Constitution of the late Roman Empire

963:"), 'men of state affairs,' who handled communications between the Emperor and provincial governments as well as gathering intelligence as the Emperor's administrative policing force. They were courier/bureaucrats often deputed to other departments on special assignments. From the early 340s senior agentes in rebus were appointed as heads of the offices, principes, of prefects, vicars and two of three proconsulates (not of Asia). All business coming in and out of these offices were vetted by this officials; the wrote confidential reports the chancellor. Nothing could be issued without their counter-signature. Their small personal staffs were not part of the office staffs they whose activity they monitored. It has debated to what degree vicars had control over the principes. Their presence in the prefectures and proconsular offices connected them directly to the palatine administration headed by the masters of the offices, but also to the prefects and indirectly to the regional comptrollers of the Treasury and Managers of the Crown Estates whose offices were almost all located in diocesan see cities which were destination points for masses of information for processing for the upper administration echelon with the emperors. 1079:") who administered the private property of the Emperor and managed all Imperial estates, including the collection of rent derived therefrom. The praetorian prefects, vice-regents, however, had control over taxes paid in kind and the separate military Annona tax, ta assessments and revisions, censuses the overall budgets composed on a diocesan basis subdivided by province and municipality or other local unit. They alone as for emperors could render final verdicts. From the late 320s fiscal appeal cases of the SL and RP were taken by the prefects, the vicars, proconsuls and urban prefects from their respective lower provincial and regional administrative courts. In 385 the two counts were allowed once again to receive appeals directly from their own lower-rung administrative courts after 60. Until then they had acted solely in an advisory capacity to the emperors to whom they represented their own interests as did the SL comptrollers and RP managers before the vicars and the other above-named officials, in regard to the restoration of authority. 721: 700:). The Senate and executive magistrates continued to function as Diocletian's constitution had originally specified. Diocletian's civil and military divisions of the empire remained in effect with little change though Upper Egypt from the mid-fifth was governed by a general, the dux, who also exercised civilian authority over the population. Later emperor Constantine would modify Diocletian's constitution by changing the roles of officials somewhat but not the administrative framework. It was not until Justinian I 527-565 that major changes that saw the near abolition of the regional tier of officials, and severe weakening of the Treasury ( 997:, the central administrative organ of the Empire which coordinated the civilian functions of the Empire and provided direct support to the Emperor. The Imperial Chancellory was divided into four bureaus (the "sacra scrinia"): the Clerical Bureau ("scrinium memoriae"), the Correspondence Bureau ("scrinium epistularum"), the Legal Bureau ("scrinium libellorum"), and the Arrangement Bureau ("scrinium dispositionum"). Each of these bureaus supported a Bureau Director ("magistri scriniorum") who reported to the Chancellor, but were not totally under his control until the early 5th century. 916:

Diocletian would govern the Empire, until its eventual fall in the West during the 5th century, and its overall reform in the East during the reign of Heraclius in 7th century. The government of the Empire was divided (in both civil and military structures) between central and provincial levels. The central government general refers to those civil officials directly associated with the Emperor's court and the highest-ranking military officers. The provincial government includes all levels of provincial governors and local military commanders.

976:"). This was maintained by the prefecture and funded by provincials. Despite the name of State Post, it was privately operated under State direction. From the 340s its use was under the inspection of agentes in rebus deputed to and stationed the provinces with the governors. The system was made up of 'stationes,' guard stations, 'mutationes,' changing stations, and 'mansiones', larger facilities for overnight stays equipped often dining rooms and baths. these spread along the major road systems connecting the regions of the 1096:

from fifty to over a hundred. To this new organization he imposed two new bureaucratic levels between the Emperors and the provinces: the Prefectures and the Dioceses. Diocletian grouped these hundred provinces into twelve Dioceses, which were then grouped into four Prefectures. The result was that the units of government were much smaller, and thus more manageable, than they had been before Diocletian's reforms. This not only made administration of the Empire easier but also helped to minimize the risk of revolt.

1083: 1069:") who oversaw the collection and distribution of Imperial money taxes, managed the Imperial Treasury, and controlled Imperial mints, state-run mills and textile factories, and state-run mining facilities. He was the chief financial officer until Constantine displaced him with the praetorian prefects. The Count also exercised judicial functions as they related to fiscal matters under his supervision, with no appeal of his decision. The other key financial officer was the 990:") was under the Chancellor's command. The imperial armories, fabricae, were under the praetorian prefects and cloth/dye manufactories managed by the Treasury (oddly 3 of them were managed by the Crown Estate (69 in the West are listed; the list in the East is incomplete). The armories passed under the control of the magister officiorum by 390. In 442 he was made inspector-general of the frontier army units, a responsibility which had been the prefects and their vicars. 1038:") was the Empire's top legal official and was responsible for the administration of the justice throughout the Empire. Selected from those with significant legal training, the Judge served as the Emperor's chief legal advisor and was responsible for overseeing the enactment of legislation and for drafting imperial decrees. Beginning in early 5th century, he presided over the Empire's supreme tribunal, which heard appeals from the various lower courts of the Empire. 1458:

robbed the Senate of its status as the depository of supreme power. Diocletian's reforms also ended whatever fiction had remained that the Senate had substantive legislative powers, and since the magistracies had become meaningless, the electoral powers of the Senate had no real meaning. The Senate did retain its legislative powers over public games and the senatorial order, as well as the power to try cases, especially treason, if the Emperor gave permission.

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however, as they could nominate individuals to fill a gubernatorial vacancy, supervise the conduct of the governors, or even dismiss a governor. Prefects could also interpret the law, hear appeals, control finances, and some were even assigned military responsibilities. The powers of the Prefects were so extensive that Diocletian only allowed each Prefect to remain in office for a short period of time. The four Prefectures were called

1053:, managed the daily operations of the Imperial Palace. He oversaw the palace servants ("cubicularii"), also eunuchs, and was responsible for the imperial bedchamber, wardrobe and receptions. While the Chamberlain technically possessed no administrative authority outside of managing the imperial household, his daily and intimate contact with the Emperor granted him great influence over other Court officials, allowing him 1109:"), served as the highest level of provincial government. The Prefects were the Emperor's top administrators, ranking just below the Emperor himself in dignity. While initially serving as the Emperor's second in command in all matters of imperial administration (military, civil, judicial, taxation, etc.), the Prefects gradually had portions of their authority stripped from them and given to other offices: the 44: 1216:"), judges (iudices) or moderators. The primary duties of the provincial governors were administrative, judicial and financial. The governor could issues decrees that, if approved by the Emperor, would become binding upon the province. The governor was also the highest judicial official of the province, with appeals heard by the vicar of the diocese or in dioceses governed by prefects. 681:) if an emperor was resident there, or wherever the emperor happened to be since 4th century emperors moved within their realms, though Rome still had had its own Praefectus urbi above all other municipal governors and mayors and also its own Senate with Imperial level above all other municipal councils (except that of Constantinople from 359), maintaining the de jure capital status. 955:. The Chancellor's portfolio include a significant number of functions handled by modern government officials. The Chancellor was responsible for conducting court ceremonies and regulated audiences with the Emperor. All correspondences with foreign powers were sent by and embassies of foreign powers to the Emperor were received by the Chancellor. The Chancellor commanded the 1370:. The Master of Both Services was the supreme military commander of the West, ranking only below the Emperor and above all other military commanders, and commander of half the Palace Troops. The Master of the Horse held command over half the Palace Troops and the Field Army of Gaul, but still under the command of the Master of Both Services. 1457:

in Constantinople. Diocletian also discontinued the practice of having the Senate ratify the Imperial powers of a new emperor. Going back to the founding of the city, control of the state was considered to return to the Senate whenever the chief magistracy became vacant, and so this particular reform

