203:
existence and non-existence cease to be coherent with each other and do not interfere any more. In the quantum field theory view, actual particles are viewed as being detectable excitations of underlying quantum fields. Virtual particles are also viewed as excitations of the underlying fields, but appear only as forces, not as detectable particles. They are "temporary" in the sense that they appear in some calculations, but are not detected as single particles. Thus, in mathematical terms, they never appear as indices to the
1755:
584:
507:
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214:; that is, as terms in a perturbative calculation. They also appear as an infinite set of states to be summed or integrated over in the calculation of a semi-non-perturbative effect. In the latter case, it is sometimes said that virtual particles contribute to a mechanism that mediates the effect, or that the effect occurs through the virtual particles.
113:. The accuracy and use of virtual particles in calculations is firmly established, but as they cannot be detected in experiments, deciding how to precisely describe them is a topic of debate. Although widely used, they are by no means a necessary feature of QFT, but rather are mathematical conveniences â as demonstrated by
108:
The term is somewhat loose and vaguely defined, in that it refers to the view that the world is made up of "real particles". "Real particles" are better understood to be excitations of the underlying quantum fields. Virtual particles are also excitations of the underlying fields, but are "temporary"
806:
The lifetime of real particles is typically vastly longer than the lifetime of the virtual particles. Electromagnetic radiation consists of real photons which may travel light years between the emitter and absorber, but (Coulombic) electrostatic attraction and repulsion is a relatively short-range
233:
For the gravitational and electromagnetic forces, the zero rest-mass of the associated boson particle permits long-range forces to be mediated by virtual particles. However, in the case of photons, power and information transfer by virtual particles is a relatively short-range phenomenon (existing
202:
Written in the usual mathematical notations, in the equations of physics, there is no mark of the distinction between virtual and actual particles. The amplitudes of processes with a virtual particle interfere with the amplitudes of processes without it, whereas for an actual particle the cases of
799:, any object or process that exists for a limited time or in a limited volume cannot have a precisely defined energy or momentum. For this reason, virtual particles – which exist only temporarily as they are exchanged between ordinary particles – do not typically obey the
272:. In symmetric 3-dimensional space, this exchange results in the inverse cube law for magnetic force. Since the photon has no mass, the magnetic potential has an infinite range. Even though the range is infinite, the time lapse allowed for a virtual photon existence is not infinite.
423:
of radio antennas, where the magnetic and electric effects of the changing current in the antenna wire and the charge effects of the wire's capacitive charge may be (and usually are) important contributors to the total EM field close to the source, but both of which effects are
448:. As distance from the antenna grows, the near-field effects (as dipole fields) die out more quickly, and only the "radiative" effects that are due to actual photons remain as important effects. Although virtual effects extend to infinity, they drop off in field strength as
706:. Here, the explanation of the effect requires that the total energy of all of the virtual particles in a vacuum can be added together. Thus, although the virtual particles themselves are not directly observable in the laboratory, they do leave an observable effect: Their
198:
may be considered a manifestation of virtual particle exchanges. The range of forces carried by virtual particles is limited by the uncertainty principle, which regards energy and time as conjugate variables; thus, virtual particles of larger mass have more limited range.
526:. The appeal of the Feynman diagrams is strong, as it allows for a simple visual presentation of what would otherwise be a rather arcane and abstract formula. In particular, part of the appeal is that the outgoing legs of a Feynman diagram can be associated with actual,
740:
which can be of any kind. These pairs exist for an extremely short time, and then mutually annihilate, or in some cases, the pair may be boosted apart using external energy so that they avoid annihilation and become actual particles, as described below.
440:, are composed of actual photons. Actual and virtual photons are mixed near an antenna, with the virtual photons responsible only for the "extra" magnetic-inductive and transient electric-dipole effects, which cause any imbalance between
133:, an approximation scheme in which interactions (in essence, forces) between actual particles are calculated in terms of exchanges of virtual particles. Such calculations are often performed using schematic representations known as
234:
only within a few wavelengths of the field-disturbance, which carries information or transferred power), as for example seen in the characteristically short range of inductive and capacitative effects in the
66:(QFT) where interactions between ordinary particles are described in terms of exchanges of virtual particles. A process involving virtual particles can be described by a schematic representation known as a
192:
over longer distances and times. As a consequence, a real photon is massless and thus has only two polarization states, whereas a virtual one, being effectively massive, has three polarization states.
