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densely welded ignimbrites with poorly preserved pumice and lithic fragments. The ignimbrite deposit inside the caldera shows evidence of flow forms and alteration by vapour interactions. Outside of the caldera, the ignimbrite is formed by two different cooling units with distinct characteristics. The lower cooling unit is massive, poorly welded and contains lithics and pumices; the content of these varies at different sites and there are several different types of pumices. The thickness of the lower cooling unit varies between 7 metres (23 ft) to exceeding 110 metres (360 ft), and pre-existent topography has controlled the emplacement of the unit; it crops out mainly in valleys. The upper cooling unit is thicker and covers a larger surface than the lower unit, although part of the latter may be buried beneath the upper cooling unit. The upper cooling unit was emplaced on a flat surface as a uniform deposit with thicknesses ranging from 18 metres (59 ft) in its southern sector to 60 metres (200 ft) north. The upper cooling unit is itself subdivided into a basal and an upper section; the basal section is strongly welded sometimes to the point of being
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43:
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588:-Miocene age predating the formation of the Vilama caldera include the 9.7–9.8 million years old Granada ignimbrite, the 10.25 ± 0.12 million years old Lagunillas ignimbrite, the 9.8 ± 0.7 million years old Ojo de Perico lavas and other volcanic units. Later volcanic activity from other volcanoes in the region led to the emplacement of extraneous volcanic rocks in the Vilama caldera, such as the Bonanza, Cienago and Panizos ignimbrites and the Loromayu lavas. In terms of tectonics, during the
36:
814:
exposed and the shape of the caldera where large parts of the ignimbrite ponded is poorly known, but may range from between 1,200–1,800 cubic kilometres (290–430 cu mi) to 2,100 cubic kilometres (500 cu mi), with most of it being contained within the caldera. Based on such sizes, the caldera-forming eruption is considered to be a
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The Vilama ignimbrite also includes other ignimbrites that were formerly considered to be separate ignimbrites, such as the
Capaderos ignimbrite, Ceja Grande ignimbrite, Tobas Coruto, Tobas Lagunillas 1, Tobas Lagunillas 2, Tobas Lagunillas 3, Tobas Loromayu 1, Tobas Lupi Gera and Toloma ignimbrite.
518:
The volcanic history of the
Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex is poorly known, due to the overlap and burial of older volcanic centres beneath younger ones, difficulties in separating different ignimbrites, the lack of erosion resulting in poor exposure of the units and the challenges of accessing the
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Volcanic activity continued at Vilama after the caldera collapse, driven by a relatively quick recovery of the magmatic system after the formation of the caldera, and resulted in the formation of the resurgent dome. Among the products of this volcanism are the 5–8.1 ± 0.6 million year old northerly
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fragments, whereas the upper section is poorly welded and light brown to pink in colour, with columnar jointing. A transitional area separates the 1–50 metres (3 ft 3 in – 164 ft 1 in) thick upper unit with moderate quantities of lithics and fiamme from the lower unit. The
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Inside the caldera, the Vilama ignimbrite was emplaced as several flow units which are usually 10–20-metre (33–66 ft) thick; some units reach thicknesses of 40–50 metres (130–160 ft). These units together are at least 400–700 metres (1,300–2,300 ft) thick and form a uniform layer of
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The Vilama caldera is the source of the Vilama ignimbrite, which covers a surface of more than 4,000 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi) and was erupted concurrently with the collapse and formation of the caldera. The eruption occurred between 8.4–8.5 million years ago, but with substantial
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The Vilama caldera is between 15–18 kilometres (9.3–11.2 mi) and 35–40 kilometres (22–25 mi) wide. Younger volcanic rocks have almost entirely obscured its margins, with the exception of a 250–400-metre (820–1,310 ft) high escarpment on the western side of the caldera. The caldera
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and petrologic traits, and together they establish an ignimbrite field elongated towards the south and northwest away from the caldera. The outcrops cover an area of 4,000 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi). The total volume of the ignimbrite is difficult to constrain as much of it is not
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The Vilama caldera was originally estimated to have a size of 40 by 65 kilometres (25 mi × 40 mi) but the size was later revised to be between 15–18 kilometres (9.3–11.2 mi) and 35–40 kilometres (22–25 mi) and is almost entirely buried beneath younger volcanoes that have
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of 8 about 8.4–8.5 million years ago. A large amount of the Vilama ignimbrite is inside the caldera depression, while the part outside of the caldera covers a surface area exceeding 4,000 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi). The total volume of the ignimbrite is about 1,200–1,800 cubic
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that is unrelated to Vilama. According to this older theory of caldera history, the
Granada ignimbrite was the first stage of caldera formation, with the second stage generating the Vilama ignimbrite proper. This theory also envisaged two later stages of activity, the first linked to the
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kilometres (290–430 cu mi), possibly as much as 2,100 cubic kilometres (500 cu mi). Another large ignimbrite, the Sifon ignimbrite, may also have been erupted by Vilama, while the
Granada ignimbrite was later attributed to a separate volcano.
