143:" originally denoted Romance-speaking populations; the term became synonymous in some contexts with "shepherds", but even in these cases an ethnical aspect was implicit. The establishment around them of a large number of "slaves" starting from the 6th century led to the linguistic Slavization of a significant number of these communities, so that in the 8th century, the word "Vlach" came, in Slavic languages, to designate any Orthodox shepherd, whether he remained Romanophone (as in the Kingdom of Eastern Hungary and the Principality of Transylvania) or became Slavophone (as in a large part of the Balkan Peninsula). The concept originates in the laws enforced on Vlachs in the medieval Balkans. In medieval Serbian charters, the pastoral community, primarily made up of
177:
543:.The Romanian districts comprised estates possessed by the Romanian knezes where the Romanian peasantry worked, some of these had over a hundred peasants. The knezes held the title of nobles, however the knezes were not qualified as full nobles, because they were obligated to pay duties to the castle in exchange for their estates. The duties of the Romanian knezes varied according to the district and to the individual conditions under which their ancestors had initially acquired and settled the land: to provide a single mounted warrior for guarding the
714:
right of land ownership and personal freedom. In this way, the
Habsburgs achieved several objectives such as a cheap army for border defense. As another result, the border guards were extremely loyal to the Habsburg king and he could utilize them not only against the Ottomans but also for internal conflicts against peasants and nobles. When the Military Frontier was established, many former serfs, nomadic farmers and immigrants from the Ottoman Empire-occupied areas were tasked with guarding the borders. Among them, the
26:
165:
1063:[Village with Vlach law]. In Ortutay, Gyula; Bodrogi, Tibor; Diószegi, Vilmos; Fél, Edit; Gunda, Béla; Kósa, László; Martin, György; Pócs, Éva; Rajeczky, Benjamin; Tálasi, István; Vincze, István; Kicsi, Sándor; Nagy, Olivérné; Csikós, Magdolna; Koroknay, István; Kádár, József; Máté, Károly; Süle, Jenő (eds.).
482:
rights, those rights were recognized by the castellans at the head of
Hungarian castle districts. In the district courts, in accordance with Hungarian administrative practice, they appointed not only kenezes but also Romanian priests and commoners, and the courts followed Romanian customary law in rendering judgment.
719:
They also had dukes as military commanders and a self-government and judicial system. The Vlachs were tasked with guarding the borders, supervising major roads and mountain paths to ensure the safety of passengers and cargo transports. In return, the
Habsburg monarchs gave them other privileges and tax reductions.
387:, meaning "sheep fiftieth") was paid only by the Romanians, a people closely identified with sheep-breeding. The tax required the delivery of one sheep for every fifty sheep held. Since the mountain-dwelling Romanians practised but subsistence farming, they were not taxed on their agricultural output.
534:
by
Romanian knezes. These knezes were entrusted with the duty to populate private and royal estates. The Romanian knezes in return for their settlement activities, obtained permanent leadership of the settlements which they had founded and they acquired rights to revenues. In the early 14th century,
481:
elected the magistrates who worked alongside the royal court), and ). The voivodes followed the example of the kenezes and obtained that their status and privileges be passed on to their heirs. The hereditary status of voivodes and kenez did not deprive ordinary
Romanians of their legal and economic
275:
from the 14th century. Mostly shepherds lived in their villages with the Vlach law. According to this law, people were settled where the natural conditions were not favorable for farming. Its essential elements were the unique taxation methods. As the law had a more freedom of degree of taxation, it
718:
and brigands were the most different groups that acquired privileges in the 17th century, thus they became privileged classes of society by the Vlach law and brigand privileges. The Vlachs, who emigrated from the
Balkans, brought along their customary law as an old Slavic social economic community.
