427:, the process by which beneficial heritable traits arise in populations over an extended period of time. The existence of vestigial traits can be attributed to changes in the environment and behavior patterns of the organism in question. Through an examination of these various traits, it is clear that evolution had a hard role in the development of organisms. Every anatomical structure or behavior response has origins in which they were, at one time, useful. As time progressed, the ancient common ancestor organisms did as well. Evolving with time, natural selection played a huge role. More advantageous structures were selected, while others were not. With this expansion, some traits were left to the wayside. As the function of the trait is no longer beneficial for survival, the likelihood that future offspring will inherit the "normal" form of it decreases. In some cases, the structure becomes detrimental to the organism (for example the eyes of a mole can become infected). In many cases the structure is of no direct harm, yet all structures require extra
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379:", expressing little doubt that use "strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them; and that such modifications are inherited". In later editions he expanded his thoughts on this, and in the final chapter of the 6th edition concluded that species have been modified "chiefly through the natural selection of numerous successive, slight, favorable variations; aided in an important manner by the inherited effects of the use and disuse of parts".
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868:, much of the process is the same. Product design, like evolution, is iterative; it builds on features and processes that already exist, with limited resources available to make tweaks. To spend resources on completely weeding out a form that serves no purpose (if at the same time it is not an obstruction either) is not economically astute. These vestigial structures differ from the concept of
253:
100:
364:, that a vestigial structure could be useless for its primary function, but still retain secondary anatomical roles: "An organ serving for two purposes, may become rudimentary or utterly aborted for one, even the more important purpose, and remain perfectly efficient for the other.... n organ may become rudimentary for its proper purpose, and be used for a distinct object."
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function of some of these structures have been discovered, while other anatomical vestiges have been unearthed, making the list primarily of interest as a record of the knowledge of human anatomy at the time. Later versions of
Wiedersheim's list were expanded to as many as 180 human "vestigial organs". This is why the zoologist
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Vestigial features may take various forms; for example, they may be patterns of behavior, anatomical structures, or biochemical processes. Like most other physical features, however functional, vestigial features in a given species may successively appear, develop, and persist or disappear at various
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often contain a row of buttons at the bottom of the sleeve. These used to serve a purpose, allowing the sleeve to be split and rolled up. The feature has been lost entirely, though most suits still give the impression that it is possible, complete with fake button holes. There is also an example of
396:
contained a list of 86 human organs that
Wiedersheim described as, "Organs having become wholly or in part functionless, some appearing in the Embryo alone, others present during Life constantly or inconstantly. For the greater part Organs which may be rightly termed Vestigial." Since his time, the
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pressure for the removal of parts that do not contribute to an organism's fitness. A structure that is not harmful will take longer to be 'phased out' than one that is. However, some vestigial structures may persist due to limitations in development, such that complete loss of the structure could
535:
are vestigial; they are remnants of their flying ancestors' wings. These birds go through the effort of developing wings, even though most birds are too large to use the wings successfully. Seeing vestigial wings in birds is also common when they no longer need to fly to escape predators, such as
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does not establish that it is functionless. Furthermore, even if an extant DNA sequence is functionless, it does not follow that it has descended from an ancestral sequence of functional DNA. Logically such DNA would not be vestigial in the sense of being the vestige of a functional structure. In
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of the middle ages. With the introduction of gunpowder weapons, armour increasingly lost its usefulness on the battlefield. At the same time, military men were keen to retain the status it provided them. The result: a breastplate that "shrank" away over time, but never disappeared completely.
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than homologous non-vestigial parts. Although structures commonly regarded "vestigial" may have lost some or all of the functional roles that they had played in ancestral organisms, such structures may retain lesser functions or may have become adapted to new roles in extant populations.
151:
is useful in referring to many genetically determined features, either morphological, behavioral, or physiological; in any such context, however, it need not follow that a vestigial feature must be completely useless. A classic example at the level of gross anatomy is the human
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would be definitely vestigial, as they appear to have no major extant function; however, function is a matter of degree, so judgments on what is a "major" function are arbitrary; the emu does seem to use its wings as organs of balance in running. Similarly, the
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on each side of the cloaca. These spurs are sometimes used in copulation, but are not essential, as no colubrid snake (the vast majority of species) possesses these remnants. Furthermore, in most snakes, the left lung is greatly reduced or absent.