853:
Khastor domes and stratovolcano, the 6–8.4 ± 0.6 million year old eastern centres (Cerro Alcoak, Cerro Salle, Bayo dome and the Vilama and Toloma lavas) and the less than 8.4 million years old Mesada Negra lavas on the resurgent dome. The
Vitichi domes are of
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volcanic complex. One nested caldera associated with the
Bonanza ignimbrite was identified as well, the 20-by-40-kilometre (12 mi Ă— 25 mi) Coruto caldera which is situated southwest of the redefined extent of the Vilama caldera.
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roof and subsequent onset of vigorous fountaining of ignimbrites through vents formed in the magma chamber roof; similar eruption conditions have been inferred for other
Altiplano-Puna ignimbrites. The eruption may have taken the form of a
2127:
Salisbury, M. J.; Jicha, B. R.; de Silva, S. L.; Singer, B. S.; Jimenez, N. C.; Ort, M. H. (1 May 2011). "40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of
Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province".
2157:
De Silva, Shanaka; Zandt, George; Trumbull, Robert; Viramonte, José G.; Salas, Guido; Jiménez, Néstor (2006). "Large ignimbrite eruptions and volcano-tectonic depressions in the
Central Andes: a thermomechanical perspective".
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composition, the chemistry and petrography of the ignimbrites varies between separate units and outcrops. It has been inferred that before the eruption the magma was 760–810 °C (1,400–1,490 °F) hot. A mixing between
2195:
Soler, M.M.; Caffe, P.J; Coira, B.L.; Onoe, A.T.; Kay, S. Mahlburg (July 2007). "Geology of the Vilama caldera: A new interpretation of a large-scale explosive event in the
Central Andean plateau during the Upper Miocene".
1940:
Caffe, P.J.; Soler, M.M.; Coira, B.L.; Onoe, A.T.; Cordani, U.G. (June 2008). "The Granada ignimbrite: A compound pyroclastic unit and its relationship with Upper Miocene caldera volcanism in the northern Puna".
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The region has a dry climate with irregular rainfall (300 millimetres per year (12 in/year)), temperatures between 3–6 °C (37–43 °F) and high diurnal temperature variations. Vegetation consists of
519:
remote region. Chronological correlations indicate that volcanic activity commenced 10 million years ago and increased 8 million years ago; the onset of volcanic activity was likely triggered by the entry of
2097:
Kay, Suzanne Mahlburg; Coira, Beatriz L.; Caffe, Pablo J.; Chen, Chang-Hwa (December 2010). "Regional chemical diversity, crustal and mantle sources and evolution of central Andean Puna plateau ignimbrites".
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intrusion. Additionally, it has been proposed that the 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi) Sifon ignimbrite, which was erupted 8.33 ± 0.06 million years ago, may originate in the Vilama caldera.
1875:
Comeau, Matthew J.; Unsworth, Martyn J.; Ticona, Faustino; Sunagua, Mayel (March 2015). "Magnetotelluric images of magma distribution beneath Volcán Uturuncu, Bolivia: Implications for magma dynamics".
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is one of the four volcanic belts along the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone is home to more than a thousand volcanoes, of which 44 were active after glacial times. Many of these are part of the main
805:
two cooling units may have formed under different eruption conditions: High fountains may be the source of the lower cooling unit and lower and less stable fountains that of the upper cooling unit.
358:, the last of which gives the caldera its name. Several younger volcanic centres are found around the caldera and may be located above its margin, such as the Khastor domes and stratovolcano, the
2060:
Francis, P. W.; Hawkesworth, C. J. (1 September 1994). "Late Cenozoic rates of magmatic activity in the Central Andes and their relationships to continental crust formation and thickening".