713:
took place in the 16th century and fortresses were built in the area of the
Military Frontier. When the area became inhabited, the residents got hereditary possession of the land. The border guards had a self-government and were linked to this centralized military and political order through their
343:
was not only chieftain, but also a settlement contractor, who receives some uninhabited land from the king in order to settle it and then he and his descendants judge over the settlers in non-principal matters. These areas are smaller or larger in proportion to the size of the donated land. There
155:
were held by special law in which "those in villages" pay tax and "those without villages" (nomads) serve as cavalry. Until the 16th century term Vlachs was used not only to describe a representative of the Vlach law or pastoral profession, it also had an ethnic meaning which was lost in the 17th
390:
According to
Romanian historiography, the knezes were the representatives of autochthonous population and their settling activities were taken close to their village, new groups of houses being built at the outer limit of an old settlement. Knezes in lowland areas lost their influence and title
602:
knezes that were not on church or nobility lands were under royal authority and became its representatives to the community, including the application of the law. In this context, many knezes acted as minor nobility, holding the title hereditarily and expanding their rule by new settlements in
303:
are not specific to a
Romanian population, the term depending upon context differed in its meaning. These Romanian districts had some sort of legal autonomy, where people might use Romanian customary law. Cases according to the Vlach law were more common in
681:
illustrates the relation between Vlachs and local rulers. Among the most important regulations are the military and fiscal duties of the Vlachs who are required to participate with "shield and sword" or pay a fine. In return Vlachs required that no foreign
434:), but also other peoples were entitled to this right. The Vlach word in the 15–16th centuries no longer primarily meant a people, but an occupation and a way of life, the village with Vlach law was not only the place of residence of the
382:
are invariably characterized in
Hungarian sources as mountain shepherds. As late as the 16th century, an official report referred to Romanians as people who kept many animals in the forests and mountains. The "sheep tax"
1064:
295:, the unwritten law (customary law) coexisted with the written law (royal decrees), they had the same authority and were applied accordingly in the courts. The law is connected to the so-called Romanian districts "
472:
was a hereditary title, the voivodes were initially elected by the Romanians, which was a practice consistent with Hungarian customary law, which provided that immigrant groups elect a leader from their ranks.
550:
In Romanian historiography the law originates from Ancient times on the lands inhabited by Romanians. The customary law comes from the Roman habit of land distribution were "sortes" (Romanian:
371:
In the beginning the Romanians settled only on the royal estates, later the king allowed the Bishop of Transylvania and the chapter to settle Romanians on their estates. In the time of King
1312:
1131:
History of Transylvania Volume I. From the Beginnings to 1606 - III. Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom (896–1526) - 3. From the Mongol Invasion to the Battle of Mohács
514:
had territories of several Vlach knezes, they were bound to provide tribute to support the province, and to assist as warriors at the defense of the area. After the rebellion of
369:"They asked me for the uninhabited land of the Mutnok stream with the same freedom as the kenezes living in the Sebes district rule their villages in order to populate it."
125:
The first documents associated with settlement with the Vlach law began to appear in the 14th century. The main characteristics of the Vlach law, regardless of location:
603:
neighbouring areas. Their settling activities were taken within their districts, new groups of houses being built at the outer limit of an old settlement. After the
960:"Review of Stećaks (Standing Tombstones) and Migrations of the Vlasi (Autochthonous Population) in Dalmatia and Southwestern Bosnia in the 14th and 15th Centuries"
299:". The first Romanian districts are mentioned in the 14th century, after they become more visible in the records. That districts being encountered throughout the
333:
348:
with 300 families, but also ones with barely four or five families. As a result, there was a big difference in authority and rank between the individual
196:
in the 14th century, referring to a type of law followed by the Romanian population in the kingdom. The classic exposition was published in 1517, in the
1153:
Pop, Ioan-Aurel (1996). Românii și maghiarii în secolele IX-XIV. Geneza statului medieval în Transilvania] . Center for Transylvanian Studies. p. 49
352:. Initially, they settled in the vicinity of existing villages, but from the middle of the 14th century, they also founded independent settlements.
1376:
Zakon Vlachom (Jus Valachicum) in the Charters Issued to Serbian Medieval Monasteries and Kanuns Regarding Vlachs in the Early Ottoman Tax Register
1097:
Dr. Jancsó, Benedek. "Erdély története az Anjou-ház uralkodása alatt" [History of Transylvania during the reign of the House of Anjou].
1426:
1038:
925:
530:
counties. The refugees were settled in small districts, they took place next to other territories which had been earlier established in the
820:
169:
119:
983:"Locators of the settlements under Wallachian law in the Sambor starosty in XVth and XVIth c. Territorial, ethnic and social origins"
823:. The colonization of peoples under the Vlach law resulted in ethnic enclaves of Czechs, Poles and Ruthenians in historical Hungary.
