441: 4440: 4434: 4426: 4424: 4414: 4405: 4404: 4376: 4370: 4369: 4333: 4327: 4324: 4319:. Archived from 4317:Chemical Biology 4307: 4296:10.1039/b907515a 4279: 4273: 4272: 4262: 4238: 4232: 4231: 4213: 4196:(4): 2585–2593. 4181: 4175: 4174: 4164: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4097: 4091: 4090: 4062: 4051: 4050: 4040: 4000: 3994: 3993: 3964: 3947: 3946: 3936: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3887: 3855: 3849: 3848: 3820: 3814: 3813: 3784: 3778: 3777: 3767: 3735: 3729: 3728: 3718: 3686: 3677: 3676: 3665:10.1039/b315648f 3647: 3641: 3640: 3629:10.1039/b608202e 3612: 3606: 3605: 3576: 3570: 3569: 3533: 3527: 3526: 3508: 3483:(5986): 1662–8. 3468: 3462: 3461: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3408: 3376: 3370: 3369: 3359: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3309: 3269: 3263: 3262: 3252: 3220: 3214: 3213: 3203: 3193: 3169: 3160: 3159: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3106: 3065: 3054: 3053: 3035: 3007: 3001: 3000: 2972: 2966: 2965: 2937: 2922: 2921: 2884: 2875: 2874: 2838: 2832: 2831: 2820:10.1039/b922124g 2794: 2788: 2787: 2759: 2753: 2752: 2723: 2717: 2716: 2706: 2666: 2657: 2656: 2630: 2624: 2623: 2612:10.1039/b916669f 2595: 2589: 2588: 2578: 2555:Biomicrofluidics 2546: 2540: 2539: 2505: 2496: 2490: 2489: 2479: 2447: 2441: 2440: 2430: 2390: 2384: 2383: 2373: 2341: 2335: 2334: 2298: 2292: 2291: 2281: 2249: 2243: 2242: 2232: 2200: 2191: 2190: 2180: 2148: 2137: 2136: 2108: 2093: 2092: 2073:10.1038/nbt.2989 2056: 2041: 2040: 2008: 2002: 2001: 1991: 1959: 1948: 1947: 1937: 1914:Trends Microbiol 1905: 1899: 1898: 1875:Organs-on-a-Chip 1870: 1864: 1863: 1853: 1813: 1807: 1806: 1779:10.1038/nbt.2989 1758: 1752: 1751: 1703: 1672:Microphysiometry 1407:Alireza Mashaghi 1331:vasoconstriction 1178:drug development 972:action potential 946:. For instance, 911:micro-engineered 758:and response to 680:cardiomyocytes. 321:Wetware computer 299:vasoconstriction 297:(e.g. arteries' 214:viral infections 203:microelectronics 199:microfabrication 129:human physiology 77: 70: 66: 63: 57: 38: 37: 30: 21: 18:Vessel-on-a-chip 6663: 6662: 6658: 6657: 6656: 6654: 6653: 6652: 6623: 6622: 6603: 6598: 6597: 6588: 6586: 6578: 6577: 6573: 6552:(18): 3449–70. 6543: 6542: 6538: 6507:(7335): 474–6. 6494: 6493: 6489: 6428: 6427: 6423: 6399:10.1038/471661a 6384:(7340): 661–5. 6371: 6370: 6366: 6319:(34): 2203368. 6305: 6304: 6300: 6279:(22): 3185–92. 6270: 6269: 6265: 6227: 6226: 6222: 6192: 6191: 6187: 6143: 6142: 6138: 6117:(18): 3555–61. 6104: 6103: 6096: 6066: 6065: 6061: 6017: 6016: 6009: 5981: 5980: 5976: 5955:Materials Today 5948: 5947: 5940: 5918: 5917: 5913: 5875: 5874: 5863: 5817: 5816: 5812: 5760: 5759: 5752: 5708: 5707: 5703: 5651: 5650: 5646: 5641:(7th ed.). 5636: 5635: 5631: 5621: 5620: 5616: 5572: 5571: 5562: 5526: 5525: 5521: 5491: 5490: 5486: 5455:(10): 761–772. 5442: 5441: 5437: 5393: 5392: 5388: 5342: 5341: 5337: 5293: 5292: 5288: 5265:10.1038/nrc1695 5250: 5249: 5245: 5191: 5190: 5186: 5163:10.1038/nbt1055 5148: 5147: 5143: 5099: 5098: 5094: 5084: 5082: 5077: 5076: 5072: 5060: 5059: 5055: 5034:(23): 4467–78. 5024: 5023: 5019: 4973: 4972: 4965: 4913: 4912: 4908: 4893: 4868: 4867: 4863: 4823: 4822: 4813: 4784:(12): 2571–82. 4771: 4770: 4755: 4725: 4724: 4713: 4675: 4674: 4670: 4640: 4639: 4635: 4580: 4579: 4568: 4558: 4557: 4553: 4523: 4522: 4518: 4480: 4479: 4475: 4468: 4449: 4448: 4444: 4427: 4416: 4415: 4408: 4378: 4377: 4373: 4335: 4334: 4330: 4310: 4281: 4280: 4276: 4240: 4239: 4235: 4183: 4182: 4178: 4147:(3): e1801146. 4134: 4133: 4129: 4099: 4098: 4094: 4064: 4063: 4054: 4002: 4001: 3997: 3966: 3965: 3950: 3906: 3905: 3901: 3870:(24): 4165–73. 3857: 3856: 3852: 3822: 3821: 3817: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3750:(13): 3613–21. 3737: 3736: 3732: 3701:(24): 4165–73. 