418:, coinciding with the Vilama depression. Vents were localized on the eastern margin beneath the Cerro Caucani, Cerro SolterĂo, Campanario and Coyaguayma volcanoes, which in turn make up the
218:
which is the tripoint between Argentina, Bolivia and Chile there. The region is largely uninhabited owing to its harsh climate, however several archeological sites have been found and
872:
Originally, the Granada ignimbrite was also considered to be a product of an earlier eruption of the Vilama caldera; later research indicated that it has its own eruptive centre at
809:
The inclusion of these volcanic products into the Vilama ignimbrite was based on the similarity between their characteristics and those of the actual Vilama ignimbrite, including
1819:
Petrinovic, Iván A.; Grosse, Pablo; Guzmán, Silvina; Caffe, Pablo Jorge (2017). "EvoluciĂłn del VolcanĂsmo Cenozoico en la Puna Argentina". In Muruaga, C.M.; Grosse, P. (eds.).
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volcanoes, the Cerros Conventos-Niño-Coyamboy chain, Vitichi and Cerro Bayo domes and the 5,678 metres (18,629 ft) high Vilama stratovolcano. These edifices are mostly
1852:
1736:"Geochronological imaging of an episodically constructed subvolcanic batholith: U-Pb in zircon chronochemistry of the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of the Central Andes"
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volcanics and the Salle and Ceja Grande ignimbrites, while the fourth produced the Bonanza ignimbrite from the Coruto caldera as well as additional volcanoes including
1847:
547:
is viewed as a sign that volcanic activity in the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex is still ongoing. Seismic imaging shows the existence of a partially molten
325:
surrounded by a 400–800-metre (1,300–2,600 ft) deep moat. This moat, which is missing on the eastern side of the caldera, contains several lakes such as
265:
and frequently reach heights of above 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). The Central Volcanic Zone is also the site of a number of large calderas, such as
719:
being typical members. The volcanically dominated terrain is free of vegetation, with most life occurring close to waterbodies (including the grasses
527:
had broken off. Between 8-4 million years ago large scale eruptions occurred, such as these at Cerro Panizos, CoranzulĂ, Vilama, Cerro Guacha and
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and thus resulting in spurious age data. Based on the characteristics of the ignimbrite, the eruption was likely triggered by the failure of the
2234:
2024:
1830:
1791:
1775:
Soler, M.M.; Singer, Silvia; Tomlinson, A.J.; Somoza, Ruben; Raposo, Irene; Matthews, S; Perez de Arce, C; Blanco, N; Vilas, J.F. (2005).
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with sizes reaching about 3–5 millimetres (0.12–0.20 in) of length. Detailed descriptions of the ignimbrite were provided by Soler
995:"¿Mineros quebradeños o altiplánicos?: La circulación de metales y minerales en el extremo noroccidental de Argentina (1280 - 1535 AD)"
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994:
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imaging of the area has identified a low electrical conductivity anomaly beneath the caldera, which may be a solidified magma body.
2008:
Textures, Structures and Processes of Volcanic Successions: Examples from Southern Central Andes (Northwestern Argentina, 22º–28ºS)
35:
91:
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151:
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2259:
1734:
Kern, Jamie M.; de Silva, Shanaka L.; Schmitt, Axel K.; Kaiser, Jason F.; Iriarte, A. Rodrigo; Economos, Rita (August 2016).
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COIRA, B.; CAFFE, P.; RAMÍREZ, A.; CHAYLE, W.; DÍAZ, A.; ROSAS, S.; PÉREZ, A.; PÉREZ, B.; OROZCO, O.; MARTÍNEZ, M. (2004).
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The caldera was at first considered to be 40 by 65 kilometres (25 mi Ă— 40 mi) in width with a centre around
671:
melts has been suggested to be the source of the magma for both Vilama and other Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex systems.
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1996:(in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Instituto de GeologĂa y Recursos Minerales, Servicio GeolĂłgico Minero Argentino. – via
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Ciencias de la Tierra y Recursos Naturales del NOA. Relatorio del XX Congreso Geológico Argentino, San Miguel de Tucumán
84:
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531:. Volcanic activity decreased by the Pleistocene, during which activity occurred within the La Pacana caldera and at
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southwest of Vilama; the Vilama, Coruto and Guacha calderas have been designed the "Eduardo Avaroa caldera complex" (
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638:
and opaque components. These minerals more generally also form the primary mineral phases of the ignimbrite, while
390:
182:
1071:"Redefinición estratigráfica de la ignimbrita pululus (Puna norte): implicancias volcanológicas y metalogenéticas"
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801:
769:
706:
2264:
2225:
Coira, Beatriz; Mahlburg Kay, Suzanne; Caffe, Pablo J. (2008). "Magmatismo NeĂłgeno TardĂo de la Puna norte".