1117:

for central civilian administration. These reforms were the result of both the lack of officials suitable for the prefect's wide-ranging tasks, and of the desire to reduce the potential challenge to the Emperor's authority posed by a power Prefect. The civilian powers of the Prefects were still vast,

924:

The central government of the Roman Empire consisted of the Imperial Court. At the top of the central government was the Emperor himself. From his presence all imperial authority flowed, both civil and military. The edicts of the Emperor were binding upon all persons throughout the Empire. To support

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Talbert, Richard J. A. (November 1991). "R. Delmaire, Largesses sacrées et res privata. L'Aerarium impérial et son Administration du IVe au VIe Siècle (Collection de l'École française de Rome CXXI). Rome: École Française de Rome, 1989. Pp. xvii + 759. ISBN 2-7283-0163-8. Fr. 600. - R. Delmaire, Les

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The executive magistrates had been little more than municipal officials since long before Diocletian became Emperor, and so Diocletian's reforms simply declared this openly. The consul now could only preside over the Senate, and the Praetor and Quaestor could only manage public games, although the

1095:

When Diocletian reformed the administrative machinery of the Empire, he stripped the civilian administrators of their military powers (granting them instead to distinct offices). Additionally, he further divided the various provinces into smaller units, effectively doubled the number of provinces

915:

Diocletian separated the civil administrative apparatus and the military one in order to mitigate the risk that future generals might attempt to seize the throne through force, and then he reorganized both of them. While changes were made by subsequent Emperors, the basic structure established by

664:

He also enacted major administrative reforms to the Empire. His division of the Empire into east and west, with each half under the command of a separate emperor, remained with brief interruptions of political unity. Although it remained the sole capital until Constantinople was elevated to that

799:

was Emperor, whereas in contrast, under the Republic, any decree issued by a magistrate was only good so long as that magistrate was in office. Under the Republic and the Principate, only the Senate and legislative assemblies were continuous institutions, and thus only they could pass laws that

1272:

The most important Imperial Court positions, the highest-ranking military commanders, and the Imperial Chamberlain were all Counts First Class. Counts Second Class were the various Proconsuls, Vicars of the Dioceses, provincial military commanders, and others. Counts Third Class was the basic

874:

that they received a fixed salary. The powers that were delegated to them usually included the right to hear appeals, and a set of provinces were often assigned to them so that they could supervise the governors of those provinces. The reason why Diocletian created the office of

946:

in 320 AD to oversee the imperial secretariats. He functioned as a watchdog head of administration, although not able to order other branches of the administration such as the prefectures, Treasury and Crown Estates what to do without direct orders from the emperor. Ranked as a

840:

were viewed as being more than mortal, which was illustrated by the honors that they received. These honors had, in the past, been reserved only for the Gods. While emperors had received such honors in the past, they only received these honors after their death, and yet, the

1057:

coordinating authority over all Court officials. In the case of weak Emperors, the Chamberlain's influence made him the most powerful man in the Empire. However, should the Emperor be a powerful force, the Chamberlain's role in the administration of the Empire was minimal.

808:

remained in force even after that particular emperor left office. Such an act could only be invalidated by a future emperor. The logical extension of this concept meant that neither a magistrate, the assemblies, nor the senate, could legally restrain the emperor.

1245:, but rather a rank associated within a distinct position within the imperial administration. All Counts were automatically members of the Senatorial Order. As the imperial system expanded, however, new offices were needed which resulted in the development of 1441:. Most Dukes were given command of forces in a single province, but a few controlled more than one province. In the East, the Dukes reported to the Master of the Soldiers of their district whereas in the West they reported to their respective Military Count. 1289:

To a reformed civilian structure, Diocletian added a reorganized supreme military command. Two significant parts of the reform are apparent: the separation of military commanders from civil administration and the division of the army into two classes: the

758:, and gave him the Western Empire, while Diocletian took the Eastern Empire. Diocletian made Nicomedia his capital, and Maximian made Milan his capital. To make the two halves symbolically appear to be one, Diocletian called his territory 1346:"). There were seven such Masters throughout the Empire (two in the West and five in the East). The establishment of solely military officials provided for a more professional military leadership. The Masters were all Counts First Class. 1169:") in order to maintain order and security within the city. The Prefect also oversaw maintenance of the city's aqueducts and supervised the markets. One of his most important duties was to oversee his respective city's grain supply. 980:. The changing stations were 8–12 miles apart and the hotel/stables were generally 25–30 miles apart. These served as relay points and provided horses to dispatch riders (usually soldiers) and vehicles for Court officials. The 1241:" meaning "companion "). The rank of Count began as title given to the Emperor's trusted officials as a mark of imperial confidence, and later developing into a formal rank. "Count" was not a hereditary title as was found in 1350:

Within the East, there were Masters of the Soldiers in Illyria, Thrace, and the East. Each of these three Masters exercised independent command over one of the three Field Armies of the Eastern Empire. There were also two

951:, the Chancellor oversaw the entire civil service, the officia (however, the prefects and his subordinates had jurisdiction over staffs in civil and criminal suits). They were "the emperors' eyes" according to the orator, 1153:") were responsible for the civilian administration of their respect city, presided over their respective Senate, and served as the chief judge for civil and criminal cases within the city. The Prefects commanded the 642:) held real powers. From then, the consuls had almost no real duties beyond that of presiding at Senate meetings and the duties of the lesser magistrates were effectively just hosting various games, e.g. 1191:, who were appointed by the Emperor and held various titles. All provincial governors were Counts Third Class. The highest ranking provincial governors were the Proconsuls who governed the provinces of 1657:

The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes

657:, each governed one fourth of the Empire. Known as the Tetrarchy, this constitutional structure, however, failed to even outlast Diocletian, who lived to see the collapse of his system and the 2048:

Responsables des finances impériales au bas-empire romain (IVe–VIe S.): Études Prosopographiques (Collection Latomus CCIII). Brussels: Latomus, 1989. Pp. 323. ISBN 2-87031-143-5. Fr.b. 1500".

627:. The constitution of the Dominate outrightly recognized monarchy as the true source of power, and thus ended the facade of dyarchy, in which emperor and Senate governed the empire together. 832:

was illustrated by their robes (which were trimmed with precious stones) and the imperial diadem, as well as the elaborate ceremony required of anyone who approached them. Unlike the old

1310:"). The Field Armies served as the Empire's strategic reserve to respond to crisis where it may arise whereas the Frontier Troops were permanently stationed along the Empire's borders (" 2639: 1617: 1399:

Within the West, there were six such Military Counts, one for each of the five Field Armies in Illyria, Africa, Tingitania, Hispania, and Britannia. The sixth military count, the

2438: 720: 594: 2378: 1012:

received and responded to correspondence from public officials to the Emperor, managed representation with foreign powers, and served as the imperial translation service

2340: 2194: 2433: 1145:

both were exempt from the control of a Praetorian Prefect and instead were controlled by their own civilian governors answering directly to the Emperor. These two

816:, both had legal status. Under the Republic, the state gave the magistrates the authorization to hold their office, while under the Principate, the state gave the 2526: 3068: 2410: 2255: 3110: 3098: 2415: 2355: 631: 1182:" meaning "deputy "). Each Vicar was appointed by the Emperor upon the recommendation of the respective Prefect, and held the rank of Count Second Class. 3157: 2458: 2223: 942:"). He was a kind of Interior Minister for State Security. His post had started out rather lowly as a tribune of the Palace Guard who was elevated by 1355:

who accompanied the Eastern Emperor and who each commanded half of the Palace Troops. Each of the five Masters were coequally ranked among themselves.