227:
Vestigial characters range from detrimental through neutral to favorable in terms of selection. Some may be of some limited utility to an organism but still degenerate over time if they do not confer a significant enough advantage in terms of
71:
more urgently when its function becomes definitively harmful, but if the lack of the feature provides no advantage, and its presence provides no disadvantage, the feature may not be phased out by natural selection and persist across species.
183:
have lost their protein-coding ability or are otherwise no longer expressed in the cell. Whether they have any extant function or not, they have lost their former function and in that sense, they do fit the definition of vestigiality.
214:
would be exaptational in the sense of serving a substantial new purpose (underwater locomotion), but might still be regarded as vestigial in the sense of having lost the function of flight. In contrast Darwin argued that the wings of
768:
There are also vestigial molecular structures in humans, which are no longer in use but may indicate common ancestry with other species. One example of this is a gene that is functional in most other mammals and which produces
282:, on the vestigial eyes of moles, calling them "stunted in development" due to the fact that moles can scarcely see. However, only in recent centuries have anatomical vestiges become a subject of serious study. In 1798,
636:, this has been interpreted as an evolutionary sequence leading to the loss of clamps. Coincidentally, other attachment structures (lateral flaps, transverse striations) have evolved in protomicrocotylids. Therefore,
872:
in that a skeuomorph is a design feature that has been specifically implemented as a reference to the past, enabling users to acclimatise quicker. A vestigial feature does not exist intentionally, or even usefully.
719:, or tailbone, though a vestige of the tail of some primate ancestors, is functional as an anchor for certain pelvic muscles including: the levator ani muscle and the largest gluteal muscle, the gluteus maximus.
455:
The vestigial versions of the structure can be compared to the original version of the structure in other species in order to determine the homology of a vestigial structure. Homologous structures indicate
318:, which lives underground like the mole, and is apparently exposed to daylight even less than the mole, has altogether lost the use of sight: so that it shows nothing more than vestiges of this organ."
210:. Both may occur together in the same example, depending on the relevant point of view. In exaptation, a structure originally used for one purpose is modified for a new one. For example, the wings of
147:
Vestigiality, biologically speaking, refers to organisms retaining organs that have seemingly lost their original function. Vestigial organs are common evolutionary knowledge. In addition, the term
1508:
56:, of genetically determined structures or attributes that have lost some or all of the ancestral function in a given species. Assessment of the vestigiality must generally rely on comparison with
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kingdom, and an almost endless list could be given. Darwin said that "it would be impossible to name one of the higher animals in which some part or other is not in a rudimentary condition."
1351:
900:: a small decorative piece of metal suspended around the neck with a chain. The gorget serves no protection to the wearer, yet there exists an unbroken lineage from the gorget to the full
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not occur without major alterations of the organism's developmental pattern, and such alterations would likely produce numerous negative side-effects. The toes of many animals such as
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over, the top half of buttons and their accompanying buttonholes disappeared, save for a single hole at the top; it has since found a new use as a place to fasten pins, badges, or
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that "There are, according to
Wiedersheim, no less than 180 vestigial structures in the human body, sufficient to make of a man a veritable walking museum of antiquities."
60:
features in related species. The emergence of vestigiality occurs by normal evolutionary processes, typically by loss of function of a feature that is no longer subject to
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1903:
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Saraga-Babić M, Lehtonen E, Svajger A, Wartiovaara J (1994). "Morphological and immunohistochemical characteristics of axial structures in the transitory human tail".
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would have been fermented in preparation for absorption in the colon. Analogous organs in other animals similar to humans continue to perform similar functions. The
294:, and She always leaves vestiges of an organ, even though it is completely superfluous, if that organ plays an important role in the other species of the same family.
174:", but it is a difficult matter to demonstrate that a particular sequence in a particular region of a given genome is truly nonfunctional. The simple fact that it is
1474:
1743:"Cloning and chromosomal mapping of the human nonfunctional gene for L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase, the enzyme for L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis missing in man"
1980:
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are vestigial, as they no longer allow the organism to see, and are remnants of their ancestors' functional eyes. Animals that reproduce without sex (via
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to be found in the business suit: it was previously possible to button a jacket up all the way to the top. As it became the fashion to fold the
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1990:
571:, which independently evolved limblessness, also retain vestiges of the pelvis as well as the pectoral girdle, and have lost their right lung.