3688: 3687: 3680: 3649: 3648: 3644: 3623:(11): 1424–31. 3614: 3613: 3609: 3578: 3577: 3573: 3535: 3534: 3530: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3427: 3426: 3422: 3378: 3377: 3373: 3328: 3327: 3323: 3271: 3270: 3266: 3222: 3221: 3217: 3171: 3170: 3163: 3125: 3124: 3120: 3081:(1): 74–98.e9. 3067: 3066: 3057: 3009: 3008: 3004: 2974: 2973: 2969: 2948:(12): 2165–74. 2939: 2938: 2925: 2886: 2885: 2878: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2796: 2795: 2791: 2770:(12): 762–776. 2761: 2760: 2756: 2725: 2724: 2720: 2668: 2667: 2660: 2653: 2632: 2631: 2627: 2597: 2596: 2592: 2548: 2547: 2543: 2503: 2498: 2497: 2493: 2462:(1): e1142493. 2456:Tissue Barriers 2449: 2448: 2444: 2392: 2391: 2387: 2343: 2342: 2338: 2300: 2299: 2295: 2251: 2250: 2246: 2202: 2201: 2194: 2150: 2149: 2140: 2119:(12): 2103–17. 2110: 2109: 2096: 2058: 2057: 2044: 2010: 2009: 2005: 1961: 1960: 1951: 1920:(11): 934–946. 1907: 1906: 1902: 1872: 1871: 1867: 1815: 1814: 1810: 1760: 1759: 1755: 1705: 1704: 1700: 1695: 1668: 1619:clinical trials 1606: 1561:pharmacokinetic 1541: 1539:Human-on-a-chip 1521: 1485:stratum corneum 1470:created by the 1463:differentiation 1423: 1396:buffer solution 1277: 1257:physical stress 1236: 1154:hepatic lobules 1143:clinical trials 1104: 1075:collecting duct 1060:descending limb 1012:kidney function 1000: 836:differentiation 650: 538:Lung-on-a-chips 535: 521: 450: 444: 323: 317: 312: 274: 245:in response to 226: 218:viral hepatitis 210:pathophysiology 86:organ-on-a-chip 78: 67: 61: 58: 52:Please help by 51: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6661: 6659: 6651: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6638:Nanotechnology 6635: 6625: 6624: 6621: 6620: 6614: 6609: 6602: 6601:External links 6599: 6596: 6595: 6571: 6536: 6487: 6421: 6364: 6298: 6263: 6220: 6185: 6136: 6094: 6059: 6030:(3): 197–207. 6024:Cytotechnology 6007: 5974: 5961:(4): 326–340. 5938: 5911: 5861: 5810: 5750: 5701: 5644: 5629: 5614: 5585:(18): 2341–9. 5560: 5539:(2): 199–206. 5519: 5500:(11): 115012. 5484: 5435: 5386: 5335: 5286: 5243: 5184: 5141: 5092: 5070: 5061:Ivich (2019). 5053: 5017: 4963: 4906: 4891: 4861: 4811: 4753: 4734:(13): 4291–8. 4711: 4668: 4649:(4): 297–337. 4643:Acta Anatomica 4633: 4566: 4563:. McGraw-Hill. 4551: 4516: 4473: 4466: 4442: 4406: 4371: 4328: 4326: 4325: 4323:on 2012-11-12. 4274: 4233: 4176: 4127: 4092: 4073:(13): 2591–8. 4052: 3995: 3976:(3): 599–610. 3948: 3899: 3850: 3815: 3779: 3730: 3678: 3642: 3607: 3571: 3528: 3463: 3420: 3371: 3321: 3264: 3215: 3161: 3118: 3055: 3002: 2983:(9): 1130–40. 2967: 2923: 2876: 2833: 2789: 2754: 2718: 2681:(5): 651–672. 2658: 2651: 2625: 2590: 2541: 2491: 2442: 2385: 2336: 2293: 2244: 2192: 2138: 2094: 2042: 2003: 1974:(12): 745–54. 1949: 1900: 1865: 1808: 1773:(8): 760–772. 1753: 1718:(8): 257–278. 1697: 1696: 1694: 1691: 1690: 1689: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1667: 1664: 1615:animal testing 1605: 1602: 1598:Linda Griffith 1540: 1537: 1520: 1517: 1422: 1419: 1384:thermoresistor 1380:thermoelectric 1276: 1273: 1235: 1232: 1139:detoxification 1103: 1100: 999: 996: 974:observations. 944:heart diseases 923:cardiomyocytes 665:cardiomyocytes 649: 646: 634: 633: 608: 570:apical surface 533:Lung-on-a-chip 531:Main article: 520: 517: 506:gut microbiota 466:gut microbiota 458:adenocarcinoma 446:Main article: 443: 440: 316: 313: 311: 308: 273: 270: 225: 222: 80: 79: 62:September 2023 42: 40: 33: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6660: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6643:Biotechnology 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6633:Microfluidics 6631: 6630: 6628: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6604: 6600: 6585: 6581: 6575: 6572: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6546:Lab on a Chip 6540: 6537: 