1396:"). Unlike the Military Counts of the West, this Count commanded the Frontier Troops stationed in Egypt and reported directly to the Eastern Emperor. 3073: 4471: 4445: 3083: 2393: 4476: 4390: 3078: 2812: 587: 191: 4360: 3185: 2712: 2448: 2032: 1999: 1966: 1882: 1849: 1816: 181: 1005:

drafted official documents for the Emperor's approval, such as imperial decrees and appointments, and served as the central Imperial Archive

4450: 4325: 3478: 3031: 352: 2702: 2398: 2383: 174: 157: 1470:, were appointed by the Emperor, and their term now ended on April 21, while all other consuls in a given year (the less-prestigious 4370: 3130: 2697: 2692: 2668: 2519: 2491: 2345: 2280: 1697: 1671: 1642: 580: 152: 2202: 4385: 3058: 2707: 2634: 2443: 2360: 2248: 1612: 169: 2651: 2584: 2463: 2388: 2121:

Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index

611:

was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down, mainly through precedent, which defined the manner in which the

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Ranking between the Prefectures and the provinces were the Dioceses. Each Dioceses was led by a civilian governor known as a

3901: 3741: 3345: 2797: 2512: 2405: 1433: 567: 4440: 1273:

qualification to obtain entrance into the Senate and including the governorship of a province and other lower offices.

4365: 4124: 3180: 3063: 2609: 2350: 2241: 689: 658: 649:

Diocletian attempted to reform the Imperial system itself into a structure in which four emperors, consisting of two

4400: 4064: 3956: 3726: 3498: 3320: 3228: 3093: 3036: 2453: 1066: 1046: 365: 665:

status in 359, the city of Rome ceased to be the seat of the Imperial government which in the West was usually in

4420: 3513: 3468: 3395: 3315: 3263: 3253: 3205: 2552: 1384:"). There were six such Military Counts throughout the Empire. The Military Counts were all Counts Second Class. 1322: 430: 132: 2228: 1413:

and reported to the Count of Britannia. The five regular Military Counts reported to the Master of Both Services

4021: 3931: 3440: 3420: 3415: 3400: 3353: 3293: 3248: 3050: 1405: 34: 1462:

Praetor did retain some limited judicial authority. All other magisterial offices disappeared. The first two "

4430: 4410: 4350: 4340: 4330: 3736: 3425: 3325: 3305: 3220: 3210: 2915: 2855: 2547: 1200: 1192: 468: 1134:, with Constantinople, Sirmium, Milan, and Treves constituting the capitals of the respective Prefectures. 4435: 4425: 4375: 4355: 4169: 4144: 4109: 3991: 3716: 3363: 3125: 2656: 2481: 1682: 1075: 1035: 4405: 4335: 4159: 3911: 3711: 3706: 3503: 3410: 3335: 3298: 3283: 3258: 3238: 3140: 1196: 943: 925:

the Emperor in the administration of the Empire, the Emperor was attended by numerous Court officials ("

1082: 4415: 4380: 4069: 4059: 3936: 3836: 3761: 3626: 3589: 2965: 2629: 1312: 730: 110: 4345: 4194: 3996: 3866: 3816: 3135: 2732: 2305: 1557: 1380: 1225: 1114: 938: 245: 1203:. These three provincial governors reported directly to the Emperor due to their strategic value. 4395: 4119: 3926: 3781: 3721: 3641: 3584: 3448: 2684: 2663: 2473: 2285: 2264: 2073: 2015:

Garnsey, Peter (2010), McGill, Scott; Sogno, Cristiana; Watts, Edward (eds.), "Roman patronage",

1931: 1888: 1105: 674: 612: 503: 142: 4034: 1453:

to a municipal body, an image that was reinforced when the Emperor Constantine later created a

1281: 4029: 3881: 3636: 3596: 3574: 2782: 2322: 2095: 2065: 2028: 1995: 1962: 1923: 1878: 1845: 1812: 1693: 1667: 1638: 1326:"), who accompanied the Emperor as he traveled around the Empire as were the successor of the 986: 422: 415: 218: 2219:

Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu

4094: 4054: 3986: 3921: 3846: 3841: 3613: 3536: 3483: 3278: 3273: 3162: 3021: 2970: 2930: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2880: 2802: 2749: 2742: 2727: 2722: 2646: 2574: 2315: 2300: 2295: 2057: 2020: 1987: 1954: 1915: 1870: 1837: 1804: 1602: 1582: 1577: 1572: 1454: 1342: 1330: 1158: 1110: 960: 544: 538: 531: 517: 346: 325: 270: 255: 250: 235: 119: 1019:

handled the various legal petitions the Emperor received, such as appeals from lower courts

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was governed. As a matter of historical convention, the late Roman Empire emerged from the

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Diocletian's reforms to the Imperial government finally put an end to the period when the

260: 2218: 2199: 692:, headed the imperial administration of Italy, one in suburbicarian Italy (south of the 4244: 3886: 3621: 3569: 3541: 3488: 3473: 3453: 3268: 3243: 3200: 3190: 3016: 2990: 2920: 2905: 2870: 2830: 2591: 2370: 1567: 1552: 1497: 1187: 1142: 850: 643: 549: 496: 340: 315: 224: 72: 866:, and the only authority that they had was that which had been given to them by their 4465: 3776: 3746: 3661: 3195: 3172: 2985: 2840: 2825: 2772: 2579: 2332: 1892: 1592: 1492: 1246: 780: 445: 295: 63: 2183:

A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999)

824:, in contrast, did not need authorization from the state to be emperor, because the 4254: 4114: 3559: 3508: 3463: 3458: 3310: 3120: 3006: 2950: 2945: 2835: 2717: 2601: 2535: 2425: 2290: 2272: 2200:

Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius

2173:

E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974)

1597: 1562: 1537: 1527: 1502: 1463: 1450: 1296: 739: 635: 358: 310: 280: 206: 81: 879:

was to create a method by which orderly successions could occur, so that when one

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Under Diocletian's new constitution, power was shared between two emperors called

2099: 2024: 1231:

Civilian and military administrators of the late Empire were generally ranked as

4049: 3671: 3493: 3383: 2777: 2105: 1427:" or "border commanders"). These commanders were the spiritual successor of the 977: 401: 43: 696:

and the Islands) and the other in Annonarian Italy (north of the Apennines and

27:

Unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent

17: 4274: 4214: 4179: 3971: 3906: 3896: 3791: 3676: 3564: 3147: 3115: 2860: 2787: 2619: 2614: 1906:

Sinnigen, William G. (1959). "Two Branches of the Late Roman Secret Service".

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Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar

1512: 1438: 1327: 784: 666: 620: 616: 482: 212: 92: 2069: 1927: 1869:. Seminario giuridico della Università di Bologna. Bononia University Press. 1808: 4304: 4299: 4259: 4184: 4154: 4134: 4011: 3951: 3861: 3811: 3806: 3731: 3691: 3579: 3549: 3358: 3233: 3026: 2910: 2885: 2764: 2486: 1517: 1507: 1306: 1242: 855: 754:

was to rule the eastern half of the Empire. Diocletian made Maximian his co-

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took the place of the Senate and the assemblies, and thus any decree of an

1958: 4264: 4249: 4239: 4224: 4139: 4129: 4099: 4089: 4084: 4074: 3976: 3891: 3771: 3756: 3686: 3666: 3656: 3651: 3631: 3430: 3011: 2975: 2865: 2792: 2624: 2151: 1841: 1607: 1587: 1542: 1479: 1285:

Roman Emperor Constantine, who reformed the constitution of the Tetrarchy

1178: 952: 775: 685: 639: 489: 379: 290: 201: 99: 4284: 4279: 4269: 4234: 4229: 4219: 4164: 4149: 3966: 3961: 3946: 3916: 3871: 3851: 3831: 3786: 3518: 3373: 3152: 2960: 2955: 2845: 1532: 1475: 1374:

To support the Masters of the Soldiers, the Empire established several

1212: 1166: 800:

remained in effect indefinitely. Under Diocletian's new Tetrarchy, the

475: 454: 305: 285: 2504: 2077: 1935: 1722:. U.S. Government Printing Office Senate Document 103-23. p. 161. 1482:"', although the approval of the Emperor was required to take effect. 724:

Roman emperor Diocletian, who framed the constitution of the Tetrarchy

4294: 4174: 4104: 4044: 4039: 4006: 3766: 3751: 3701: 3681: 3103: 2980: 2875: 2233: 1547: 1050: 697: 510: 300: 1026:

oversaw the administrative matters the Emperor faced while traveling

2061: 1919: 1874: 742:, as all laws, decrees, and appointments that came from one of the 4079: 3801: 3528: 2820: 1984:

Cursus Publicus: The Infrastructure of government in Roman Britain

1522: 1280: 1237: 1081: 948: 926: 719: 678: 670: 4289: 3856: 3796: 3378: 2754: 1138: 2508: 2237: 1949:

Adams, Colin (2012-12-06). Adams, Colin; Laurence, Ray (eds.).

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would jointly resign at a given point in time, and allow their

2850: 1423: 461: 408: 1449:

The removal of the seat of government from Rome reduced the

795:

issued a decree, that decree was only valid so long as that

746:, were to be recognized as coming from both conjointly. One 661:

that followed in his retirement after abdication in AD 305.

1659:. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. 1336:

The supreme military commanders of the Late Empire was the

1679:

The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek

1652:. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103–23. 1316:"). Recruited from the ranks of the Field Armies were the 1206:

All other provinces were administered by governors called

750:

was to rule the western half of the Empire, and the other

2019:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 33–54, 1735:

A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions

1635:

A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions

791:

took the place of the old republican magistrates. When a

1388:

Within the East, there was only one Military Count: the

1086:

The first tetrarchs of the constitution of the Tetrarchy

1834:

Two Studies in Later Roman and Byzantine Administration

1746: 1744: 1474:) were elected by the Senate. The Senate also elected " 845:

could receive such honors while they were still alive.

2229:

What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us

1618:

Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire

1417:

The various Frontier Troops were under the command of

1409:"), commanded Frontier Troops along both sides of the 2114:

Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution

1685:. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2. 1224:"Clarissimus" redirects here. For the racehorse, see 828:

became the state itself. The higher authority of the

646:. Most other lesser magistracies simply disappeared. 738:

marked a rebirth of the old republican principle of

4313: 4207: 4020: 3612: 3605: 3527: 3439: 3344: 3219: 3171: 3049: 2999: 2938: 2929: 2811: 2763: 2683: 2600: 2561: 2472: 2424: 2369: 2331: 2271: 1867:Contrattazione collettiva e pluralità di categorie 1041:One of the highest ranking court official was the 623:in AD 284, his reign marking the beginning of the 2142:The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity 854:, which resulted in an arrangement known as the " 619:(the early Roman Empire), with the accession of 1836:. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 812:The old republican magistrates, as well as the 1986:. Oxford, UK: British Archaeological Reports. 848:In 293, Diocletian and Maximian appointed two 2520: 2249: 1099:The four Prefectures, each led by a civilian 588: 8: 2224:The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero 2144:. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975. 1268:– The "Most Notable Men", Counts Third Class 1799:Piganiol, André; Chastagnol, André (1973). 1256:– The "Illustrious Men", Counts First Class 993:The Chancellor had direct control over the 899:adopted him. Diocletian had hoped that the 820:the legal authorization to be emperor. Any 701: 3609: 2935: 2567: 2527: 2513: 2505: 2256: 2242: 2234: 2101:The Constitution of the Later Roman Empire 1737:. New York: Biblo and Tannen. p. 334. 1262:– The "Admirable Men", Counts Second Class 1185:Ranking directly below the Vicar were the 932:Chief among these court officials was the 595: 581: 29: 2135:The Development of the Roman Constitution 2156:Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13. 1951:Travel and Geography in the Roman Empire 1710: 1353:Masters of the Soldiers in the Presence 437: 389: 324: 269: 234: 190: 141: 54: 32: 1786: 1774: 1762: 1750: 1664:The Constitution of the Roman Republic 1406:comes littoris Saxonici per Britanniam 870:. Their status was so inferior to the 762:, while Maximian called his territory 2017:From the Tetrarchs to the Theodosians 787:), because under the Principate, the 609:constitution of the late Roman Empire 7: 2123:. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. 1803:. Presses Universitaires de France. 1692:. The University of Michigan Press ( 734:. The establishment of two co-equal 1061:Fiscal administration lay with the 773:were legally distinct from the old 25: 1908:The American Journal of Philology 2195:Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two 1865:Centamore, Giulio (2020-06-30). 1720:The Senate of the Roman Republic 1650:The Senate of the Roman Republic 1613:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 42: 1655:Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). 1049:"). The Chamberlain, usually a 968:Imperial Transportation Service 4472:Government of the Roman Empire 2178:The Emperor in the Roman World 1063:Count of the Imperial Treasury 1: 4477:Constitutions of ancient Rome 1358:Within the West, there was a 1113:for military affairs and the 1071:Count of the Imperial Estates 957:Imperial Intelligence Service 3099:Frontiers and fortifications 2119:Johnston, Harold Whetstone. 2025:10.1017/cbo9780511712296.003 1733:Abbott, Frank Frost (1963). 1633:Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). 1434:Legatus Augusti pro praetore 966:The Chancellors oversaw the 911:Administration of the Empire 3158:Decorations and punishments 1666:. Oxford University Press ( 1394:Comes rei militaris Aegypti 1364:magister utriusque militiae 1032:Judge of the Imperial Court 690:Praetorian Prefect of Italy 632:old Republican magistracies 4493: 4065:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2640:historiography of the fall 2180:, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992). 2137:. D. Apple & Co. 1886. 2116:. William Pickering. 1853. 1688:Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). 1249:within the rank of Count: 1223: 1067:Comes sacrarum largitionum 1047:Praepositus sacri cubiculi 862:were subordinate to their 4446:External wars and battles 2570: 2543: 2213:Secondary source material 688:, later two vicars under 431:Senatus consultum ultimum 326:Extraordinary magistrates 2170:, (Fontana Press, 1978). 2163:, (Fontana Press, 1993). 2128:Roman Constitutional Law 2050:Journal of Roman Studies 1809:10.3917/puf.piga.1973.01 1662:Lintott, Andrew (1999). 1401:Count of the Saxon Shore 858:" ("rule by four"). The 35:Politics of ancient Rome 4441:Roman–Iranian relations 2916:Optimates and populares 1466:" in a given year, the 1390:Military Count of Egypt 1360:Master of Both Services 1111:Masters of the Soldiers 4451:Civil wars and revolts 3717:Sextus Pompeius Festus 3364:Conflict of the Orders 2723:Legislative assemblies 2482:Conflict of the Orders 2161:The Later Roman Empire 1992:10.30861/9780860547815 1445:Senate and magistrates 1338:Master of the Soldiers 1286: 1087: 1076:Comes rerum privatarum 1036:Quaestor sacri palatii 725: 702: 192:Political institutions 4160:Simplicius of Cilicia 3912:Quintus Curtius Rufus 3141:Siege in Ancient Rome 2750:Executive magistrates 1959:10.4324/9780203995594 1832:Boak, Arthur (1924). 1718:Byrd, Robert (1995). 1648:Byrd, Robert (1995). 1284: 1091:Provincial government 1085: 1010:Correspondence Bureau 944:Constantine the Great 883:died, one of the two 723: 706:) and Crown Estates. 4170:Stephanus Byzantinus 4075:Eusebius of Caesaria 3937:Sidonius Apollinaris 3627:Ammianus Marcellinus 2966:Tribune of the plebs 2108:. GGKEY:1LPTHZ0BA4T. 1982:Black, E.W. (1995). 1842:10.3998/mpub.9690323 1637:. Elibron Classics ( 1188:provincial governors 1147:Prefects of the City 1043:Imperial Chamberlain 995:Imperial Chancellory 271:Ordinary magistrates 4346:Distinguished women 3997:Velleius Paterculus 3837:Nicolaus Damascenus 3817:Marcellus Empiricus 3206:Republican currency 2399:reforms of Augustus 1777:, pp. 335–339. 1765:, pp. 335–336. 1558:Master of the Horse 1381:Comes rei militaris 1368:Master of the Horse 1226:Clarissimus (horse) 1115:Imperial Chancellor 1106:praefecti praetorio 949:Count of the Empire 939:magister officiorum 934:Imperial Chancellor 895:was appointed, his 673:), or sometimes in 4120:Phlegon of Tralles 3927:Seneca the Younger 3401:Naming conventions 3131:Personal equipment 2664:Later Roman Empire 2265:Roman Constitution 2205:2007-02-05 at the 2168:The Roman Republic 2126:Mommsen, Theodor. 1468:consules ordinarii 1287: 1277:Military structure 1101:Praetorian Prefect 1088: 1024:Arrangement Bureau 920:The Imperial Court 726: 675:Augusta Treverorum 504:Triumvir monetalis 438:Titles and honours 4459: 4458: 4421:Pontifices maximi 4203: 4202: 4060:Diogenes Laërtius 3882:Pliny the Younger 3637:Asconius Pedianus 3597:Romance languages 3469:Civil engineering 3211:Imperial currency 3084:Political control 3045: 3044: 2679: 2678: 2502: 2501: 2449:(post Diocletian) 2439:(post Diocletian) 2394:reforms of Caesar 2140:Von Fritz, Kurt. 2034:978-0-511-71229-6 2001:978-0-86054-781-5 1968:978-0-203-99559-4 1884:978-88-6923-567-2 1851:978-0-472-75038-2 1818:978-2-13-032125-5 1801:L'empire chrétien 1677:Polybius (1823). 1472:consules suffecti 987:Scholae Palatinae 907:to replace them. 764:patres Occidentis 703:sacrae largitones 613:late Roman Empire 605: 604: 423:Quaestio perpetua 416:Senatus consultum 219:Roman citizenship 16:(Redirected from 4484: 4411:Magistri equitum 4326:Cities and towns 4319: 4245:Constantinopolis 4055:Diodorus Siculus 3987:Valerius Maximus 3922:Seneca the Elder 3842:Nonius Marcellus 3610: 3163:Hippika gymnasia 3126:Infantry tactics 3032:Consular tribune 3022:Magister equitum 2971:Military tribune 2936: 2896:Pontifex maximus 2891:Princeps senatus 2881:Magister militum 2647:Byzantine Empire 2568: 2529: 2522: 2515: 2506: 2389:reforms of Sulla 2258: 2251: 2244: 2235: 2133:Tighe, Ambrose. 2109: 2082: 2081: 2044: 2038: 2037: 2012: 2006: 2005: 1979: 1973: 1972: 1946: 1940: 1939: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1862: 1856: 1855: 1829: 1823: 1822: 1796: 1790: 1784: 1778: 1772: 1766: 1760: 1754: 1748: 1739: 1738: 1730: 1724: 1723: 1715: 1603:Plebeian Council 1583:Princeps senatus 1578:Pontifex Maximus 1573:Byzantine Senate 1429:Imperial Legates 1343:Magister Militum 1331:Praetorian Guard 1159:Cohortes urbanae 961:Agentes in rebus 929:" or "counts"). 