391:
quicker as their lands came under feudal lords, while those in higher areas maintained their customs for longer, such as in areas of
1483:
1478:
1399:
1244:
1174:
1138:
1078:
489:
The judge of the resettled population is the settler kenezes, or was his heir, and the court of Hungarian royal officers judged the
781:
that paid a small tithe had to do various chores for the monasteries (such as wool processing, manufacturing wool products etc.).
176:
1473:
1284:
523:
364:
710:
1260:
Filipașcu, Alexandru (1945). "L'Ancienneté des Roumains de Marmatie" [The seniority of Romanians from Marmatia].
815:; land were granted in return for military service. In the 16th and 17th centuries Slavic pastoral communities (such as
654:) had to choose between three solutions: the loss of all rights and the fall into serfdom, having to migrate beyond the
643:
115:
336:. The Vlach law had roots in the Romano-Byzantine legal tradition which was influenced by the Hungarian customary law.
598:. While the voievod had mostly military duties, the kneaz was the representative of legal authority. As such, during
231:. In Hungarian historiography, due to the settlement activities of the kenezes, villages with Vlach law arose in the
1133:. Columbia University Press, (The Hungarian original by Institute of History Of The Hungarian Academy of Sciences).
328:
highlands preserved specific legal practices until the late 17th century, that were recognised by officials of the
1073:] (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó - Ethnography Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Science.
729:
and, in a particular format, in the area of Făgăraș where the last modification to the statutes was made in 1885.
145:
659:
264:
361:"hoping that under their diligent care our Vlach villages will gain many inhabitants, we give the keneziatus".
616:
1488:
1201:
Romanians and Hungarians from the 9th to the 14th Century. The Genesis of the Transylvanian Medieval State
832:
726:
687:
649:
515:
461:
404:
1468:
959:
847:
201:
646:
in 1438, the Vlach law gradually disappeared while the Romanian masters and boyars (which enjoyed the
485:
The most important characteristics of the legal status of villages with Vlach law were the following:
761:
Monastery Charter from 1348–53. The law distinguished between two categories of Vlachs: soldiers and
478:
419:
where they established their own rule, while those in conflict with the new authority move into the
683:
639:
540:
497:
490:
469:
465:
408:
349:
345:
340:
309:
149:, were held under special laws due to their nomadic lifestyle. In late medieval Croatian documents
95:
599:
1463:
1004:
837:
806:
790:
754:
706:
671:
612:
531:
420:
379:
372:
356:
329:
321:
300:
292:
280:
272:
260:
256:
232:
228:
209:
193:
181:
107:
64:
458:
also settled according to the more free Vlach law, favorable to the immigration of foreigners.
1422:
1395:
1301:
1240:
1170:
1134:
1074:
1034:
921:
812:
796:
746:
698:
694:
678:
547:
river against intrusion, and to supply livestock, including delivery of the "sheep fiftieth".
511:
151:
111:
50:
1416:
1389:
982:
994:
879:
627:, and required that knezes were vested by the law of the kingdom rather than customary law.
604:
313:
91:
620:
72:
25:
811:) were enacted which defined the tenancy rights and taxation of Orthodox refugees in the
535:
it was recorded about 40 Romanian districts, which stretched through eastern Hungary and
132:
Not mandatory labour service towards the land owner, taxes were paid by live or in money.
503:
The villages could redeem their public service obligation with a tenth of their produce.
78:
as well as to various special laws and privileges enjoyed or enforced upon particularly
750:
702:
631:
220:
216:
42:
30:
156:
century, although was still used for people (sheepherder) regardless of their origin.
1457:
1349:
1026:
1008:
519:
447:
252:
1391:
Balkan Economic History, 1550-1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations
1060:
842:
635:
536:
527:
305:
248:
224:
1197:
Românii și maghiarii în secolele IX-XIV. Geneza statului medieval în Transilvania]
400:
1442:
942:
915:
898:
745:
is a collection of norms from the 14th century based on three monastic charters:
135:
Military service obligation towards the country (forms depending on the country).