6532: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6491: 6488: 6483: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6465: 6461: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6425: 6422: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6391: 6387: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6368: 6365: 6360: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6302: 6299: 6294: 6290: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6273:Lab on a Chip 6267: 6264: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6224: 6221: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6189: 6186: 6181: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6147: 6140: 6137: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6111:Lab on a Chip 6108: 6101: 6099: 6095: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6069:Lab on a Chip 6063: 6060: 6055: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6014: 6012: 6008: 6002: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5978: 5975: 5969: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5945: 5943: 5939: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5915: 5912: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5872: 5870: 5868: 5866: 5862: 5857: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5814: 5811: 5806: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5757: 5755: 5751: 5746: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5705: 5702: 5697: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5664:(1): 100765. 5663: 5659: 5655: 5648: 5645: 5640: 5633: 5630: 5625: 5618: 5615: 5610: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5579:Lab on a Chip 5576: 5569: 5567: 5565: 5561: 5556: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5523: 5520: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5488: 5485: 5480: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5439: 5436: 5431: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5390: 5387: 5382: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5339: 5336: 5331: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5306:(3): 279–88. 5305: 5301: 5297: 5290: 5287: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5259:(9): 675–88. 5258: 5254: 5247: 5244: 5239: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5204:(6): e99416. 5203: 5199: 5195: 5188: 5185: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5145: 5142: 5137: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5096: 5093: 5080: 5074: 5071: 5066: 5065: 5057: 5054: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5028:Lab on a Chip 5021: 5018: 5013: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4970: 4968: 4964: 4959: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4910: 4907: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4892:0-7803-5194-0 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4865: 4862: 4857: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4826:Lab on a Chip 4820: 4818: 4816: 4812: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4768: 4766: 4764: 4762: 4760: 4758: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4722: 4720: 4718: 4716: 4712: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4672: 4669: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4637: 4634: 4629: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4571: 4567: 4562: 4555: 4552: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4532:(8): 1612–8. 4531: 4527: 4526:Lab on a Chip 4520: 4517: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4489:(6): 508–14. 