85:. The closer its characteristics come to those of ordinary particles, the longer the virtual particle exists. They are important in the physics of many processes, including particle scattering and
323:
during the decay of an excited atom or excited nucleus; such a decay is prohibited by ordinary quantum mechanics and requires the quantization of the electromagnetic field for its explanation.
522:
requires the use of some rather large and complicated integrals over a large number of variables. These integrals do, however, have a regular structure, and may be represented as
530:
particles. Thus, it is natural to associate the other lines in the diagram with particles as well, called the "virtual particles". In mathematical terms, they correspond to the
1530:
1166:
603:. However, in order to preserve quantum numbers, most simple diagrams involving fermion exchange are prohibited. The image to the right shows an allowed diagram, a
293:. The residual of this force outside of quark triplets (neutron and proton) holds neutrons and protons together in nuclei, and is due to virtual mesons such as the
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226:
when they are free and actual, virtual interactions are characterized by the relatively short range of the force interaction produced by particle exchange.
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837:
58:, which allows the virtual particles to spontaneously emerge from vacuum at short time and space ranges. The concept of virtual particles arises in the
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779:), the strength of the electric field will be such that it will be energetically favorable to create positronâelectron pairs out of the vacuum or
126:
59:
1523:
1484:â Gordon Kane, director of the Michigan Center for Theoretical Physics at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, proposes an answer at the
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can lead to a short range, too. Examples of such short-range interactions are the strong and weak forces, and their associated field bosons.
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is not conserved. Examples of macroscopic virtual phonons, photons, and electrons in the case of the tunneling process were presented by
137:, in which virtual particles appear as internal lines. By expressing the interaction in terms of the exchange of a virtual particle with
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222:
There are many observable physical phenomena that arise in interactions involving virtual particles. For bosonic particles that exhibit
1092:
210:
There are two principal ways in which the notion of virtual particles appears in modern physics. They appear as intermediate terms in
783:, with the electron attracted to the nucleus to annihilate the positive charge. This pair-creation amplitude was first calculated by
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for the system. This implies the number of particles in an area of space is not a well-defined quantity but, like other quantum
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are merged to very briefly form a nucleus with a charge greater than about 140, (that is, larger than about the inverse of the
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38:
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effects that decay with increasing distance from the antenna much more quickly than do the influence of "conventional"
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207:, which is to say, they never appear as the observable inputs and outputs of the physical process being modelled.
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is given by the difference between the four-momenta of the particles entering and leaving the interaction vertex,
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in the sense that they appear in calculations of interactions, but never as asymptotic states or indices to the
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of the quantized electromagnetic field causes attraction between a pair of electrically neutral metal plates.
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that exhibits some of the characteristics of an ordinary particle, while having its existence limited by the
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278:. This phenomenon transfers energy to and from a magnetic coil via a changing (electro)magnetic field.
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748:, the virtual particles may appear to be actual to the accelerating observer; this is known as the
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752:. In short, the vacuum of a stationary frame appears, to the accelerated observer, to be a warm
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474:, the roles of electrons, positrons and photons in field theory are replaced by electrons in the
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355:, which is the spontaneous production of particle-antiparticle pairs (such as electron-positron).
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for electric force. Since the photon has no mass, the coulomb potential has an infinite range.
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470:; indeed, one can often gain a better intuitive understanding by examining these cases. In
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249:(static electric force) between electric charges. It is caused by the exchange of virtual
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188:. The probability amplitude for a virtual particle to exist tends to be canceled out by
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or attraction between two chargesâcan be thought of as resulting from the exchange of
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Another example is pair production in very strong electric fields, sometimes called
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In the adjacent image, the solid lines correspond to actual particles (of momentum p
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Lambrecht, Astrid (September 2002). "The
Casimir effect: a force from nothing".
1303:
607:. The solid lines correspond to a fermion propagator, the wavy lines to bosons.
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An important example of the "presence" of virtual particles in a vacuum is the
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1184:(2nd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. pp. 443â444.