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The shift in human diet towards soft and processed food over time caused a reduction in the number of powerful grinding teeth, especially the
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483:. This is because an adaptation is often defined as a trait that has been favored by natural selection. Adaptations, therefore, need not be
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655:, and such vestigiality is usually harmful or counter-adaptive. One of the earliest documented examples was that of vestigial wings in
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836:. Well known examples are the reductions in floral display, leading to smaller and/or paler flowers, in plants that reproduce without
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746:) have lost their original functions (to keep the head from falling) but are still useful for other purposes (facial expression).
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761:; its function in human ancestors was to raise the body's hair, making the ancestor appear larger and scaring off predators. The
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was familiar with the concept of vestigial structures, though the term for them did not yet exist. He listed a number of them in
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Examples of vestigial structures (also called degenerate, atrophied, or rudimentary organs) are the loss of functional wings in
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Vestigial structures have been noticed since ancient times, and the reason for their existence was long speculated upon before
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to structures that are functioning normally in other species. Therefore, vestigial structures can be considered evidence for
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552:) generally lose their sexual traits, such as the ability to locate/recognize the opposite sex and copulation behavior.
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Cytology and evolution: For
Students Taking a First Course in Cell Biology at Undergraduate and Medical Student Level
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The muscles connected to the ears of a human do not develop enough to have the same mobility allowed to many animals.
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uses its wings in displays and temperature control, though they are undoubtedly vestigial as structures for flight.
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452:, are still evident in a vestigial form and may become evident, although rarely, from time to time in individuals.
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has stated that vestigial structures make no sense without evolution, just as spelling and usage of many modern
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711:. The ancestral caecum would have been a large, blind diverticulum in which resistant plant material such as
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198:. Such vestigial structures typically are degenerate, atrophied, or rudimentary, and tend to be much more
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765:(muscle that connects the hair follicle to connective tissue) contracts and creates goosebumps on skin.
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is sometimes called a vestigial structure as it has lost much of its ancestral digestive function.
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in terms of development, maintenance, and weight, and are also a risk in terms of disease (e.g.,
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Snustad, D. Peter. & Simmons, Michael J. Principles of
Genetics. Publisher: Wiley, 2008.
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As a final example, soldiers in ceremonial or parade uniform can sometimes be seen wearing a
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In the foregoing examples the vestigiality is generally the (sometimes incidental) result of
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fish. These clamps are extremely important for the survival of the parasite. In the family
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Whereas useless in this circumstance, these rudiments... have not been eliminated, because
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2555:
2509:
2452:
2401:
2181:
1985:
1509:"Biofilms in the large bowel suggest an apparent function of the human vermiform appendix"
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708:
684:
637:
626:, species have either normal clamps, simplified clamps, or no clamps at all (in the genus
615:
579:
532:
461:
195:
1790:
1194:] to let go of the notion that a well-used and strengthened organ could be inherited"
1063:
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781:. A documented mutation deactivated the gene in an ancestor of the modern infraorder of
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2124:
2062:
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1167:, Cornell, Ithaca, and London, lists only four mentions of the phrase "use and disuse".
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corporateName=National Museum of
Australia; address=Lawson Crescent, Acton Peninsula.
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1328:
The Story of
Evolution in 25 Discoveries: The Evidence and the People who Found It
695:
and related animals, whereas other examples are still highly developed. The human
1390:
3179:
3050:
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2314:
2144:
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2008:
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Many objects in daily use contain vestigial structures. While not the result of
837:
750:
632:). After a comparative study of the relative surface of clamps in more than 100
628:
592:
563:
252:
99:
1690:
Niloufar
Torkamani; Nicholas W Rufaut; Leslie Jones; Rodney D Sinclair (2006).
1532:
1090:
1044:. Mark Pagel, editor in chief, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1131–1133
206:
It is important to avoid confusion of the concept of vestigiality with that of
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2171:
2149:
2102:
2097:
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2013:
1742:
1005:
Steen
Hyldgaard Christensen; Bernard Delahousse; Martin Meganck, eds. (2009).
978:
Steen
Hyldgaard Christensen; Bernard Delahousse; Martin Meganck, eds. (2009).