1375:
667:
655:
474:
197:
164:
79:
75:
1313:
State and Society in the Balkans Before and After Establishment of Ottoman Rule
279:
This type of "common law" used by the Romanian population in the late medieval
1126:
455:
439:
268:
244:
215:
The Vlach law was a set of laws regulating the way of life and farming of the
205:
1169:. PALGRAVE, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire and New York. pp. 91–93.
1331:
Podravina: časopis za geografska i povijesna multidisciplinarna istraživanja
1098:
774:
663:
624:
608:
435:
427:
416:
288:
236:
103:
999:
1327:"The Vlach law and its comparison to the privileges of Hungarian brigands"
883:
412:
392:
284:
208:
statesman and legal theorist, this systematised the legal customs of the
99:
83:
758:
443:
1350:"Enacted "Jus Valachicum" in South Transylvania (14th-18th Centuries)"
1326:
375:, cities and even private landlords could settle immigrant Romanians.
816:
778:
766:
715:
544:
451:
431:
240:
140:
87:
20:
1418:
Ethnic Geography of the Hungarian Minorities in the Carpathian Basin
867:
1215:
1164:
1031:
Government and Law in Medieval Moldavia, Transylvania and Wallachia
500:, and two thirds could be used by the villages for their own needs.
496:
One third of the amount of fines imposed on the people went to the
235:
between the 13th and 16th centuries, initially mostly inhabited by
770:
396:
325:
317:
175:
163:
24:
777:) were exempted from paying any other dues to the monarch, while
180:
Vlach settlements according to contemporaneous documents in the
129:
The right to travel and carry weapons (sometimes right to hunt).
339:
In Hungarian historiography, the origin of Vlach law, that the
247:. The very first villages with Vlach law were established in
468:. Sources dating from the 14th century confirm that whereas
378:
In Hungarian historiography, the Romanian immigrants in the
363:
A document dated in 1352, in which the lord-lieutenants of
725:
continued to be in use in the 18th century in the area of
666:, or merging into the Hungarian nobility by converting to
464:
was the title of a leader who held authority over several
1027:"From Custom to Written Law: Ius Valachicum in the Banat"
611:, knezes in conflict with the new authority moved to the
570:(Romanian: vecin). The uphold of the law was overseen by
1415:
Kocsis, Karoly; Hodosi, Eszter Kocsisne (1 April 2001).
1300:
p. 14; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA XXII/1 IUS VALACHICUM I,
582:. The structure of early feudal Romanian society had a
506:
The population gave a royal fiftieth of their animals.
320:, where the Romanian population was most dense in the
914:
Du Nay, Alain; Du Nay, André; Kosztin, Árpád (1997).
765:, and determined the obligations and taxation forms:
590:, two titles later renamed under Slavic influence as
267:. This way of life was also adopted by a part of the
1203:]. Center for Transylvanian Studies. p. 49.
1111:(in Hungarian). Cluj-Kolozsvár: Minerva. p. 63.
1033:. School of Slavonic and East European Studies UCL.
819:) under the Vlach law were settled in the northern
970:(14). Zagreb: Croatian Institute of History: 323.
705:. The establishment of the new defense system in
227:pastoralism that has been also introduced in the
1224:]. Editura George Barițiu. pp. 451–543.
623:that took an explicitly negative action against
903:. University of Wisconsin--Madison. p. 20.
578:) a title that was replaced by the Slavic word
426:Contrary to the name of this law, not only the
1447:. Vol. 105. A Társaság. 1994. p. 33.
1166:Nobility, land and service in medieval Hungary
947:. Review of International Affairs. p. 25.
58:
1029:. In Rady, Martyn; Simion, Alexandru (eds.).
411:rebelled against the King and passed over to
8:
276:was favoring the immigration of foreigners.
98:, including in the two Romanian polities of
1388:Lampe, John R.; Jackson, Marvin R. (1982).
804:
647:
1421:. Simon Publications LLC. pp. 45–46.
1127:"The Mongol Invasion and Its Consequences"
259:, primarily in mountainous areas, also in
1071:Hungarian Ethnographic Lexicon - Volume V
998:
251:, their numbers increased, and spread in
1394:. Indiana University Press. p. 62.