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1972:"Sistema de calderas anidadas del Cenozoico superior: Vilama-Coruto puna ( Argentina) Altiplano (Bolivia)"
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Vilama is the source of the enormous Vilama ignimbrite, which was emplaced during an eruption with a
711:
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southeast of Vilama is actually a section of the Vilama ignimbrite, which was later uplifted by a
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The ignimbrite is often welded and displays joint features. It is rich in crystals but has little
384:
centres that are considered to be the expression of post-collapse volcanism at the Vilama system.
359:
2183:
2085:
2030:
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370:
2044:"La caldera Vilama y el complejo caldérico Eduardo Avaroa, Puna Argentina - Altiplano Boliviano"
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and is one of the largest such ignimbrite provinces in the world. These centres mainly erupted
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grown along the margin of the caldera; volcanic activity on these volcanoes continued into the
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2020:
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centered around the Chile-Bolivia-Argentina tripoint, which was mainly active in the
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View from the Laguna Vilama to the Vilama stratovolcano, showing a typical landscape
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1997:
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959:"AproximaciĂłn a la arqueologĂa de la frontera tripartita Bolivia-Chile-Argentina"
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The pre-caldera terrain at Vilama is formed by various sedimentary and volcanic
524:
494:
446:. Volcanism associated with subduction in the region has been ongoing since the
432:
171:
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214:. The volcano straddles the border between Bolivia and Argentina, northeast of
2016:
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174:. Several lakes also developed on the floor of the caldera, which contains a
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2011:. Springer Earth System Sciences. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
1069:
Fracchia, Diego; Polo, Liza; Caffe, Pablo J.; Coira, Beatriz (March 2010).
162:
that were active since about 8 million years ago, sometimes in the form of
1121:
1482:
Maidana, Nora I.; Seeligmann, Claudia; Morales, Marcelo (December 2009).
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1106:"Periglacial phenomena in the high mountains of northwestern Argentina"
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1990:"Hoja GeolĂłgica 2366-I / 2166-III, Mina Pirquitas. Provincia de Jujuy"
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contains a 30-by-10-kilometre (18.6 mi Ă— 6.2 mi) large
2149:
1897:
1848:"Centro volcánico Vilama, un volcán cuaternario en la Puna Argentina"
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142:. Straddling the border between the two countries, it is part of the
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2010 further proposed that the "Pululus ignimbrite" which forms the
765:, an unusual occurrence for Altiplano-Puna caldera collapse events.
731:). A number of mammals and birds are found in the region, including
501:
magmas. Among the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex volcanoes are the
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1131:
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1016:
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1484:"Bacillariophyceae del complejo lagunar Vilama (Jujuy, Argentina)"
881:
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678:
659:
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211:
147:
2042:
Coira, B; Soler, Miguel M.; Caffe, Pablo; Onoe, Artur T. (2005).
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are accessory phases. Probably as a consequence of heterogeneous
604:
The Vilama ignimbrite is made out of dacite, which belongs to a
584:
while later units only sporadically crop out. Volcanic units of
596:
with an average elevation of about 4 kilometres (2.5 mi).
1457:
1324:
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from Vilama has been found throughout northwestern Argentina.
1721:
1596:
1336:
1258:
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yielding dates of 1.2 ± 0.1 and 900,000 ± 30,000 years ago.
469:
the back-arc region has been volcanically active since the
1970:
Coira, B; Caffe, Pablo; Diaz, Alba; Ramirez, Alba (1996).
857:
age. At Cerro Vilama volcanic activity continued into the
744:
scatter of the radiometric dates which according to Soler
1777:"Detecting a major ignimbrite event in the central Andes"
1504:
1469:
1215:
1091:
2227:
GeologĂa y recursos naturales de la provincia de Jujuy
1521:
1387:
1312:
1282:
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the region was substantially uplifted, forming a high
2005:
Coira, Beatriz L.L.; Cisterna, Clara Eugenia (2021).
1922:
1910:
1227:
2229:. Asociación Geológica Argentina. pp. 313–321.
431:
Off the western coast of South America, the oceanic
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941:
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23:
1853:National Scientific and Technical Research Council
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580:sediments are the most important component of the
473:, generating volcanic edifices ranging from small
2055:(in Spanish). 16th Argentine Geological Congress.
1560:
1445:
1348:
1270:
929:
2160:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
1983:(in Spanish). 12th Bolivian Geological Congress.
1856:(in Spanish). 17th Argentine Geological Congress
2198:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
2100:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1064:
1062:
1060:
458:which drive the activity in the volcanic arc.