705: 617:Roman Principate 597: 590: 583: 539:Pontifex maximus 532:Princeps senatus 518:Magister militum 353:Consular tribune 347:Magister equitum 175:Augustan reforms 46: 30: 21: 4492: 4491: 4487: 4486: 4485: 4483: 4482: 4481: 4462: 4461: 4460: 4455: 4317: 4315: 4309: 4199: 4035:Aëtius of Amida 4016: 4002:Verrius Flaccus 3982:Valerius Antias 3942:Silius Italicus 3877:Pliny the Elder 3822:Marcus Aurelius 3697:Cornelius Nepos 3647:Aurelius Victor 3601: 3523: 3435: 3369:Secessio plebis 3340: 3215: 3167: 3041: 2995: 2925: 2807: 2759: 2675: 2596: 2557: 2539: 2533: 2503: 2498: 2468: 2420: 2365: 2327: 2267: 2262: 2215: 2207:Wayback Machine 2191: 2189:Primary sources 2186: 2112:Ihne, Wilhelm. 2094: 2090: 2085: 2046: 2045: 2041: 2035: 2014: 2013: 2009: 2002: 1981: 1980: 1976: 1969: 1948: 1947: 1943: 1905: 1904: 1900: 1885: 1864: 1863: 1859: 1852: 1831: 1830: 1826: 1819: 1798: 1797: 1793: 1785: 1781: 1773: 1769: 1761: 1757: 1749: 1742: 1732: 1731: 1727: 1717: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1703: 1629: 1624: 1488: 1447: 1411:English Channel 1376:Military Counts 1302:Frontier Troops 1279: 1266:Vir clarissimus 1260:Vir spectabilis 1229: 1222: 1151:Praefectus urbi 1093: 1003:Clerical Bureau 973:Cursus publicus 922: 913: 760:patres Orientis 718: 601: 572: 568:Other countries 559: 428: 385: 320: 265: 230: 186: 163:Sullan republic 128: 124: 115: 106: 102: 95: 85: 76: 67: 37: 28: 23: 22: 18:Vir clarissimus 15: 12: 11: 5: 4490: 4488: 4480: 4479: 4474: 4464: 4463: 4457: 4456: 4454: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4322: 4320: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4211: 4209: 4205: 4204: 4201: 4200: 4198: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4026: 4024: 4018: 4017: 4015: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3887:Pomponius Mela 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3839: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3714: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3694: 3689: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3622:Aelius Donatus 3618: 3616: 3607: 3603: 3602: 3600: 3599: 3594: 3593: 3592: 3590:Ecclesiastical 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3544: 3539: 3533: 3531: 3525: 3524: 3522: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3481: 3476: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3456: 3451: 3445: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3434: 3433: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3398: 3393: 3392: 3391: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3350: 3348: 3342: 3341: 3339: 3338: 3333: 3331:Toys and games 3328: 3323: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3302: 3301: 3291: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3225: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3214: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3177: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3144: 3143: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3123: 3113: 3108: 3107: 3106: 3096: 3091: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3071: 3066: 3061: 3055: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3043: 3042: 3040: 3039: 3034: 3029: 3024: 3019: 3014: 3009: 3003: 3001: 2997: 2996: 2994: 2993: 2988: 2983: 2978: 2973: 2968: 2963: 2958: 2953: 2948: 2942: 2940: 2933: 2927: 2926: 2924: 2923: 2918: 2913: 2908: 2903: 2898: 2893: 2888: 2883: 2878: 2873: 2871:Vigintisexviri 2868: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2831:Cursus honorum 2828: 2823: 2817: 2815: 2809: 2808: 2806: 2805: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2769: 2767: 2761: 2760: 2758: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2746: 2745: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2720: 2715: 2710: 2705: 2700: 2695: 2689: 2687: 2681: 2680: 2677: 2676: 2674: 2673: 2672: 2671: 2661: 2660: 2659: 2654: 2644: 2643: 2642: 2637: 2630:Western Empire 2627: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2606: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2595: 2594: 2589: 2588: 2587: 2577: 2571: 2565: 2559: 2558: 2556: 2555: 2550: 2544: 2541: 2540: 2534: 2532: 2531: 2524: 2517: 2509: 2500: 2499: 2497: 2496: 2495: 2494: 2484: 2478: 2476: 2470: 2469: 2467: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2430: 2428: 2422: 2421: 2419: 2418: 2413: 2408: 2403: 2402: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2381: 2375: 2373: 2371:Roman Republic 2367: 2366: 2364: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2337: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2326: 2325: 2320: 2319: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2293: 2288: 2283: 2277: 2275: 2269: 2268: 2263: 2261: 2260: 2253: 2246: 2238: 2232: 2231: 2226: 2221: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2209: 2197: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2184: 2181: 2174: 2171: 2164: 2157: 2154: 2145: 2138: 2131: 2124: 2117: 2110: 2091: 2089: 2086: 2084: 2083: 2062:10.2307/300549 2039: 2033: 2007: 2000: 1974: 1967: 1941: 1920:10.2307/291793 1914:(3): 238–254. 1898: 1883: 1875:10.30682/sg301 1857: 1850: 1824: 1817: 1791: 1789:, p. 340. 1779: 1767: 1755: 1753:, p. 337. 1740: 1725: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1701: 1686: 1675: 1660: 1653: 1646: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1622: 1621: 1620: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1570: 1568:Cursus honorum 1565: 1560: 1555: 1553:Roman dictator 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1498:Roman Republic 1495: 1489: 1487: 1484: 1446: 1443: 1415: 1414: 1397: 1372: 1371: 1356: 1278: 1275: 1270: 1269: 1263: 1257: 1221: 1218: 1143:Constantinople 1137:The cities of 1092: 1089: 1028: 1027: 1020: 1013: 1006: 982:Imperial Guard 921: 918: 912: 909: 887:replaced that 781:Roman emperors 717: 708: 644:chariot racing 603: 602: 600: 599: 592: 585: 577: 574: 573: 571: 570: 564: 561: 560: 558: 557: 552: 547: 542: 535: 528: 521: 514: 507: 500: 497:Vigintisexviri 493: 486: 479: 472: 465: 458: 450: 449: 448: 440: 439: 435: 434: 427: 426: 419: 412: 405: 397: 394: 393: 387: 386: 384: 383: 376: 369: 362: 355: 350: 343: 338: 332: 329: 328: 322: 321: 319: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 277: 274: 273: 267: 266: 264: 263: 258: 253: 248: 242: 239: 238: 232: 231: 229: 228: 225:Cursus honorum 221: 216: 209: 204: 198: 195: 194: 188: 187: 185: 184: 179: 178: 177: 167: 166: 165: 155: 149: 146: 145: 139: 138: 137: 136: 127: 126: 117: 107: 105: 104: 97: 96:27 BC – AD 284 89: 88: 87: 86:27 BC – AD 395 78: 73:Roman Republic 69: 57: 56: 52: 51: 48: 47: 39: 38: 33: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4489: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4323: 4321: 4312: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4212: 4210: 4206: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4176: 4173: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4027: 4025: 4023: 4019: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3843: 3840: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3777:Julius Paulus 3775: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3750: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3713: 3712:Fabius Pictor 3710: 3708: 3705: 3703: 3700: 3698: 3695: 3693: 3690: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3611: 3608: 3604: 3598: 3595: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3526: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3507: 3505: 3502: 3500: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3490: 3487: 3485: 3482: 3480: 3477: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3449:Amphitheatres 3447: 3446: 3444: 3442: 3438: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3424: 3422: 3419: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3409: 3407: 3404: 3402: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3390: 3387: 3386: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3372: 3370: 3367: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3343: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3304: 3300: 3297: 3296: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3245: 3242: 3240: 3237: 3235: 3232: 3230: 3227: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3218: 3212: 