4488: 4484: 4477: 4474: 4469: 4467:9780323012423 4463: 4459: 4454: 4446: 4443: 4438: 4432: 4423: 4422: 4413: 4411: 4407: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4375: 4372: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4332: 4329: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4309: 4308: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4284:Lab on a Chip 4278: 4275: 4270: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4237: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4177: 4172: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4131: 4128: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4102:Lab on a Chip 4096: 4093: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4067:Lab on a Chip 4061: 4059: 4057: 4053: 4048: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 3999: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3970:Lab on a Chip 3963: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3955: 3953: 3949: 3944: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3903: 3900: 3895: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3864:Lab on a Chip 3861: 3854: 3851: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3819: 3816: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3790:Lab on a Chip 3783: 3780: 3775: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3734: 3731: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3695:Lab on a Chip 3692: 3685: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3659:(4): 357–62. 3658: 3654: 3653:Lab on a Chip 3646: 3643: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3617:Lab on a Chip 3611: 3608: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3575: 3572: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3544:(1): 91–105. 3543: 3539: 3532: 3529: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3467: 3464: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3436:(5): 1081–9. 3435: 3431: 3424: 3421: 3416: 3412: 3407: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3375: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3325: 3322: 3317: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3219: 3216: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3197: 3192: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3168: 3166: 3162: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3119: 3114: 3110: 3105: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3064: 3062: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3006: 3003: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2971: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2942:Lab on a Chip 2936: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2883: 2881: 2877: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2834: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2793: 2790: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2758: 2755: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2735:(1): 141–50. 2734: 2730: 2729:Lab on a Chip 2722: 2719: 2714: 2710: 2705: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2665: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2652:9783527696789 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2629: 2626: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2606:(3): 326–34. 2605: 2601: 2600:Lab on a Chip 2594: 2591: 2586: 2582: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2561:(5): 054124. 2560: 2556: 2552: 2545: 2542: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2514:(1): 145–50. 2513: 2509: 2502: 2495: 2492: 2487: 2483: 2478: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2446: 2443: 2438: 2434: 2429: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2389: 2386: 2381: 2377: 2372: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2356:(2): 243–54. 2355: 2351: 2347: 2340: 2337: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2309:(2): 173–82. 2308: 2304: 2297: 2294: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2248: 2245: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2199: 2197: 2193: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2139: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2113:Lab on a Chip 2107: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2099: 2095: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2067:(8): 760–72. 