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and so on), while the dotted line corresponds to a virtual particle carrying
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Some field interactions which may be seen in terms of virtual particles are:
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rather than the field of EM waves composed of actual photons, which drop as
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1112:(Updated and expanded tenth anniversary ed.). New York: Bantam Books.
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695:. In a certain sense, they can be understood to be a manifestation of the
1508:
1328:
A radically modern approach to introductory physics: volume 2: four forces
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Stahlhofen, A.; Nimtz, G. (2006). "Evanescent modes are virtual photons".
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Are virtual particles really constantly popping in and out of existence?
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Jaffe, R. L. (12 July 2005). "Casimir effect and the quantum vacuum".
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Virtual particles are often popularly described as coming in pairs, a
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as the corresponding ordinary particle, although they always conserve
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881:"Far" in terms of ratio of antenna length or diameter, to wavelength.
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714:. On the other hand, the Casimir effect can be interpreted as the
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683:. Since these particles are not certain to exist, they are called
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both momentum and energy are conserved at the interaction vertices
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force that is a consequence of the exchange of virtual photons .
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or vibrations of the crystal lattice. A virtual particle is in a
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that are "far" from the source. These far-field waves, for which
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2347:
1923:
1918:
1229:
Nimtz, G. (2009). "On virtual phonons, photons, and electrons".
565:
556:, the dotted line would correspond to the exchange of a virtual
253:. In symmetric 3-dimensional space this exchange results in the
74:
70:, in which virtual particles are represented by internal lines.
1774:
1512:
1206:"Ephemeral vacuum particles induce speed-of-light fluctuations"
890:
The electrical power in the fields, respectively, decrease as
753:
710:
results in forces acting on suitably arranged metal plates or
341:, which is partly due to the Casimir effect between two atoms.
178:. Its kinetic energy may not have the usual relationship to
998:, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester UK, revised edition,
921:
for practical communications applications of near fields.
1331:. Socorro, NM: New Mexico Tech Press. pp. 252â254.
1137:(Reprint. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press.
667:). In many cases, the particle number operator does not
548:. For example, if the solid lines were to correspond to
1182:
Superstrings and other things : a guide to physics
744:
This may occur in one of two ways. In an accelerating
182:. It can be negative. This is expressed by the phrase
73:
Virtual particles do not necessarily carry the same
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633:In formal terms, a particle is considered to be an
89:. In quantum field theory, forcesâsuch as the
155:A virtual particle does not precisely obey the
125:The concept of virtual particles arises in the
1786:
1524:
117:, which avoids using the concept altogether.
97:between the charges. Virtual photons are the
8:
1165:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
599:, as in the example above; they may also be
436:is (in the limit of long distance) equal to
838:Static forces and virtual-particle exchange
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268:. It is caused by the exchange of virtual
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1087:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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587:One-loop diagram with fermion propagator
510:One particle exchange scattering diagram
466:Most of these have analogous effects in
289:is the result of interaction of virtual
975:An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory
932:
874:
795:As a consequence of quantum mechanical
27:Transient quantum fluctuation (physics)
1158:
973:Peskin, M.E., Schroeder, D.V. (1995).
368:, which defines the ratio between the
1354:"A vacuum can yield flashes of light"
1352:Choi, Charles Q. (13 February 2013).
576:, the dotted line would be a virtual
564:, the dotted line would be a virtual
308:is the result of exchange by virtual
7:
946:Introduction to Elementary Particles
917:for a more detailed discussion. See
1133:Walters, Tony Hey; Patrick (2004).
1018:"Are virtual particles less real?"
25:
1759:Template:Quantum mechanics topics
1492:Virtual Particles: What are they?
994:Mandl, F., Shaw, G. (1984/2002).
697:time-energy uncertainty principle
2837:
2730:Timeline of particle discoveries
1754:
1753:
1631:Anomalous magnetic dipole moment
716:relativistic van der Waals force
663:(sometimes collectively called
39:Quantum vacuum (disambiguation)
560:. In the case of interacting
361:of positions of atomic levels.