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882:
869:
829:
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657:
648:
559:
545:
480:
207:
180:
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17:
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1125:
ou exposition des considérations relatives à l'histoire naturelle des animaux
651:. However, there are many examples of vestigiality as the product of drastic
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1692:"Beyond Goosebumps: Does the Arrector Pili Muscle Have a Role in Hair Loss"
1540:
1409:
1234:
392:, a book on human anatomy and its relevance to man's evolutionary history.
1768:
1575:
1104:(1798). "Observations sur l'aile de l'Autruche, par le citoyen Geoffroy",
614:). These parasites usually have a posterior attachment organ with several
562:
have vestigial pelvis remnants, which are externally visible as two small
3077:
2425:
2279:
841:
817:
749:
Humans also bear some vestigial behaviors and reflexes. The formation of
700:
652:
611:
608:
587:
541:
171:
156:, vestigial in the sense of retaining no significant digestive function.
136:
125:
121:
27:
Evolutionary retention of no longer needed structures in living organisms
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2619:
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2462:
2176:
1928:
1827:
1741:
Nishikimi M, Fukuyama R, Minoshima S, Shimizu N, Yagi K (May 6, 1994).
919:
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692:
524:
221:
211:
167:
590:(black) are present in normal clamps but absent in simplified clamps.
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with those organisms that have a functional version of the structure.
67:
when it loses its value in a changing environment. The feature may be
897:
857:
786:
782:
774:
716:
696:
618:, which are sclerotised organs attaching the worm to the gill of the
555:
517:
436:
428:
856:
The uniform of the German Feldgendarmerie during WW2, complete with
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37:
2675:
2484:
2383:
1854:"Why Do Suits Have a Random Buttonhole on the Lapel? We Found Out"
886:
833:
704:
688:
674:
573:
499:
469:
445:
251:
130:
98:
88:
84:
36:
1249:
The World's Most Famous Court Trial: The Tennessee Evolution Case
703:, being reduced to a single chamber receiving the content of the
111:
tip (right) in the mammalian ancestors of humans—here shown in a
30:"Vestige" redirects here. For topics named using its plural, see
2634:
1811:
Knobloch, I. (1951) "Are There Vestigial Structures in Plants?"
1106:
La Decade Egyptienne, Journal Litteraire et D'Economie Politique
877:
272:
provided a widely accepted explanation. In the 4th century BC,
1932:
1364:
Justine JL, Rahmouni C, Gey D, Schoelinck C, Hoberg EP (2013).
1478:
1189:
739:
528:
449:
240:. Vestigiality in its various forms presents many examples of
216:
108:
661:. Many examples in many other contexts have emerged since.
1040:
Muller, G. B. (2002) "Vestigial Organs and Structures". in
1783:"Do Any Vestigial Organs Exist in Humans? - Explainry.com"
302:, named a number of vestigial structures in his 1809 book
1507:
Bollinger, RR; Barbas, AS; Bush, EL; et al. (2007).
1165:
A concordance to Darwin's Origin of Species first edition
816:
Plants also have vestigial parts, including functionless
804:(also known as wisdom teeth), which were highly prone to
1662:
Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function
687:, and includes a variety of characters occurring in the
508:
in the picture indicates the undeveloped hind legs of a
170:
have no known biological function; some of them may be "
691:
species. Many examples of these are vestigial in other
1607:
Dermal and Ocular Toxicology: Fundamentals and Methods
1290:. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates Inc. p. 49.
1147:
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
1060:
The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History
401:
said in a written statement read into evidence in the
264:) has tiny eyes completely covered by a layer of skin.
1423:
Morgan, Thomas Hunt & Bridges, Calvin B. (1916).
1461:
The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
1330:. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 122.
3093:
3018:
2922:
2849:
2805:
2660:
2564:
2381:
2340:
2209:
1999:
276:was one of the earliest writers to comment, in his
159:Similar concepts apply at the molecular level—some
1227:The Structure of Man: an index to his past history
1880:"National Museum of Australia - Military gorgets"
1677:The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
1062:. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. pp.
1187:Penguin Books p.617 "Darwin was loathe [
722:Other structures that are vestigial include the
516:Vestigial characters are present throughout the
1828:Reproductive Biology in Relation to Systematics
1247:Darrow, Clarence and William J. Bryan. (1997).