194:The Vilama caldera lies on the border between
1806:
1697:
1572:
952:
950:
555:beneath the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex.
510:
8:
1488:BoletĂn de la Sociedad Argentina de Botánica
1075:Revista de la AsociaciĂłn GeolĂłgica Argentina
535:, with the most recent eruptions formed the
993:Angiorama, Carlos Ignacio (December 2006).
1784:Géodynamique andine : résumés étendus
523:magma in the crust after a portion of the
74:
20:
1759:
977:
150:. Vilama is remote and forms part of the
1943:Journal of South American Earth Sciences
146:, one of the four volcanic belts in the
899:
454:causes melts to form in the abovelying
2130:Geological Society of America Bulletin
42:
7:
1522:Coira, Mahlburg Kay & Caffe 2008
1388:Coira, Mahlburg Kay & Caffe 2008
1313:Coira, Mahlburg Kay & Caffe 2008
1283:Coira, Mahlburg Kay & Caffe 2008
72:5,340 m (17,520 ft)
1846:Fracchia, D.Y.; Coira, B. (2008).
1825:. AsociaciĂłn GeolĂłgica Argentina.
957:Nielsen, Axel E (September 2004).
822:of 8 and Vilama caldera is thus a
541:Cerro Chascon-Runtu Jarita complex
14:
2062:Journal of the Geological Society
780:. The entire ignimbrite contains
543:. Ongoing surface deformation at
512:Complejo Caldérico Eduardo Avaroa
16:Mountain in Bolivia and Argentina
2218:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.04.002
2120:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.08.013
1110:South African Journal of Science
485:. The latter form the so-called
210:, a high plateau in the Central
41:
34:
979:10.4067/S0717-73562004000400026
612:suite. The ignimbrite contains
487:Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex
450:. Dehydration of the downgoing
152:Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex
1052:Francis & Hawkesworth 1994
1037:Francis & Hawkesworth 1994
999:Intersecciones en AntropologĂa
1:
2180:10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.269.01.04
303:Negra Muerta volcanic complex
1963:10.1016/j.jsames.2007.10.004
505:northeast of Vilama and the
190:Geography and geomorphology
2286:
820:volcanic explosivity index
748:2007 may be due to excess
229:, which together with the
183:volcanic explosivity index
2017:10.1007/978-3-030-52010-6
1807:Coira & Cisterna 2021
1786:. IRD. pp. 677–678.
1698:Coira & Cisterna 2021
1573:Coira & Cisterna 2021
1104:Ahumada, Ana Lia (2002).
28:
2082:10.1144/gsjgs.151.5.0845
863:potassium-argon dating
684:
675:Climate and vegetation
511:
235:Southern Volcanic Zone
231:Northern Volcanic Zone
225:Vilama is part of the
154:, a province of large
2260:Calderas of Argentina
1722:Salisbury et al. 2011
1597:Salisbury et al. 2011
1337:Salisbury et al. 2011
1259:Salisbury et al. 2011
682:
475:monogenetic volcanoes
467:Central Volcanic Zone
239:Austral Volcanic Zone
227:Central Volcanic Zone
144:Central Volcanic Zone
1925:, pp. 993, 994.
1458:De Silva et al. 2006
1325:De Silva et al. 2006
1315:, pp. 313, 314.
255:Nevados de Payachata
245:, which consists of
2255:Calderas of Bolivia
2210:2007JVGR..164...27S
2172:2006GSLSP.269...47D
2142:2011GSAB..123..821S
2112:2010JVGR..198...81K
2074:1994JGSoc.151..845F
1955:2008JSAES..25..464C
1890:2015Geo....43..243C
1752:2016Geosp..12.1054K
440:South America Plate
402: /
311:Wheelwright caldera
103: /
1761:10.1130/GES01258.1
1712:, pp. 46, 47.
1664:, pp. 37, 38.
1640:, pp. 36, 37.
1378:, pp. 44, 45.