2066: 2062: 2055: 2053: 2051: 2049: 2047: 2043: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2007: 2004: 1999: 1995: 1990: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1904: 1901: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1869: 1866: 1861: 1857: 1852: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1812: 1809: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1757: 1754: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1702: 1699: 1692: 1688: 1685: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1669: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1649: 1645: 1639: 1637: 1631: 1628: 1622: 1620: 1616: 1610: 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995: 993: 989: 985: 980: 975: 973: 970:is gained by 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 938: 934: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 915:proliferation 912: 908: 904: 903:cardiac cycle 900: 896: 893: 889: 885: 882:with hanging 881: 877: 874: 871: 867: 864: 861: 856: 854: 850: 849:myofibroblast 847: 844: 841: 837: 833: 830: 826: 822: 819: 815: 811: 807: 804: 800: 797: 793: 790: 786: 783: 779: 776: 772: 768: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 748: 743: 739: 738:cell cultures 736: 731: 728: 723: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 699: 697: 694: 690: 687: 681: 679: 674: 670: 666: 661: 659: 655: 654:contractility 647: 645: 643: 639: 638:nanoparticles 632:the bacteria. 631: 627: 623: 619: 616: 612: 609: 605: 601: 597: 596: 591: 590: 589: 586: 584: 579: 575: 571: 566: 564: 560: 554: 551: 547: 543: 539: 534: 525: 518: 516: 514: 509: 507: 503: 498: 496: 491: 487: 485: 484: 479: 478: 473: 472: 467: 463: 459: 455: 449: 441: 439: 435: 433: 429: 426:use of PDMS ( 423: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 371: 365: 363: 358: 354: 349: 347: 343: 341: 336: 332: 331:microfluidics 328: 322: 314: 309: 307: 304: 300: 296: 292: 289:and vascular 288: 283: 279: 271: 269: 267: 263: 259: 258:axon guidance 255: 251: 248: 244: 240: 236: 231: 230:lab-on-a-chip 223: 221: 219: 215: 211: 206: 204: 200: 194: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 146: 144: 143:animal models 140: 136: 135: 130: 126: 122: 121:labs-on-chips 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 95: 91: 87: 76: 73: 65: 55: 49: 48: 43:This article 41: 32: 31: 19: 6587:. 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Nowadays, 1001: 979:microfluidic 976: 940:microfluidic 935: 927:isoprenaline 880:cell culture 866:microfluidic 857: 853:shear stress 810:shear stress 799:microfluidic 752:cell to cell 745: 732: 724: 700: 682: 662: 651: 635: 630:phagocytized 610: 595:inflammation 592: 587: 567: 555: 536: 510: 499: 488: 481: 475: 470: 451: 436: 424: 415: 398: 394: 387:glioblastoma 379:pitavastatin 374: 370:laminar flow 366: 361: 356: 352: 350: 346:cell culture 338: 327:neuroscience 324: 275: 227: 207: 195: 147: 139:cell culture 132: 125:cell biology 109:organ system 97:cell culture 94:microfluidic 89: 85: 83: 68: 59: 44: 6584:www.bio.org 6442:(1): 4530. 5927:: 375–381. 5106:Development 4847:10397/92937 4387:(1): 9–16. 4015:(1): 8883. 2896:(1): 1–26. 2800:The Analyst 1585:biochemical 1525:endometrium 1519:Endometrium 1505:endothelial 1455:fibroblasts 1415:Lassa fever 1363:superfusion 1355:homogeneous 1335:vasodilator 1325:(SMCs) and 1196:fibroblasts 1168:A study by 1158:hepatocytes 1046:or primary 984:3D printing 892:scaffolding 767:endothelial 720:fibronectin 693:elastomeric 689:ventricular 686:anisotropic 626:neutrophils 303:vasodilator 291:endothelium 247:chemotactic 224:Lab-on-chip 123:(LOCs) and 6627:Categories 6589:2023-09-04 6150:Hum Reprod 5830:(2): 114. 