288:
1664:(3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 286–287.
1944:
1352:On the fate of sexual traits under asexuality
8:
1902:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
600:A case of vestigial organs was described in
1263:"Evolution: Evidence from Living Organisms"
1951:
1937:
1929:
1758:
1717:
1707:
1399:
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866:natural selection through random mutation
742:. Other organic structures (such as the
479:Vestigial traits can still be considered
194:, although many of them are not actually
3185:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1350:CJ van der Kooi & T Schwander 2014.
1288:Science on Trial: The Case for Evolution
1137:
1135:
1133:
1091:"History of Animals" (Book 1, Chapter 9)
851:
52:is the retention, during the process of
970:
1895:
1635:Bhamrah, H.S.; Juneja, Kavita (1998).
1366:"The Monogenean which lost its clamps"
1315:. Boulder: Westview Press. p. 84.
1251:Pub. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. p. 268
699:is vestigial, as often is the case in
487:, as long as they were at some point.
409:Common descent and evolutionary theory
2948:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
1429:. Carnegie Institution of Washington.
468:words can only be explained by their
7:
1475:"Purpose of appendix believed found"
1426:Sex-linked Inheritance in Drosophila
124:of the organism, ranging from early
793:, as a vestigial sequence called a
2353:Evolutionary developmental biology
644:were considered vestigial organs.
373:inheritance of acquired characters
107:(left) is a vestigial form of the
25:
1261:Reeder, Alex (29 December 1997).
1021:Henderson's Dictionary of Biology
844:or obligate clonal reproduction.
683:Human vestigiality is related to
292:Nature never works by rapid jumps
242:evidence for biological evolution
3207:
3198:
3197:
1841:The loss of sex in clonal plants
1589:Foye, Patrick (2014). "Coccyx".
3010:Extended evolutionary synthesis
2199:Gene-centered view of evolution
1843:Evolutionary Ecology 45:501-520
1639:. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.
419:Vestigial structures are often
286:noted on vestigial structures:
3138:Hologenome theory of evolution
3005:History of molecular evolution
2231:Evolutionarily stable strategy
2120:Last universal common ancestor
1513:Journal of Theoretical Biology
785:, and it now remains in their
284:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
1:
3234:Evolutionary biology concepts
2932:Renaissance and Enlightenment
1760:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)36884-9
1568:10.1016/s0940-9602(11)80496-6
1354:Biological Reviews 89:805-819
1163:. Barrett P. H. et al. 1981,
3143:Missing heritability problem
2770:Gamete differentiation/sexes
1660:Saladin, Kenneth S. (2003).
1485:. 2007-10-05. Archived from
1391:10.1371/journal.pone.0079155
1229:. London: Macmillan and Co.
1056:"Senseless signs of history"
726:on the inside corner of the
596:(right) has no clamp at all.
1054:Gould, Stephen Jay (1980).
371:, Darwin briefly mentioned
83:; and the hindlimbs of the
3250:
2775:Life cycles/nuclear phases
2327:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
1533:10.1016/j.jtbi.2007.08.032
1023:. Pearson, Prentice Hall.
984:. Academica. p. 270.
734:); and (as seen at right)
668:
448:, which stand on a single
415:Evidence of common descent
412:
29:
3193:
2273:Parent–offspring conflict
2078:Earliest known life forms
1966:
1817:New Series, Vol. 113: 465
1604:Hobson, David W. (1991).
1326:Prothero, Donald (2020).
1042:Encyclopedia of Evolution
1019:Lawrence, Eleanor (2005)
377:Effects of Use and Disuse
3126:Cultural group selection
2990:The eclipse of Darwinism
2962:On the Origin of Species
2937:Transmutation of species
1709:10.4103/0974-7753.139077
1674:Darwin, Charles. (1872)
930:Evolutionary anachronism
744:occipitofrontalis muscle
369:On the Origin of Species
367:In the first edition of
361:On the Origin of Species
358:. Darwin also noted, in
232:to avoid the effects of
3131:Dual inheritance theory
2970:History of paleontology
771:L-gulonolactone oxidase
2819:Punctuated equilibrium
2140:Non-adaptive radiation
2088:Evolutionary arms race
1610:. CRC Press. pp.
1464:. John Murray: London.
1150:. John Murray: London.