685:
62:Highest point
2236:978-987-22403-2-5
2026:978-3-030-52009-0
1923:Coira et al. 1996
1911:Coira et al. 1996
1832:978-987-42-6666-8
1793:978-2-7099-1575-5
1710:Soler et al. 2007
1686:Soler et al. 2007
1674:Soler et al. 2007
1662:Soler et al. 2007
1650:Soler et al. 2007
1638:Soler et al. 2007
1626:Soler et al. 2007
1614:Soler et al. 2007
1585:Soler et al. 2007
1549:Soler et al. 2007
1534:Soler et al. 2007
1505:COIRA et al. 2004
1470:COIRA et al. 2004
1434:Soler et al. 2007
1419:Soler et al. 2007
1400:Soler et al. 2007
1376:Soler et al. 2007
1364:Caffe et al. 2008
1298:Coira et al. 2005
1240:Coira et al. 2005
1228:Coira et al. 1996
1216:COIRA et al. 2004
1204:Caffe et al. 2008
1192:Caffe et al. 2008
1180:Soler et al. 2007
1157:Soler et al. 2007
1138:Coira et al. 2005
1092:COIRA et al. 2004
1025:Soler et al. 2007
942:Soler et al. 2007
918:Soler et al. 2007
461:East of the main
444:Peru-Chile Trench
406:22.600°S 66.850°W
122:
121:
107:22.400°S 66.950°W
2277:
2270:Miocene calderas
2240:
2221:
2191:
2153:
2150:10.1130/B30280.1
2136:(5–6): 821–840.
2123:
2093:
2056:
2048:
2038:
2001:
1984:
1976:
1966:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1898:10.1130/G36258.1
1872:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1816:
1810:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1781:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1746:(4): 1054–1077.
1731:
1725:
1719:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1695:
1689:
1683:
1677:
1671:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1600:
1594:
1588:
1582:
1576:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1546:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1508:
1507:, pp. 5, 6.
1502:
1496:
1495:
1479:
1473:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1422:
1416:
1403:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1361:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1310:
1301:
1295:
1286:
1280:
1274:
1268:
1262:
1256:
1243:
1237:
1231:
1225:
1219:
1213:
1207:
1201:
1195:
1189:
1183:
1177:
1160:
1154:
1141:
1135:
1126:
1125:
1101:
1095:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1066:
1055:
1049:
1040:
1034:
1028:
1022:
1011:
1010:
990:
984:
983:
981:
966:Chungará (Arica)
963:
954:
945:
939:
933:
927:
921:
915:
843:
776:content and few
763:Plinian eruption
739:Eruption history
728:Werneria pygmaea
567:Acoite Formation
514:
417:
416:
414:
413:
412:
411:-22.600; -66.850
407:
403:
400:
399:
398:
395:
379:
368:
357:
349:Laguna de Vilama
346:
335:
118:
117:
115:
114:
113:
112:-22.400; -66.950
108:
104:
101:
100:
99:
96:
79:
78:
45:
44:
38:
21:
2285:
2284:
2280:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2265:VEI-8 volcanoes
2245:
2244:
2243:
2237:
2224:
2194:
2156:
2126:
2106:(1–2): 81–111.
2096:
2059:
2046:
2041:
2027:
2004:
1987:
1974:
1969:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1929:
1921:
1917:
1909:
1905:
1874:
1873:
1869:
1859:
1857:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1805:
1801:
1794:
1779:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1720:
1716:
1708:
1704:
1696:
1692:
1684:
1680:
1672:
1668:
1660:
1656:
1648:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1624:
1620:
1612:
1603:
1595:
1591:
1583:
1579:
1571:
1567:
1561:Kay et al. 2010
1559:
1555:
1547:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1520:
1511:
1503:
1499:
1494:(3–4): 257–271.
1481:
1480:
1476:
1468:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1446:Kay et al. 2010
1444:
1440:
1432:
1425:
1417:
1406:
1398:
1394:
1386:
1382:
1374:
1370:
1362:
1355:
1349:Kay et al. 2010
1347:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1304:
1296:
1289:
1281:
1277:
1271:Kay et al. 2010
1269:
1265:
1257:
1246:
1238:
1234:
1226:
1222:
1214:
1210:
1202:
1198:
1190:
1186:
1178:
1163:
1155:
1144:
1136:
1129:
1103:
1102:
1098:
1090:
1086:
1081:(1–2): 271–281.
1068:
1067:
1058:
1050:
1043:
1035:
1031:
1023:
1014:
992:
991:
987:
961:
956:
955:
948:
940:
936:
930:Kay et al. 2010
928:
924:
916:
901:
896:
867:Magnetotelluric
837:
741:
722:Oxychloe andina
677:
602:
429:
410:
408:
404:
401:
396:
393:
391:
389:
388:
373:
362:
351:
340:
329:
327:Laguna Chojllas
299:Aguas Calientes
259:Ojos del Salado
247:stratovolcanoes
192:
158:and associated
111:
109:
105:
102:
97:
94:
92:
90:
89:
73:
57:
56:
55:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
46:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2283:
2281:
2273:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2247:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2235:
2222:
2204:(1–2): 27–53.