1:
818:Anomalous photovoltaic effect
767:. If, for example, a pair of
2746:History of subatomic physics
791:Compared to actual particles
572:interacting by means of the
552:interacting by means of the
238:zone of coils and antennas.
1554:EulerâHeisenberg Lagrangian
554:electromagnetic interaction
103:electromagnetic interaction
50:is a theoretical transient
2885:
1455:10.1103/PhysRevD.72.021301
1325:Raymond, David J. (2012).
725:
614:
534:appearing in the diagram.
498:and Alfons A. Stahlhofen.
37:For related articles, see
36:
29:
2835:
2520:
1745:
1569:Path integral formulation
1410:10.1088/2058-7058/15/9/29
1367:10.1038/nature.2013.12430
1304:10.1209/epl/i2006-10271-9
1261:10.1007/s10701-009-9356-z
1180:Calle, Carlos I. (2010).
1108:Hawking, Stephen (1998).
758:thermodynamic equilibrium
591:Virtual particles may be
276:Electromagnetic induction
91:electromagnetic repulsion
2763:mathematical formulation
2358:Eta and eta prime mesons
1737:Photon-photon scattering
1135:The new quantum universe
919:near-field communication
681:probability distribution
639:particle number operator
190:destructive interference
157:energyâmomentum relation
152:of the Feynman diagram.
30:Not to be confused with
2425:Double-charm tetraquark
1681:WardâTakahashi identity
1564:GuptaâBleuler formalism
1540:Quantum electrodynamics
1504:p. 156 popular article
1110:A brief history of time
1085:Modern particle physics
848:Vacuum Rabi oscillation
773:fine-structure constant
756:of actual particles in
383:magnetic field strength
370:electric field strength
366:impedance of free space
1083:Thomson, Mark (2013).
1016:Jaeger, Gregg (2019).
777:dimensionless quantity
679:, is represented by a
588:
511:
419:Much of the so-called
2822:Waveâparticle duality
2812:Relativistic particle
1949:Electron antineutrino
1702:BreitâWheeler process
1641:KleinâNishina formula
951:John Wiley & Sons
653:annihilation operator
586:
516:scattering amplitudes
509:
492:probability amplitude
430:electromagnetic waves
56:uncertainty principle
2869:Quantum field theory
2052:FaddeevâPopov ghosts
1802:Particles in physics
996:Quantum Field Theory
843:Zero-energy universe
317:spontaneous emission
283:strong nuclear force
131:quantum field theory
115:lattice field theory
64:quantum field theory
2864:Concepts in physics
2827:Particle chauvinism
2770:Subatomic particles
1717:DelbrĂźck scattering
1671:Vacuum polarization
1595:FaddeevâPopov ghost
1486:Scientific American
1447:2005PhRvD..72b1301J
1296:2006EL.....76..189S
1253:2009FoPh...39.1346N
1143:2003nqu..book.....H
1037:2019Entrp..21..141J
801:mass-shell relation
689:vacuum fluctuations
617:Quantum fluctuation
514:The calculation of
468:solid-state physics
353:decay of the vacuum
345:Vacuum polarization
339:van der Waals force
127:perturbation theory
60:perturbation theory
1712:Compton scattering
1499:American Scientist
977:, Westview Press,
915:near and far field
858:Virtual black hole
746:frame of reference
589:
512:
306:weak nuclear force
255:inverse square law
196:Quantum tunnelling
99:exchange particles
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1979:
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1959:Muon antineutrino
1944:Electron neutrino
1768:
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1727:Møller scattering
1697:Bhabha scattering
1666:Uehling potential
1615:Virtual particles
1425:Physical Review D
1338:978-0-98303-946-4
1237:(12): 1346â1355.
1046:10.3390/e21020141
960:978-3-527-40601-2
708:zero-point energy
685:virtual particles
661:creation operator
568:. In the case of
347:, which involves
264:between magnetic
205:scattering matrix
111:scattering matrix
16:(Redirected from
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2841:
2817:Virtual particle
2588:Mesonic molecule
2522:
2518:
2363:Bottom eta meson
2271:
2262:
2234:WⲠand ZⲠbosons
2224:Sterile neutrino
2209:Majorana fermion
2076:
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1990:
1969:Tau antineutrino
1824:
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1732:Schwinger effect
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1497:D Kaiser (2005)
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949:(2nd ed.).