1123:Philosophie zoologique
1118:Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste
1007:Engineering in Context
981:Engineering in Context
861:
680:
597:
540:. The eyes of certain
513:
305:Philosophie Zoologique
296:
265:
144:
143:) in a boa constrictor
116:
46:
3111:Evolutionary medicine
2985:Mendelian inheritance
2693:Biological complexity
2681:Programmed cell death
2373:Phenotypic plasticity
2093:Evolutionary pressure
2083:Evidence of evolution
1981:Timeline of evolution
1313:Philosophy of Biology
1206:The Origin of Species
1102:St. Hilaire, Geoffroy
855:
678:
582:in various genera of
578:Vestigial attachment
577:
503:
413:Further information:
354:in the corner of the
300:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
255:
134:
126:embryonic development
102:
40:
3085:Teleology in biology
2980:Blending inheritance
2358:Genetic assimilation
2221:Artificial selection
1960:Evolutionary biology
1680:John Murray, London.
878:men's business suits
824:, leaf reduction of
732:nictitating membrane
550:asexual reproduction
394:The Structure of Man
389:The Structure of Man
188:Vestigial structures
3148:Molecular evolution
3106:Ecological genetics
2975:Transitional fossil
2765:Sexual reproduction
2605:endomembrane system
2534:pollinator-mediated
2490:dolphins and whales
2268:Parental investment
1924:TalkOrigins Archive
1525:2007JThBi.249..826R
1382:2013PLoSO...879155J
1223:Wiedersheim, Robert
624:Protomicrocotylidae
602:polyopisthocotylean
375:under the heading "
270:Darwinian evolution
238:selective pressures
128:to late adulthood.
113:crab-eating macaque
65:selection pressures
3121:Cultural evolution
2236:Fisher's principle
2165:Handicap principle
2155:Parallel evolution
2019:Adaptive radiation
1793:on 16 October 2018
1311:Sober, E. (1993).
1159:Darwin, 1859, pp.
960:Vestigial response
955:Spandrel (biology)
935:Human vestigiality
862:
840:, for example via
730:(a remnant of the
681:
671:Human vestigiality
649:adaptive evolution
642:protomicrocotylids
598:
584:protomicrocotylids
514:
439:), providing some
384:Robert Wiedersheim
332:muscles of the ear
327:The Descent of Man
279:History of Animals
266:
154:vermiform appendix
145:
120:stages within the
117:
47:
43:vermiform appendix
3221:
3220:
2837:Uniformitarianism
2790:Sex-determination
2295:Sexual dimorphism
2290:Natural selection
2194:Unit of selection
2160:Signalling theory
1839:CG Eckert (2002)
1826:R Ornduff (1969)
1646:978-81-7041-819-1
1621:978-0-8493-8811-8
1445:978-0-470-38825-9
1337:978-0-231-19036-7
1297:978-0-87893-184-2
1073:978-0-393-30023-9
991:978-87-7675-700-7
783:monkeys, and apes
724:plica semilunaris
538:Galapagos Islands
496:Non-human animals
308:. Lamarck noted "
190:are often called
81:vomeronasal organ
79:birds; the human
16:(Redirected from
3241:
3211:
3201:
3200:
3000:Modern synthesis
2760:Multicellularity
2755:Mosaic evolution
2640:auditory ossicle
2322:Social selection
2305:Flowering plants
2300:Sexual selection
1953:
1946:
1939:
1930:
1920:Vestigial organs
1908:
1907:
1901:
1893:
1891:
1890:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1865:
1850:
1844:
1837:
1831:
1830:Taxon 18:121-133
1824:
1818:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1789:. Archived from
1779:
1773:
1772:
1762:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1721:
1711:
1696:Int J Trichology
1687:
1681:
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1045:
1038:
1032:
1017:
1011:
1010:
1002:
996:
995:
975:
950:Recessive refuge
945:Plantaris muscle
812:Plants and fungi
789:, including the
753:in humans under
533:flightless birds
330:, including the
192:vestigial organs
69:selected against
21:
3249:
3248:
3244:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3217:
3189:
3116:Group selection
3089:
3014:
2918:
2845:
2807:Tempo and modes
2801:
2656:
2560:
2377:
2336:
2212:
2205:
2182:Species complex
1995:
1986:History of life
1962:
1957:
1916:
1911:
1894:
1888:
1886:
1877:
1876:
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1863:
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1780:
1776:
1753:(18): 13685–8.