2192:
2154:
2124:
2094:
2068:(5): 845–854.
2057:
2039:
2025:
2002:
1985:
1967:
1949:(4): 464–484.
1936:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1915:
1913:, p. 992.
1903:
1884:(3): 243–246.
1867:
1838:
1831:
1811:
1799:
1792:
1767:
1726:
1724:, p. 827.
1714:
1702:
1690:
1678:
1666:
1654:
1642:
1630:
1618:
1601:
1599:, p. 833.
1589:
1577:
1565:
1553:
1538:
1526:
1524:, p. 315.
1509:
1497:
1474:
1462:
1450:
1438:
1423:
1404:
1392:
1390:, p. 314.
1380:
1368:
1366:, p. 465.
1353:
1341:
1339:, p. 835.
1329:
1317:
1302:
1287:
1285:, p. 313.
1275:
1263:
1261:, p. 822.
1244:
1232:
1230:, p. 997.
1220:
1208:
1206:, p. 470.
1196:
1194:, p. 467.
1184:
1161:
1142:
1127:
1122:10520/EJC97455
1116:(3): 166–170.
1096:
1094:, p. 113.
1084:
1056:
1054:, p. 847.
1041:
1039:, p. 846.
1029:
1012:
1001:(7): 147–161.
985:
946:
934:
922:
898:
897:
895:
892:
886:Cerro Zapaleri
752:contaminating
740:
737:
712:Prosopis ferox
676:
673:
652:titanium oxide
616:consisting of
601:
598:
562:, such as the
428:
425:
323:resurgent dome
287:Purico complex
275:Pastos Grandes
216:Cerro Zapaleri
191:
188:
176:resurgent dome
164:supervolcanoes
120:
119:
87:
81:
80:
70:
64:
63:
59:
58:
49:Vilama caldera
48:
47:
40:
39:
33:
32:
31:
30:
29:
26:
25:
24:Vilama caldera
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2282:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2238:
2232:
2228:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2009:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1981:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1924:
1919:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1871:
1868:
1855:
1854:
1849:
1842:
1839:
1834:
1828:
1824:
1823:
1815:
1812:
1809:, p. 16.
1808:
1803:
1800:
1795:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1771:
1768:
1762:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1727:
1723:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1706:
1703:
1700:, p. 12.
1699:
1694:
1691:
1688:, p. 42.
1687:
1682:
1679:
1676:, p. 32.
1675:
1670:
1667:
1663:
1658:
1655:
1652:, p. 37.
1651:
1646:
1643:
1639:
1634:
1631:
1628:, p. 36.
1627:
1622:
1619:
1616:, p. 35.
1615:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1590:
1587:, p. 30.
1586:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1566:
1563:, p. 88.
1562:
1557:
1554:
1551:, p. 49.
1550:
1545:
1543:
1539:
1536:, p. 41.
1535:
1530:
1527:
1523:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1501:
1498:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1463:
1460:, p. 51.
1459:
1454:
1451:
1448:, p. 85.
1447:
1442:
1439:
1436:, p. 38.
1435:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1421:, p. 33.
1420:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1402:, p. 39.
1401:
1396:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1351:, p. 84.
1350:
1345:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1327:, p. 57.
1326:
1321:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1276:
1273:, p. 81.
1272:
1267:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1236:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1221:
1218:, p. 78.
1217:
1212:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1185:
1182:, p. 28.
1181:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1159:, p. 45.
1158:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1100:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1085:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1030:
1027:, p. 29.
1026:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
989:
986:
980:
975:
971:
967:
960:
953:
951:
947:
944:, p. 34.
943:
938:
935:
932:, p. 83.
931:
926:
923:
920:, p. 44.
919:
914:
912:
910:
908:
906:
904:
900:
893:
891:
889:
887:
883:
880:
875:
870:
868:
864:
860:
856:
850:
847:
841:
836:
835:Cerro Pululos
832:
827:
825:
821:
817:
816:supereruption
812:
811:paleomagnetic
806:
803:
799:
795:
789:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
766:
764:
759:
758:magma chamber
755:
751:
747:
738:
736:
734:
730:
729:
724:
723:
718:
714:
713:
708:
704:
700:
699:
694:
691:
681:
674:
672:
670:
666:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
634:
630:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
610:calc-alkaline
607:
599:
597:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
572:
568:
565:
561:
556:
554:
550:
546:
542:
539:dome and the
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
516:
513:
508:
504:
503:Cerro Panizos
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
459:
457:
456:asthenosphere
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
434:
426:
424:
421:
415:
385:
383:
377:
372:
366:
361:
355:
350:
344:
339:
338:Laguna Coruto
333:
328:
324:
318:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
279:Cerro Panizos
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
223:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
189:
187:
184:
179:
177:
173:
167:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
130:
126:
116:
88:
86:
82:
77:
71:
69:
65:
60:
37:
27:
22:
19:
2226:
2201:
2197:
2166:(1): 47–63.