1283:]. Cultura Națională. pp. 3–4,
1120:
1118:
868:"The Vlachs – Several Research Problems"
858:
1298:The Vlachs – several research problems
1277:Originea coloniilor române din Istria]
1237:Romanians and Romania: a brief History
1190:
1188:
1186:
1066:Magyar néprajzi lexikon - Ötödik kötet
987:Balcanica Posnaniensia. Acta et Studia
900:The Balkan Vlachs: a typological study
554:) were drawn, the land was divided in
1281:Origin of Romanian Colonies in Istria
872:Balcanica Posnaniensia Acta et Studia
7:
1092:
1090:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1020:
1018:
518:, several Romanian knezes fled into
477:elected their captains and judges,
192:appears in documents issued in the
160:Vlach law in the Kingdom of Hungary
1239:. Columbia University Press 1999.
733:Vlach law in the Kingdom of Serbia
615:The situation reversed during the
14:
1337:(35). Koprivnica, Croatia: 26–45.
920:. Matthias Corvinus. p. 15.
638:, after the establishment of the
86:) of Romanian stock or origin in
1262:Bibliotheca rerum Transsilvaniae
1222:History of Romania. Transylvania
785:Vlach law in the Habsburg Empire
630:According to Romanian historian
283:, cognates with the law used in
29:Vlach shepherd on the mountain (
958:Cebotarev, Andrej (June 1996).
677:A document from 1436 issued by
1217:Istoria României. Transilvania
917:Transylvania and the Rumanians
120:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1:
1348:Cosma, Ela (September 2022).
1311:Srđan Rudić, Selim Aslantaş:
878:(1). Poznań – Bucharest: 7.
757:Charter from 1343-1345, and
701:against incursions from the
334:Principality of Transylvania
255:, and in other parts of the
71:) refers to the traditional
1264:(in French). pp. 8–33.
941:Filipović, Gordana (1989).
642:and the suppression of the
1505:
788:
357:Louis the Great of Hungary
18:
1275:Dragomir, Silviu (1924).
866:Czamańska, Ilona (2015).
773:(representing a tenth of
619:, in particular with the
355:In a certificate of King
63:, "customs of the land",
1484:Legal history of Romania
1479:Legal history of Hungary
1296:Ilona Czamańska; (2015)
1235:Pop, Ioan Aurel (1999).
1214:Pop, Ioan-Aurel (1997).
1195:Pop, Ioan-Aurel (1996).
944:Kosovo--past and present
769:who paid a big tenth of
697:was a borderland of the
184:between 13–14th century.
1474:Customary legal systems
1325:Heka, Ladislav (2019).
1125:Makkai, László (2001).
1105:History of Transylvania
1025:Magina, Adrian (2013).
749:Charter issued by king
1000:10.14746/bp.2019.26.15
897:Murvar, Vatro (1956).
833:Universitas Valachorum
805:
690:would rule over them.
650:Universitas Valachorum
648:
640:Union of Three Nations
367:writes the following:
271:population of today's
185:
173:
68:
59:
54:
46:
34:
1163:Rady, Martyn (2000).
1059:Bárth, János (1982).
884:10.14746/bp.2015.22.1
848:Vlachs (social class)
179:
167:
57:, "Romanian law", or
28:
981:Gawron, Jan (2020).
562:), the neighbouring
297:districta Valachorum
172:in the 13th century.
106:, as well as in the
727:Mărginimea Sibiului
385:quinquagesima ovium
96:Early modern period
60:obiceiul pământului
16:Romanian common law
964:Povijesni prilozi
838:Statuta Valachorum
821:Kingdom of Hungary
807:Statuta Valachorum
791:Statuta Valachorum
755:Hilandar Monastery
737:The equivalent of
672:Hungarian language
613:Kingdom of Hungary
532:Kingdom of Hungary
421:Kingdom of Hungary
380:Kingdom of Hungary
330:Kingdom of Hungary
322:Kingdom of Hungary
301:Kingdom of Hungary
293:Kingdom of Hungary
281:Kingdom of Hungary
261:Moravian Wallachia
257:Kingdom of Hungary
233:Kingdom of Hungary
229:Kingdom of Hungary
210:Kingdom of Hungary
194:Kingdom of Hungary
186:
182:Kingdom of Hungary
174:
170:Kingdom of Hungary
108:Kingdom of Hungary
35:
1428:978-1-931313-75-9
1040:978-0-903425-87-2
927:978-1-882785-09-4
813:Military Frontier
797:Habsburg monarchy
747:Banjska Monastery
699:Habsburg monarchy
695:Military Frontier
679:Ivan VI Frankopan
670:and adopting the
512:Banate of Severin
116:Kingdom of Serbia
112:Kingdom of Poland
82:communities (cf.