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1456:Darwin, Charles
1454:
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1221:
1220:
1216:
1209:, 6th Edn., p.
1202:
1198:
1175:
1171:
1158:
1154:
1142:Darwin, Charles
1140:
1131:
1116:
1112:
1100:
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999:
992:
977:
976:
972:
968:
911:
902:suits of armour
850:
814:
757:is a vestigial
685:human evolution
673:
667:
498:
493:
462:Douglas Futuyma
458:common ancestry
417:
411:
298:His colleague,
250:
105:Darwin-tubercle
97:
77:island-dwelling
41:In humans, the
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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3007:
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2997:
2992:
2987:
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2977:
2972:
2967:
2966:
2965:
2956:Charles Darwin
2953:
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2939:
2934:
2928:
2926:
2920:
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2917:
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2906:
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2896:
2894:Non-ecological
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2647:
2645:nervous system
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2167:
2157:
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2147:
2145:Origin of life
2142:
2137:
2132:
2130:Microevolution
2127:
2125:Macroevolution
2122:
2117:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2063:Common descent
2060:
2059:
2058:
2048:
2043:
2041:Baldwin effect
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2016:
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1914:External links
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1909:
1884:www.nma.gov.au
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1519:(4): 826–831.
1499:
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1376:(11): e79155.
1356:
1343:
1336:
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1303:
1296:
1284:Futuyma, D. J.
1275:
1253:
1240:
1214:
1203:Darwin (1872)
1196:
1169:
1152:
1129:
1110:
1108:1 (pp. 46–51).
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907:
849:
846:
813:
810:
777:that can make
669:Main article:
666:
663:
569:Amphisbaenians
497:
494:
492:
489:
410:
407:
399:Horatio Newman
352:semilunar fold
322:Charles Darwin
262:Spalax typhlus
258:blind mole rat
249:
246:
96:
93:
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24:
18:Vestigial limb
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3158:Phylogenetics
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3036:Catastrophism
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1787:explainry.com
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3170:Polymorphism
3153:Astrobiology
3101:Biogeography
3056:Saltationism
3046:Orthogenesis
3031:Alternatives
2960:
2946:
2879:Cospeciation
2874:Cladogenesis
2823:Saltationism
2780:Mating types
2703:Color vision
2688:Avian flight
2610:mitochondria
2348:Canalisation
2226:Biodiversity
1971:Introduction
1887:. Retrieved
1883:
1873:
1862:. Retrieved
1860:. 2020-12-30
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1795:. Retrieved
1791:the original
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1702:(3): 88–94.
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1009:. Academica.
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891:boutonnières
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802:third molars
799:
791:human genome
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586:. Accessory
564:pelvic spurs
554:
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510:baleen whale
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403:Scopes Trial
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161:nucleic acid
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149:vestigiality
148:
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118:
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50:Vestigiality
49:
48:
3180:Systematics
3051:Mutationism
2869:Catagenesis
2797:Snake venom
2730:Eusociality
2708:in primates
2698:Cooperation
2626:In animals
2446:butterflies
2419:Cephalopods
2409:Brachiopods
2341:Development
2315:Mate choice
2068:Convergence
2051:Coevolution
2009:Abiogenesis
1858:Gear Patrol
838:outcrossing
751:goose bumps
634:Monogeneans
629:Lethacotyle
605:Monogeneans
593:Lethacotyle
546:salamanders
481:adaptations
181:pseudogenes
3041:Lamarckism
3019:Philosophy
2942:David Hume
2904:Peripatric
2899:Parapatric
2884:Ecological
2864:Anagenesis
2859:Allopatric
2851:Speciation
2815:Gradualism
2740:Metabolism
2600:chromosome
2590:Eukaryotes
2368:Modularity
2285:Population
2211:Population
2172:Speciation
2150:Panspermia
2103:Extinction
2098:Exaptation
2073:Divergence
2046:Cladistics
2034:Reciprocal
2014:Adaptation
1889:2024-03-23
1864:2024-03-23
1493:2008-10-16
1269:2008-10-16
1177:Desmond A.