3209: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3199: 3197: 3194: 3192: 3189: 3187: 3186:Deforestation 3184: 3182: 3179: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3170: 3164: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3154: 3151: 3149: 3146: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3136:Siege engines 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3122: 3119: 3118: 3117: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3105: 3102: 3101: 3100: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3090: 3087: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3077: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3069:Establishment 3067: 3065: 3062: 3060: 3057: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3048: 3038: 3035: 3033: 3030: 3028: 3025: 3023: 3020: 3018: 3015: 3013: 3010: 3008: 3005: 3004: 3002: 3000:Extraordinary 2998: 2992: 2989: 2987: 2986:Promagistrate 2984: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2974: 2972: 2969: 2967: 2964: 2962: 2959: 2957: 2954: 2952: 2949: 2947: 2944: 2943: 2941: 2937: 2934: 2932: 2928: 2922: 2919: 2917: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2907: 2904: 2902: 2899: 2897: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2887: 2884: 2882: 2879: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2810: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2791: 2789: 2786: 2784: 2781: 2779: 2776: 2774: 2773:Twelve Tables 2771: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2762: 2756: 2753: 2751: 2748: 2744: 2741: 2739: 2736: 2734: 2731: 2729: 2726: 2725: 2724: 2721: 2719: 2716: 2714: 2711: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2699: 2696: 2694: 2691: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2682: 2670: 2667: 2666: 2665: 2662: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2649: 2648: 2645: 2641: 2638: 2636: 2633: 2632: 2631: 2628: 2626: 2623: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2599: 2593: 2590: 2586: 2583: 2582: 2581: 2578: 2576: 2573: 2572: 2569: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2545: 2542: 2537: 2530: 2525: 2523: 2518: 2516: 2511: 2510: 2507: 2493: 2490: 2489: 2488: 2485: 2483: 2480: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2474:Miscellaneous 2471: 2465: 2462: 2460: 2457: 2455: 2452: 2450: 2447: 2445: 2442: 2440: 2437: 2435: 2432: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2417: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2400: 2397: 2395: 2392: 2390: 2387: 2386: 2385: 2382: 2380: 2377: 2376: 2374: 2372: 2368: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2333:Roman Kingdom 2330: 2324: 2321: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2298: 2297: 2294: 2292: 2289: 2287: 2284: 2282: 2279: 2278: 2276: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2259: 2254: 2252: 2247: 2245: 2240: 2239: 2236: 2230: 2227: 2225: 2222: 2220: 2217: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2201: 2198: 2196: 2193: 2192: 2188: 2182: 2179: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2166:M. Crawford, 2165: 2162: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2148:The Histories 2146: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2132: 2129: 2125: 2122: 2118: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2102: 2097: 2093: 2092: 2087: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2043: 2040: 2036: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2011: 2008: 2003: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1978: 1975: 1970: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1953:. Routledge. 1952: 1945: 1942: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1902: 1899: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1861: 1858: 1853: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1828: 1825: 1820: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1795: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1780: 1776: 1771: 1768: 1764: 1759: 1756: 1752: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1736: 1729: 1726: 1721: 1714: 1711: 1705: 1699: 1698:0-472-08125-X 1695: 1691: 1687: 1684: 1683:James Hampton 1680: 1676: 1673: 1672:0-19-926108-3 1669: 1665: 1661: 1658: 1654: 1651: 1647: 1644: 1643:0-543-92749-0 1640: 1636: 1632: 1631: 1626: 1619: 1616: 1615: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1593:Promagistrate 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1499: 1496: 1494: 1493:Roman Kingdom 1491: 1490: 1485: 1483: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1464:Roman consuls 1459: 1456: 1452: 1444: 1442: 1440: 1436: 1435: 1430: 1426: 1425: 1424:duces limitis 1420: 1412: 1408: 1407: 1402: 1398: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1386: 1385: 1383: 1382: 1377: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1354: 1349: 1348: 1347: 1345: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1332: 1329: 1325: 1324: 1319: 1318:Palace Troops 1315: 1314: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1299: 1298: 1293: 1283: 1276: 1274: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1255: 1254:Vir illustris 1252: 1251: 1250: 1248: 1247:three classes 1244: 1240: 1239: 1234: 1227: 1219: 1217: 1215: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1189: 1183: 1181: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1168: 1164: 1163:City Watchmen 1160: 1156: 1155:Urban Cohorts 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1107: 1102: 1097: 1090: 1084: 1080: 1078: 1077: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1059: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1025: 1021: 1018: 1014: 1011: 1007: 1004: 1000: 999: 998: 996: 991: 989: 988: 983: 979: 975: 974: 969: 964: 962: 958: 954: 950: 945: 941: 940: 935: 930: 928: 919: 917: 910: 908: 906: 902: 898: 894: 891:. When a new 890: 886: 882: 878: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 852: 846: 844: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 810: 807: 803: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 777: 772: 767: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 732: 722: 716: 712: 709: 707: 704: 699: 695: 691: 687: 682: 680: 676: 672: 668: 662: 660: 656: 652: 647: 645: 641: 637: 633: 628: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 598: 593: 591: 586: 584: 579: 578: 576: 575: 569: 566: 565: 563: 562: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 541: 540: 536: 534: 533: 529: 527: 526: 522: 520: 519: 515: 513: 512: 508: 506: 505: 501: 499: 498: 494: 492: 491: 487: 485: 484: 480: 478: 477: 473: 471: 470: 466: 464: 463: 459: 457: 456: 452: 451: 447: 444: 443: 442: 441: 436: 433: 432: 425: 424: 420: 418: 417: 413: 411: 410: 406: 404: 403: 399: 398: 396: 395: 392: 388: 382: 381: 377: 375: 374: 370: 368: 367: 363: 361: 360: 356: 354: 351: 349: 348: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 333: 331: 330: 327: 323: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 296:Promagistrate 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 278: 276: 275: 272: 268: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 243: 241: 240: 237: 233: 227: 226: 222: 220: 217: 215: 214: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 199: 197: 196: 193: 189: 183: 180: 176: 173: 172: 171: 168: 164: 161: 160: 159: 156: 154: 151: 150: 148: 147: 144: 140: 135: 134: 130: 129: 123: 122: 118: 114: 113: 109: 108: 101: 98: 94: 91: 90: 84: 83: 79: 75: 74: 70: 66: 65: 64:Roman Kingdom 61: 60: 59: 58: 53: 50: 49: 45: 41: 40: 36: 31: 19: 4391:Institutions 4255:Leptis Magna 4208:Major cities 4115:Philostratus 3902:Quadrigarius 3722:Rufus Festus 3585:Contemporary 3306:Romanization 3229:Architecture 2836:Collegiality 2685:Constitution 2536:Ancient Rome 2444:Constitution 2426:Roman Empire 2384:Constitution 2346:Constitution 2286:Constitution 2273:Ancient Rome 2177: 2167: 2160: 2159:A. Cameron, 2147: 2141: 2134: 2127: 2120: 2113: 2100: 2088:Bibliography 2053: 2049: 2042: 2016: 2010: 1983: 1977: 1950: 1944: 1911: 1907: 1901: 1866: 1860: 1833: 1827: 1800: 1794: 1782: 1770: 1758: 1734: 1728: 1719: 1713: 1689: 1678: 1663: 1656: 1649: 1634: 1598:Acta Senatus 1563:Roman Senate 1538:Roman censor 1528:Roman consul 1503:Roman Empire 1471: 1467: 1460: 1455:similar body 1451:Roman Senate 1448: 1432: 1428: 1422: 