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785:Julian Schwinger
665:ladder operators
651:is the particle
605:one-loop diagram
524:Feynman diagrams
520:particle physics
502:Feynman diagrams
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1284:Europhys. Lett
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1094:978-1107034266
1093:
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953:. p. 65.
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310:W and Z bosons
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262:magnetic field
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218:Manifestations
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185:off mass shell
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2780:Antiparticles
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742:
739:
735:
729:
721:
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698:
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693:vacuum energy
690:
686:
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659:the particle
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654:
650:
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643:
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626:
622:
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598:
597:vector bosons
594:
585:
581:
580:, and so on.
579:
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544:
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521:
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488:virtual state
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263:
259:
256:
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247:Coulomb force
244:
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229:
225:
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173:
169:
165:
162:
158:
153:
151:
140:
139:four-momentum
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120:
118:
116:
112:
106:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
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71:
69:
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61:
57:
53:
49:
44:
40:
33:
19:
2842:
2816:
2513:Hypothetical
2461:Exotic atoms
2330:Omega baryon
2320:Sigma baryon
2310:Delta baryon
2062:Hypothetical
2044:Ghost fields
2030:Higgs boson
1964:Tau neutrino
1856:Charm (quark
1750:
1614:
1501:
1498:
1485:
1428:
1424:
1418:
1404:(9): 29â32.
1401:
1397:
1391:
1379:. Retrieved
1357:
1347:
1327:
1320:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1234:
1230:
1224:
1213:. Retrieved
1209:
1200:
1181:
1175:
1134:
1128:
1109:
1103:
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1028:
1024:
1011:
995:
990:
974:
969:
944:
935:
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900:
893:
886:
877:
853:Quantum foam
823:False vacuum
805:
794:
765:vacuum decay
762:
750:Unruh effect
743:
738:antiparticle
731:
701:
688:
684:
656:
648:
644:
641:
632:
629:Vacuum state
590:
574:strong force
545:
536:
513:
496:GĂźnter Nimtz
480:valence band
465:
458:
451:
410:
404:
396:
388:
375:
332:ground state
330:, where the
240:
232:
221:
209:
201:
194:
183:
174:
171:
167:
163:
160:
154:
149:
124:
107:
72:
47:
45:
43:
32:Antiparticle
2795:Quark model
2563:Theta meson
2466:Positronium
2378:Omega meson
2373:J/psi meson
2303:Antineutron
2214:Dark photon
2179:Graviphoton
2138:Stop squark
1846:Down (quark
1656:Self-energy
1646:Landau pole
1610:Positronium
1585:Dual photon
1231:Found. Phys
797:uncertainty
712:dielectrics
677:observables
673:Hamiltonian
532:propagators
228:Confinement
2858:Categories
2537:Heptaquark
2498:Superatoms
2431:Pentaquark
2421:Tetraquark
2403:Quarkonium
2293:Antiproton
2194:Leptoquark
2129:Neutralino
1891:antiquark)
1881:antiquark)
1876:Top (quark
1871:antiquark)
1861:antiquark)
1851:antiquark)
1841:antiquark)
1810:Elementary
1722:Lamb shift
1651:QED vacuum
1290:(2): 198.
1215:2017-07-24
1031:(2): 141.
928:References
863:Added mass
635:eigenstate
625:QCD vacuum
621:QED vacuum
490:where the
421:near-field
359:Lamb shift
236:near field
121:Properties
2775:Particles
2720:Particles
2679:Polariton
2669:Plasmaron
2639:Dropleton
2532:Hexaquark
2503:Molecules
2491:Protonium
2368:Phi meson
2353:Rho meson
2325:Xi baryon
2257:Composite
2093:Gravitino
1836:Up (quark
1751:See also:
1690:Processes
1578:Particles
1547:Formalism
1376:124394711
1312:250758644
1269:118594121
1244:0907.1611
1161:cite book
870:Footnotes
787:in 1951.