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1449:
1448:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1412:
1406:
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1385:
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1181:
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1160:
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1144:
1122:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1100:Erdély története
1094:
1085:
1084:
1061:"vlachjogú falu"
1056:
1045:
1044:
1022:
1013:
1012:
1002:
978:
972:
971:
955:
949:
948:
938:
932:
931:
911:
905:
904:
894:
888:
887:
863:
810:
653:
644:Bobâlna Uprising
617:Angevine dynasty
539:, northwards to
310:Máramaros County
217:Central European
202:Stephen Werbőczy
190:"ius valachicum"
92:Late Middle Ages
62:
55:legea românească
1504:
1503:
1499:
1498:
1497:
1495:
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1493:
1454:
1453:
1452:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1429:
1414:
1413:
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1402:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1378:, 2015, page 36
1374:Miloš Luković:
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1369:
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1088:
1081:
1058:
1057:
1048:
1041:
1024:
1023:
1016:
980:
979:
975:
966:(in Croatian).
957:
956:
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939:
935:
928:
913:
912:
908:
896:
895:
891:
865:
864:
860:
856:
829:
799:, in 1630, the
793:
787:
739:ius Valachichum
735:
621:Decree of Turda
373:Louis the Great
188:The expression
162:
23:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1356:. p. 4
993:: 274–275.
668:Catholicism
656:Carpathians
558:(Romanian:
332:and by the
223:practicing
198:Tripartitum
80:pastoralist
1458:Categories
854:References
574:(Romanian
456:Hungarians
245:Ruthenians
139:The term "
76:common law
19:See also:
1464:Vlach law
1360:31 August
1009:213877208
775:livestock
763:chelators
664:Wallachia
625:Romanians
609:Wallachia
605:breakaway
541:Máramaros
440:Ruthenian
428:Romanians
417:Wallachia
401:Maramureș
291:. In the
289:Wallachia
269:Ruthenian
237:Romanians
206:Hungarian
104:Wallachia
69:vlach jog
65:Hungarian
39:Vlach law
827:See also
660:Moldavia
475:Székelys
436:Romanian
413:Moldavia
405:voivodes
316:and the
285:Moldavia
100:Moldavia
88:European
73:Romanian
51:Romanian
795:In the
759:Prizren
711:Croatia
707:Hungary
688:voivode
596:voievod
568:vicinus
516:Basarab
466:kenezes
462:Voivode
444:Slovaks
403:. Some
350:kenezes
346:kenezes
265:Galicia
263:and in
122:, etc.
33:, 1837)
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767:Vlachs
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586:and a
564:falces
556:falces
545:Danube
526:, and
524:Krassó
520:Hunyad
479:Saxons
452:Croats
432:Vlachs
409:knezes
399:, and
324:. The
243:) and
241:Vlachs
152:Vlachs
146:Vlachs
141:Vlachs
118:, the
110:, the
21:Vlachs
1279:[
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1109:(PDF)
1103:[
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1005:S2CID
771:tithe
634:, in
592:cneaz
572:judes
560:fălci
552:sorți
528:Temes
498:kenez
491:kenez
470:kenez
448:Poles
397:Banat
393:Hațeg
344:were
341:kenez
326:Banat
318:Banat
84:obști
43:Latin
1423:ISBN
1396:ISBN
1362:2023
1241:ISBN
1171:ISBN
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1035:ISBN
922:ISBN
709:and
693:The
686:and
684:knez
594:and
588:ducă
584:jude
580:knez
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510:The
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287:and
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102:and
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37:The
995:doi
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662:or
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607:of
438:or
200:by
1460::
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