1418: 1416: 1404: 1400: 1393: 1389: 1379: 1375: 1373: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1352: 1341: 1337: 1335: 1321: 1317: 1311: 1305: 1301: 1297:comitatenses 1295: 1292:Field Armies 1291: 1288: 1271: 1265: 1259: 1253: 1236: 1232: 1230: 1211: 1207: 1205: 1186: 1184: 1177: 1173: 1171: 1162: 1154: 1146: 1136: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1104: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1074: 1070: 1062: 1060: 1054: 1042: 1040: 1031: 1029: 1023: 1017:Legal Bureau 1016: 1009: 1002: 994: 992: 985: 981: 971: 967: 965: 956: 937: 933: 931: 923: 914: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 871: 867: 863: 859: 849: 847: 842: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 811: 805: 801: 796: 792: 788: 774: 770: 768: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 740:collegiality 735: 729: 727: 714: 710: 683: 663: 654: 650: 648: 629: 608: 606: 537: 530: 523: 516: 509: 502: 495: 488: 481: 474: 467: 460: 453: 429: 421: 414: 407: 400: 378: 371: 364: 357: 345: 223: 211: 207:Collegiality 143:Constitution 131: 120: 111: 82:Roman Empire 80: 71: 62: 4386:Geographers 4070:Dioscorides 4050:Cassius Dio 3672:Cassiodorus 3575:Renaissance 3181:Agriculture 3153:Auxiliaries 3094:Engineering 2931:Magistrates 2783:Citizenship 2778:Mos maiorum 2713:Late Empire 2464:Magistrates 2416:Magistrates 2361:Magistrates 2323:Magistrates 2176:F. Millar, 2130:. 1871-1888 2106:CUP Archive 2056:: 235–236. 1787:Abbott 1963 1775:Abbott 1963 1763:Abbott 1963 1751:Abbott 1963 1300:") and the 1161:") and the 978:Roman world 959:corps of (" 402:Mos maiorum 182:Late Empire 125:AD 395–1453 4466:Categories 4275:Mediolanum 4215:Alexandria 4180:Themistius 4145:Porphyrius 3972:Tertullian 3907:Quintilian 3897:Propertius 3792:Lactantius 3742:Fulgentius 3677:Censorinus 3499:Sanitation 3484:Metallurgy 3441:Technology 3406:Demography 3354:Patricians 3321:Spectacles 3279:Literature 3274:Hairstyles 3111:Technology 2861:Praefectus 2813:Government 2803:Litigation 2788:Auctoritas 2733:Centuriate 2620:Principate 2615:Pax Romana 2575:Foundation 2492:Obligation 2459:Assemblies 2411:Assemblies 2356:Assemblies 2306:Centuriate 2296:Assemblies 1627:References 1513:Principate 1439:Principate 1437:") of the 1328:Principate 1208:Presidents 785:Principate 783:under the 667:Mediolanum 659:civil wars 621:Diocletian 483:Praefectus 391:Public law 246:Centuriate 236:Assemblies 213:Auctoritas 116:AD 395–476 103:AD 284–641 93:Principate 68:753–509 BC 4431:Quaestors 4361:Empresses 4351:Dynasties 4341:Dictators 4316:and other 4305:Volubilis 4300:Vindobona 4260:Londinium 4185:Theodoret 4155:Procopius 4135:Polyaenus 4110:Pausanias 4012:Vitruvius 3957:Symmachus 3952:Suetonius 3862:Petronius 3847:Obsequens 3812:Macrobius 3807:Lucretius 3732:Frontinus 3707:Eutropius 3692:Columella 3642:Augustine 3632:Appuleius 3580:Neo-Latin 3555:Classical 3546:Versions 3454:Aqueducts 3396:Patronage 3316:Sexuality 3289:Mythology 3264:Education 3254:Cosmetics 3079:Campaigns 3074:Structure 3027:Decemviri 2886:Imperator 2585:overthrow 2487:Roman law 2098:(2018) . 2096:Bury, J B 2070:0075-4358 1928:0002-9475 1893:225746028 1518:Tetrarchy 1508:Roman law 1480:Quaestors 1307:limitanei 1243:feudalism 1132:Galliarum 856:Tetrarchy 694:Apennines 625:Tetrarchy 525:Imperator 373:Decemviri 366:Triumviri 336:Corrector 77:509–27 BC 4436:Tribunes 4426:Praetors 4376:Generals 4356:Emperors 4265:Lugdunum 4250:Eboracum 4240:Carthage 4225:Aquileia 4140:Polybius 4130:Plutarch 4100:Libanius 4090:Josephus 4085:Herodian 3977:Tibullus 3892:Priscian 3867:Phaedrus 3827:Manilius 3772:Jordanes 3757:Hydatius 3687:Claudian 3667:Catullus 3657:Boëthius 3652:Ausonius 3570:Medieval 3542:Alphabet 3514:Theatres 3489:Numerals 3474:Concrete 3464:Circuses 3431:Bagaudae 3421:Adoption 3416:Marriage 3389:Assembly 3294:Religion 3269:Folklore 3249:Clothing 3244:Calendar 3201:Currency 3191:Commerce 3089:Strategy 3051:Military 3037:Triumvir 3017:Dictator 3012:Interrex 2991:Governor 2976:Quaestor 2939:Ordinary 2921:Province 2911:Tetrarch 2901:Augustus 2866:Vicarius 2856:Officium 2793:Imperium 2743:Plebeian 2703:Republic 2625:Dominate 2592:Republic 2553:Timeline 2316:Plebeian 2203:Archived 2152:Polybius 1608:Centuria 1588:Interrex 1543:Quaestor 1486:See also 1476:Praetors 1366:) and a 1323:Palatini 1320:units (" 1179:Vicarius 1128:Italiae, 1124:Illyrici 1120:Orientis 1055:de facto 984:corps (" 953:Libanius 905:Caesares 897:Augustus 889:Augustus 885:Caesares 881:Augustus 860:Caesares 851:Caesares 834:Princeps 818:Princeps 814:Princeps 806:Augustus 797:Princeps 793:Princeps 789:Princeps 776:Princeps 756:Augustus 752:Augustus 748:Augustus 715:Caesares 655:Caesares 653:and two 640:praetors 555:Tetrarch 545:Augustus 490:Vicarius 469:Officium 380:Interrex 341:Dictator 316:Governor 291:Quaestor 256:Plebeian 202:Imperium 158:Republic 133:Timeline 100:Dominate 4406:Legions 4366:Fiction 4336:Consuls 4331:Climate 4285:Ravenna 4280:Pompeii 4270:Lutetia 4235:Bononia 4230:Berytus 4220:Antioch 4195:Zosimus 4190:Zonaras 4165:Sozomen 4150:Priscus 4125:Photius 3967:Terence 3962:Tacitus 3947:Statius 3932:Servius 3917:Sallust 3872:Plautus 3852:Orosius 3832:Martial 3787:Juvenal 3762:Hyginus 3747:Gellius 3606:Writers 3537:History 3519:Thermae 3509:Temples 3459:Bridges 3426:Slavery 3374:Equites 3346:Society 3326:Theatre 3299:Deities 3259:Cuisine 3239:Bathing 3221:Culture 3196:Finance 3173:Economy 3064:Borders 3059:History 2961:Tribune 2956:Praetor 2846:Legatus 2841:Emperor 2728:Curiate 2698:Kingdom 2693:History 2669:History 2652:decline 2610:History 2580:Kingdom 2563:History 2548:Outline 2434:History 2379:History 2341:History 2301:Curiate 2281:History 1533:Praetor 1478:" and " 1213:Praeses 1201:Archaea 1167:Vigiles 901:Augusti 872:Augusti 868:Augusti 864:Augusti 843:Augusti 838:Augusti 830:Augusti 826:Augusti 822:Augusti 802:Augusti 771:Augusti 744:Augusti 736:Augusti 731:Augusti 711:Augusti 651:Augusti 636:consuls 476:Praeses 455:Legatus 446:Emperor 306:Tribune 286:Praetor 251:Curiate 153:Kingdom 121:Eastern 112:Western 55:Periods 4416:Nomina 4401:Legacy 4381:Gentes 4318:topics 4314:Lists 4295:Smyrna 4175:Strabo 4105:Lucian 4095:Julian 4045:Arrian 4040:Appian 4030:Aelian 4007:Vergil 3782:Justin 3767:Jerome 3752:Horace 3737:Fronto 3727:Florus 3702:Ennius 3682:Cicero 3662:Caesar 3560:Vulgar 3384:Tribes 3311:Romans 3121:Legion 3104:castra 2981:Aedile 2951:Censor 2946:Consul 2906:Caesar 2876:Lictor 2798:Status 2738:Tribal 2718:Senate 2708:Empire 2602:Empire 2538:topics 2454:Senate 2406:Senate 2351:Senate 2311:Tribal 2291:Senate 2078:300549 2076: 2068: 2031: 1998: 1965: 1936:291793 1934: 1926: 1891: 1881: 1848: 1815: 1696: 1670: 1641: 1548:Aedile 1233:Counts 1220:Counts 1199:, and 1193:Africa 1051:eunuch 893:Caesar 877:Caesar 836:, the 698:Raetia 634:(e.g. 550:Caesar 511:Lictor 311:Censor 301:Aedile 281:Consul 261:Tribal 170:Empire 4080:Galen 4022:Greek 3992:Varro 3802:Lucan 3614:Latin 3529:Latin 3504:Ships 3494:Roads 3479:Domes 3411:Women 3359:Plebs 3284:Music 2826:Forum 2821:Curia 2074:JSTOR 1932:JSTOR 1889:S2CID 1706:Notes 1681:. By 1523:Curia 1419:Dukes 1313:limes 1238:comes 1174:Vicar 927:comes 686:vicar 679:Trier 677:(now 671:Milan 669:(now 4396:Laws 4371:Film 4290:Roma 3857:Ovid 3797:Livy 3565:Late 3379:Gens 3336:Wine 3148:Navy 3116:Army 2755:SPQR 2657:fall 2635:fall 2066:ISSN 2029:ISBN 1996:ISBN 1963:ISBN 1924:ISSN 1879:ISBN 1846:ISBN 1813:ISBN 1694:ISBN 1668:ISBN 1639:ISBN 1197:Asia 1141:and 1139:Rome 1130:and 1030:The 1022:The 1015:The 1008:The 1001:The 769:The 713:and 638:and 607:The 3550:Old 3234:Art 3007:Rex 2851:Dux 2765:Law 2150:by 2058:doi 2021:doi 1988:doi 1955:doi 1916:doi 1871:doi 1838:doi 1805:doi 462:Dux 409:Ius 359:Rex 4468:: 2104:. 2072:. 2064:. 2054:81 2052:. 2027:, 1994:. 1961:. 1930:. 1922:. 1912:80 1910:. 1887:. 1877:. 1844:. 1811:. 1743:^ 1700:). 1674:). 1645:). 1431:(" 1421:(" 1403:(" 1392:(" 1378:(" 1340:(" 1333:. 1304:(" 1294:(" 1235:(" 1210:(" 1195:, 1176:(" 1165:(" 1157:(" 1149:(" 1126:, 1122:, 1103:(" 1073:(" 1065:(" 1045:(" 1034:(" 970:(" 936:(" 766:. 684:A 2528:e 2521:t 2514:v 2257:e 2250:t 2243:v 2080:. 2060:: 2023:: 2004:. 1990:: 1971:. 1957:: 1938:. 1918:: 1895:. 1873:: 1854:. 1840:: 1821:. 1807:: 1362:( 1228:. 779:( 596:e 589:t 582:v 20:)

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