781:Dirac sea
671:with the
550:electrons
299:rho meson
224:rest mass
2751:timeline
2603:R-hadron
2558:Glueball
2542:Skyrmion
2476:Tauonium
2189:Inflaton
2184:Graviton
2164:Curvaton
2134:Sfermion
2124:Higgsino
2119:Chargino
2080:Gauginos
1939:Neutrino
1924:Antimuon
1914:Positron
1909:Electron
1819:Fermions
1624:Concepts
1605:Positron
1590:Electron
1488:website.
1463:13171179
1381:2 August
1210:Phys.org
1065:33266857
985:, p. 80.
943:(2008).
811:See also
734:particle
647:, where
601:fermions
562:nucleons
543:momentum
528:on-shell
402:= |
381:and the
295:pi meson
285:between
180:velocity
144:, where
101:for the
83:momentum
52:particle
2739:Related
2710:Baryons
2684:Polaron
2674:Plasmon
2649:Fracton
2644:Exciton
2598:Diquark
2593:Pomeron
2568:T meson
2525:Baryons
2486:Pionium
2471:Muonium
2398:D meson
2393:B meson
2298:Neutron
2283:Nucleon
2275:Baryons
2266:Hadrons
2229:Tachyon
2204:Majoron
2169:Dilaton
2098:Photino
1934:Antitau
1901:Leptons
1443:Bibcode
1292:Bibcode
1249:Bibcode
1139:Bibcode
1056:7514619
1033:Bibcode
1025:Entropy
669:commute
637:of the
611:Vacuums
484:phonons
351:or the
270:photons
266:dipoles
251:photons
2715:Mesons
2664:Phonon
2659:Magnon
2581:Others
2551:Mesons
2444:Others
2340:Mesons
2288:Proton
2152:Others
2107:Others
2088:Gluino
2022:Scalar
2002:Photon
1985:Bosons
1828:Quarks
1600:Photon
1482:
1461:
1374:
1358:Nature
1335:
1310:
1267:
1188:
1149:
1116:
1091:
1063:
1053:
1002:
981:
957:
627:, and
593:mesons
570:quarks
558:photon
482:, and
426:dipole
414:|
392:|
386:|
379:|
373:|
321:photon
291:gluons
287:quarks
79:energy
2703:Lists
2694:Trion
2689:Roton
2629:Anyon
2456:Atoms
2219:Preon
2159:Axion
2114:Axino
2007:Gluon
1994:Gauge
1459:S2CID
1433:arXiv
1372:S2CID
1308:S2CID
1265:S2CID
1239:arXiv
1021:(PDF)
736:and
578:gluon
319:of a
2654:Hole
2481:Onia
2388:Kaon
2348:Pion
1919:Muon
1383:2015
1333:ISBN
1186:ISBN
1167:link
1147:ISBN
1114:ISBN
1089:ISBN
1061:PMID
1000:ISBN
979:ISBN
955:ISBN
913:See
897:and
655:and
566:pion
444:and
364:The
337:The
326:The
315:The
304:The
297:and
281:The
260:The
245:The
81:and
75:mass
1929:Tau
1451:doi
1406:doi
1362:doi
1300:doi
1257:doi
1051:PMC
1041:doi
754:gas
691:of
687:or
595:or
129:of
62:of
2860::
1502:93
1457:.
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1441:.
1429:72
1427:.
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1400:.
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1163:}}
1159:{{
1145:.
1073:^
1059:.
1049:.
1039:.
1029:21
1027:.
1023:.
899:1/
892:1/
760:.
718:.
623:,
619:,
457:1/
450:1/
446:cB
438:cB
394::
170:â
166:=
105:.
46:A
2427:)
2423:(
2140:)
2136:(
1794:e
1787:t
1780:v
1532:e
1525:t
1518:v
1465:.
1453::
1445::
1435::
1412:.
1408::
1385:.
1364::
1341:.
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1271:.
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1251::
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1194:.
1169:)
1155:.
1141::
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1067:.
1043::
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963:.
904:.
901:r
894:r
657:a
649:a
645:a
642:a
546:k
539:1
462:.
459:r
452:r
442:E
434:E
416:.
411:H
405:E
400:0
397:Z
389:H
376:E
312:.
301:.
175:c
172:p
168:E
164:c
161:m
146:q
142:q
41:.
34:.
20:)
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