2163:
2159:
2133:
2129:
2103:
2099:
2065:
2061:
2052:ResearchGate
2050:
2007:
1998:ResearchGate
1993:
1980:ResearchGate
1978:
1946:
1942:
1918:
1906:
1881:
1877:
1870:
1858:. Retrieved
1851:
1841:
1821:
1814:
1802:
1783:
1770:
1743:
1739:
1729:
1717:
1705:
1693:
1681:
1669:
1657:
1645:
1633:
1621:
1592:
1580:
1575:, p. 7.
1568:
1556:
1529:
1500:
1491:
1487:
1477:
1472:, p. 3.
1465:
1453:
1441:
1395:
1383:
1371:
1344:
1332:
1320:
1300:, p. 6.
1278:
1266:
1242:, p. 4.
1235:
1223:
1211:
1199:
1187:
1140:, p. 2.
1113:
1109:
1099:
1087:
1078:
1074:
1032:
998:
988:
969:
965:
937:
925:
890:
879:Cerro Morado
874:Abra Granada
871:
851:
830:
828:
824:supervolcano
807:
790:
785:
767:
745:
742:
726:
720:
710:
696:
686:
667:derived and
603:
557:
551:body in the
533:Cerro Purico
517:
507:Cerro Guacha
463:volcanic arc
460:
438:beneath the
430:
420:Abra Granada
386:
360:Cerro Alcoak
319:
283:Cerro Guacha
243:volcanic arc
224:
193:
180:
168:
124:
123:
18:
1994:BoletĂn 269
859:Pleistocene
838: [
794:vitrophyric
782:phenocrysts
629:plagioclase
614:phenocrysts
600:Composition
574:Salta Group
525:lithosphere
495:Pleistocene
483:ignimbrites
481:with their
433:Nazca Plate
409: /
374: [
371:Cerro Salle
363: [
352: [
341: [
330: [
267:Los Frailes
172:Pleistocene
160:ignimbrites
110: /
85:Coordinates
2249:Categories
894:References
735:at lakes.
648:iron oxide
622:hornblende
578:Ordovician
571:Cretaceous
560:formations
537:Cerro Chao
2188:129924955
2090:129179678
2035:221767857
1860:8 January
1740:Geosphere
1007:1850-373X
829:Fracchia
796:with few
774:pumiceous
733:flamingos
606:potassium
586:Oligocene
564:Paleozoic
529:La Pacana
477:to large
471:Oligocene
315:Incapillo
295:La Pacana
291:CoranzulĂ
271:Kari-Kari
208:Altiplano
196:Argentina
140:Argentina
68:Elevation
855:Pliocene
754:biotites
640:allanite
633:pyroxene
626:andesine
590:Cenozoic
582:basement
569:and the
545:Uturunku
521:basaltic
479:calderas
448:Jurassic
436:subducts
251:Coropuna
249:such as
220:obsidian
156:calderas
2206:Bibcode
2168:Bibcode
2138:Bibcode
2108:Bibcode
2070:Bibcode
1951:Bibcode
1933:Sources
1886:Bibcode
1878:Geology
1748:Bibcode
861:, with
846:dacitic
818:with a
698:Festuca
695:, with
669:crustal
644:apatite
618:biotite
594:plateau
499:dacitic
491:Miocene
465:of the
442:in the
427:Geology
397:66°51′W
394:22°36′S
382:dacitic
263:OllagĂĽe
202:in the
200:Bolivia
136:Bolivia
132:caldera
129:Miocene
98:66°57′W
95:22°24′S
2233:
2186:
2088:
2033:
2023:
1829:
1790:
1005:
831:et al.
802:lithic
798:fiamme
788:2007.
786:et al.
778:fiamme
770:lithic
746:et al.
717:yareta
703:quenoa
693:steppe
665:mantle
656:zircon
636:quartz
608:-rich
253:, the
125:Vilama
2184:S2CID
2086:S2CID
2047:(PDF)
2031:S2CID
1975:(PDF)
1780:(PDF)
962:(PDF)
882:mafic
842:]
750:argon
690:shrub
660:magma
553:crust
549:magma
378:]
367:]
356:]
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