966:References
925:Exaptation
883:exaptation
830:paraphyses
795:pseudogene
658:Drosophila
531:and other
421:homologous
386:published
350:, and the
208:exaptation
165:eukaryotic
135:Vestigial
122:life cycle
58:homologous
3175:Protocell
3026:Darwinism
2914:Sympatric
2663:processes
2551:Tetrapods
2500:Kangaroos
2426:Dinosaurs
2363:Inversion
2332:Variation
2253:Gene flow
2246:Inclusive
2056:Mutualism
2001:Evolution
1556:Ann. Anat
1181:Moore, J.
1087:Aristotle
826:Equisetum
806:impaction
779:vitamin C
713:cellulose
707:into the
701:omnivores
612:flatworms
609:parasitic
588:sclerites
525:ostriches
474:Old Norse
441:selective
433:infection
425:evolution
382:In 1893,
348:body hair
344:tail bone
274:Aristotle
179:contrast
54:evolution
3228:Category
3203:Category
3078:Vitalism
3073:Theistic
3066:Spandrel
2750:Morality
2745:Monogamy
2620:plastids
2585:Flagella
2541:Reptiles
2522:sea cows
2505:primates
2414:Molluscs
2392:Bacteria
2280:Mutation
2213:genetics
2189:Taxonomy
2135:Mismatch
2115:Homology
2029:Cheating
2024:Altruism
1898:cite web
1797:14 March
1728:25210331
1591:Medscape
1541:17936308
1458:(1871).
1410:24278118
1370:PLOS ONE
1286:(1995).
1265:. Bioweb
1235:7171834M
1225:(1893).
1144:(1859).
1120:(1809).
909:See also
818:stipules
693:primates
653:mutation
542:cavefish
491:Examples
485:adaptive
340:appendix
212:penguins
200:variable
172:junk DNA
137:hindlegs
95:Overview
62:positive
32:Vestiges
3094:Related
2924:History
2785:Meiosis
2720:Empathy
2715:Emotion
2615:nucleus
2556:Viruses
2546:Spiders
2458:Mammals
2441:Insects
2241:Fitness
2177:Species
1976:Outline
1922:at the
1814:Science
1769:8175804
1719:4158628
1576:8059973
1521:Bibcode
1401:3838368
1378:Bibcode
1183:(1991)
1161:134–139
920:Dewclaw
915:Atavism
848:Objects
842:selfing
822:carpels
787:genomes
738:in the
736:muscles
560:pythons
504:Letter
466:English
310:Olivier
248:History
230:fitness
222:ostrich
168:genomes
3213:Portal
2889:Hybrid
2725:Ethics
2567:organs
2529:Plants
2515:lemurs
2510:humans
2495:horses
2485:hyenas
2473:wolves
2468:canids
2402:origin
1767:
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1716:
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1185:Darwin
1179:&
1070:
1027:
988:
898:gorget
858:gorget
775:enzyme
759:reflex
755:stress
717:coccyx
697:caecum
665:Humans
638:clamps
616:clamps
580:clamps
518:animal
446:horses
437:cancer
429:energy
342:, the
338:, the
315:Spalax
196:organs
2676:Death
2671:Aging
2650:brain
2436:Fungi
2397:Birds
2310:Fungi
2108:Event
1991:Index
1064:27–34
887:lapel
834:Fungi
773:, an
709:colon
705:ileum
689:human
470:Latin
141:spurs
89:whale
85:snake
3163:Tree
2635:hair
2575:Cell
2478:dogs
2463:cats
2453:Life
2431:Fish
2384:taxa
1904:link
1799:2022
1765:PMID
1724:PMID
1641:ISBN
1616:ISBN
1572:PMID
1537:PMID
1441:ISBN
1406:PMID
1332:ISBN
1292:ISBN
1068:ISBN
1025:ISBN
986:ISBN
820:and
620:host
558:and
556:Boas
544:and
529:emus
256:The
217:emus
103:The
87:and
2661:Of
2630:eye
2580:DNA
2565:Of
2382:Of
1755:doi
1751:269
1714:PMC
1704:doi
1612:485
1564:doi
1560:176
1529:doi
1517:249
1479:CNN
1396:PMC
1386:doi
1211:421
1190:sic
832:of
740:ear
728:eye
640:in
472:or
450:toe
356:eye
312:'s
109:ear
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1231:OL
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