4678:Hepatology 4594:(1): 154. 4381:Nefrologia 3391:(2): 223. 1881:: 100016. 1693:References 1565:biomimetic 1426:Human skin 1343:Pathogenic 1300:resistance 1268:metastasis 1215:result on 1135:metabolism 1077:cells and 1024:glomerulus 1005:cells and 756:toxicology 744:mimic the 727:electrodes 669:heart rate 593:Pulmonary 383:irinotecan 287:epithelium 239:turbulence 237:(i.e., no 193:and more. 6464:2045-2322 6416:205063351 6341:2198-3844 6333:2198-3844 6201:: 45–50. 5884:(2): 22. 5514:137495863 4940:1473-0197 4610:2730-664X 4431:cite book 4269:2673-5067 4228:211476393 3095:2666-6340 3018:(2): 37. 2695:1840-4812 2536:207098493 2163:: 86–98. 2023:(3): 19. 1895:245970804 1842:1471-0056 1787:1087-0156 1740:2058-8437 1557:fat cells 1533:pregnancy 1513:steroidal 1497:epidermis 1431:pathology 1392:flow rate 1375:capillary 1371:perfusion 1185:pipelines 1181:workflows 1079:medullary 968:ischaemia 956:biomarker 921:-derived 888:actuation 706:layer of 704:spin coat 696:thin film 613:: Living 604:leukocyte 600:cytokines 550:capillary 420:biomarker 212:of human 191:cartilage 6566:23645172 6531:11859053 6482:29540740 6408:21455183 6359:36285680 6293:19865724 6258:32137006 6250:15059006 6215:24484880 6180:34363466 6131:23674126 6089:27098052 6054:19002858 5906:24223520 5898:28374277 5856:29466319 5805:27869150 5745:33241859 5696:31887664 5658:iScience 5609:20603685 5555:12851274 5479:30854249 5430:16507832 5381:24199173 5330:27476121 5281:23134870 5273:16148884 5238:24945245 5198:PLOS ONE 5171:15637621 5136:28400434 5085:30 April 5048:26480303 5012:36590153 4958:20024050 4920:Lab Chip 4856:30298144 4806:41351732 4798:25994312 4748:16808435 4706:23924901 4698:16941687 4663:14943381 4628:36473994 4546:23455642 4511:44477687 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1016:dialysis 1007:nephrons 952:fibrosis 907:neonatal 870:uniaxial 858:Another 825:hydrogel 814:membrane 764:valvular 618:bacteria 561:made of 559:membrane 546:alveolar 513:in vitro 432:proteins 399:in vitro 395:in vitro 353:in vitro 342:/ex vivo 340:in vitro 243:motility 171:prostate 149:include 134:in vitro 117:bio-MEMS 6522:1122396 6473:5852083 6444:Bibcode 6386:Bibcode 6350:9731722 6171:8450871 6045:2553630 5847:5852610 5796:5116589 5775:Bibcode 5736:7983903 5687:6941864 5666:Bibcode 5600:3753293 5470:6407716 5421:3477641 5372:3813973 5355:: 273. 5321:4968575 5229:4063722 5206:Bibcode 5179:6706970 5127:5399670 5003:9800902 4949:3972823 4901:2723088 4619:9727064 4366:7896249 4198:Bibcode 4162:6546425 4038:4352848 4017:Bibcode 3934:6230313 3885:4038963 3765:2838170 3716:4038963 3506:8335790 3485:Bibcode 3477:Science 3406:5833800 3307:7722760 3286:Bibcode 3250:4281375 3201:6888156 3104:7839961 2808:Bibcode 2704:9519155 2576:4627929 2477:4836466 2428:4858657 2407:Bibcode 2371:2742628 2323:1715499 2279:3718558 2230:2435340 2178:4699268 1989:4386065 1935:7357975 1851:8951665 1720:Bibcode 1682:Emulate 1627:in vivo 1170:Emulate 1070:cells, 1066:cells, 1062:cells, 747:in vivo 416:in vivo 375:in vivo 362:in vivo 357:in vivo 252:, stem 250:stimuli 235:laminar 6564: 6529: 6519: 6480: 6470: 6462: 6414: 6406: 6378:Nature 6357: 6347: 6339: 6331: 6291: 6256: 6248: 6213: 6178: 6168: 6129: 6087: 6052: 6042: 5904: 5896: 5854: 5844: 5803: 5793: 5743: 5733: 5694: 5684: 5607: 5597: 5553: 5512: 5477: 5467: 5428: 5418: 5379: 5369: 5328: 5318: 5279: 5271: 5236: 5226: 5177: 5169: 5134: 5124: 5046: 5010: 5000: 4956: 4946: 4938: 4899: 4889: 4854: 4804: 4796: 4746: 4704: 4696: 4661: 4626: 4616: 4608: 4544: 4509: 4501: 4464: 4399: 4364: 4356: 4302: 4267: 4226: 4218: 4169: 4159: 4120: 4085: 4045: 4035: 3988: 3941: 3931: 3892: 3882: 3843: 3808: 3772: 3762: 3723: 3713: 3671: 3635: 3600: 3564: 3556: 3521: 3513: 3503: 3456: 3448: 3413: 3403: 3364: 3354: 3314: 3304: 3257: 3247: 3208: 3198: 3154: 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